Lithology

The Sitapahar Anticline and its adjacent areas are characterized by a series of parallel ranges of hills trending NNW-SSE. They are extensional expression of the Indo-Burman Folded Belt of Bengal foredeep by compressional forces during Mio-Pliocene. This anticline is an asymmetrical fold with steeper western flank and gentler eastern flank.
In terms of lithostratigraphy, the area can be divided into 5 major rock units. They are (from bottom to top) - silty shale, sandstone-shale alternation, brownish sandstone, bluish gray shale and yellowish brown sandstone. This rock units are correlated with Bhuban Formation, Boka Bil Formation, Tipam Sandstone Formation, Girujan Clay Formation, and Dupi Tila Formation respectively.
The study based on rock type, grain size, shape, sorting of grain, cementing materials, sedimentary structures reveals that the sediments were deposited in fluvial to shallow marine environment.

The extended, well documented and richly illustrated monograph dedicated to LITHOSTRATRIGRAPHY OF SICILY, written by Luca Basilone from the University of Palermo, deserves a special presentation. It displays the results of over ten years of field work carried out under the expert and careful guidance of Raimondo Catalano and from related detailed sedimentologic, microcropaleontologic and microfacies analysis. The work is pertinent in particular to several geological sheets of the new geologic map at the scale 1:50 000 of the Italian CARG project, but it has a much broader context, that extends well beyond the sheets boundaries.

FOR CITATIONS:
Salem, H.S., 2001. Modeling of lithology and hydraulic conductivity of shallow sediments from resistivity measurements, using Schlumberger vertical electric soundings. Energy Sources, 23(7) August-September: 599-618. (International Journal Paper).

ABSTRACT:
The vertical electric soundings (VES) technique has been effectivily used for several
purposes related to investigations of surface soils and shallow sediments. These
include detection of subsurface lithology, structures, stratifcation, and dipping
layers; evaluation of physical properties that govern fuid fow and electric-current
conduction; delineation of aquifers; assessment of engineering-site properties (such
as pore-water saturation and clay content); and mapping various environmental
problems (such as saline-water intrusion, groundwater contamination, and leachate
transport through porous media). In this study, Schlumberger VES-measurements,
along with borehole and experimental data, were employed to image laminations,
layering, and lithology of surface soils and subsurface aeration and saturated zones
of glacial sediments; and to model the electric resistivity and hydraulic conductivity
variations with depth and lithology. It is shown that the VES-technique can provide a
substantial improvement in the resolution of thin laminations within thick layers and
can also provide a good assessment of the hydraulic conductivity, water flux, and
water movement. Numerous references, dealing with a wide range of VES-applications
for several purposes, were reviewed and cited in this study.

The extended, well documented and richly illustrated monograph dedicated to LITHOSTRATRIGRAPHY OF SICILY, written by Luca Basilone from the University of Palermo, deserves a special presentation. It displays the results of over ten years of field work carried out under the expert and careful guidance of Raimondo Catalano and from related detailed sedimentologic, microcropaleontologic and microfacies analysis. The work is pertinent in particular to several geological sheets of the new geologic map at the scale 1:50 000 of the Italian CARG project, but it has a much broader context, that extends well beyond the sheets boundaries.

The Devonian-age bedrock of the Catskill Mountains has been the focus of many studies. This paper reviews the character and composition of the rocks of the Catskills, and examines weathering (rock decay) processes and their implications in the Catskills. Rocks of the Catskills and closest foothills consist of siliciclastic rocks (sandstones, mudrocks, conglomerates) with minimal, locally dispersed carbonate rocks. The former are dominated by quartz, metamorphic and sedimentary rock fragments, and clay minerals. Other minor sediment components include cements, authigenic and heavy minerals, and fossil organic matter. Physical, chemical, and biological weathering of the Catskill bedrock since uplift of the Appalachian region, combined with glaciation, have dissected a plateau of nearly horizontally layered rocks into a series of ridges, valleys, and peaks. The varied weathering processes, in conjunction with many factors (natural and anthropogenic), fragment the rocks, forming sediment and releasing various elements and compounds. These may have positive, neutral, or negative implications for the region's soils, waters, ecology, and human usage. A new generation of studies and analyses of the Catskill bedrock is needed to help answer a broad set of questions and problems across various fields of interest.

Before designing and creating a hydraulic fracture, it is important to understand the parameters that determine
the fracture geometry and whether the fracture extends beyond the pay zone. By fixing other mechanical
parameters (i.e. Stress, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and Fracture toughness), this study investigates how
the lithology barriers and, more importantly, the Composite Layering Effect (CLE) of the pay zone affect the
fracture geometry. Additionally, the effect of permeability on fractur geometry at several CLE values examined
using three different scenarios (no permeability, low permeability, and high permeability). This study used
FracPro software to investigate the effect of lithology barriers and composite layering on the fracture geometry.
Several simulation cases were run with different CLEs (1, 10, 20, and 100), and the height/length ratio of the
fracture was estimated. A generalized equation was developed that calculates the CLE from the height/length
ratio of the fracture in the payzone. This equation was able to reliably assess containment, showing that it can
be used in the fracture treatment of high-risk zones, such as those with water-bearing layers and/or oil-water or
oil-gas contact.
Keywords: hydraulic fracture, fracture geometry, Composite Layering Effect, height/length ratio.

The study integrates petrographical and lithological data from deep exploration wells and outcrops in northern Iraq to better understand the sedimentary environments present in the basin and to evaluate the depositional evolution of the Paleozoic rocks in Iraq. The studied Paleozoic successions are represented by five sedimentary cycles of intracratonic sequences. These are dominated mainly by siliciclastic and mixed sedimentary packages, and are separated by major and minor unconformity surfaces.

As the apparently simplest of all petroglyphs, cupules are shown to be scientifically and culturally very complex phenomena. Despite being the most common motif in rock art, their meaning or purpose remains largely unknown. This paper explores their physical and production properties, including their technology, taphonomy, morphology, biomechanics and energy investment involved, leading to the formulation of the production coefficient. The various quantifiable factors involved in cupule production are examined, including the phenomenon of kinetic energy metamorphosis (KEM). The tribological products, tectonite laminae, a new geological phenomenon first identified in cupules, offer the possibilities of developing a direct dating method as well explaining several related geological features.

Elevated As concentrations in groundwater of the Huhhot basin (HB), Inner Mongolia, China, and the western Bengal basin (WBB), India, have been known for decades. However, few studies have been performed to comprehend the processes controlling overall groundwater chemistry in the HB. In this study, the controls on solute chemistry in the HB have been interpreted and compared with the well-studied WBB, which has a very different climate, physiography, lithology, and aquifer characteristics than the HB. In general, there are marked differences in solute chemistry between HB and WBB groundwaters. Stable isotopic signatures indicate meteoric recharge in the HB in a colder climate, distant from the source of moisture, in comparison to the warm, humid WBB. The major-ion composition of the moderately reducing HB groundwater is dominated by a mixed-ion (Ca-Na-HCO 3 -Cl) hydrochemical facies with an evolutionary trend along the regional hydraulic gradient. Molar ratios and thermodynamic calculations show that HB groundwater has not been affected by cation exchange, but is dominated by weathering of feldspars (allitization) and equilibrium with gibbsite and anorthite. Mineral weathering and mobilization of As could occur as recharging water flows through fractured, argillaceous, metamorphic or volcanic rocks in the adjoining mountain-front areas, and deposits solutes near the center of the basin. In contrast, WBB groundwater is Ca-HCO 3 -dominated, indicative of calcite weathering, with some cation exchange and silicate weathering (monosiallitization).

Question: Do landscape metrics reflect differences in dominant factors controlling ribbon forest patterns among sites?Location: West Flattop Mountain, Glacier National Park, Montana (Flattop); Medicine Bow Mountains, Wyoming (Medicine Bow); Park Range, Colorado (Park Range).Methods: High-resolution aerial photography was used to delineate ribbon forest patches, and to calculate landscape metrics to distinguish between long, narrow, regular patterns expected from strong microtopographic control, and smaller, more compact, and variable patterns expected from wind-snowdrift interactions.Results: All but two metrics were significantly different (P<0.05) among the three sites. The rank and magnitude of differences indicated that ribbons at Flattop and Park Range are more similar to each other than to those at Medicine Bow. Flattop ribbons were also more elongated, narrower and less variable than those at Park Range, suggesting differences in the type and strength of structural control. Previous research showed that Flattop ribbons occupy regular lithologic ridges, while our observations of ribbons and analysis of geologic maps suggests weaker and less consistent microtopographic control at Park Range, and dominant wind-snowdrift interactions with little to no microtopographic influence at Medicine Bow.Conclusions: Landscape metrics indicate differences in pattern among sites that reflect differences in dominant factors influencing ribbon forest development and maintenance. Explanations of ribbon forest dynamics are site-specific and are more complex than is currently recognized. The sites vary in the level of endogenous versus exogenous control of ribbon patterns, and consequently in the sensitivity of this phenomenon to climate.

Electrical borehole wall images represent micro-resistivity measurements at the borehole wall. The lithology reconstruction is often based on visual interpretation done by geologists. This analysis is very time-consuming and subjective. Different geologists may interpret the data differently. In this work, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) in combination with texture features is used for an automated lithology reconstruction of ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) borehole 1203A drilled during Leg 197. Six rock groups are identified by their textural properties in resistivity data obtained by a Formation MircoScanner (FMS). Although discriminant analysis can be used for multi-class classification, non-optimal decision criteria for certain groups could emerge. For this reason, we use a combination of 2-class (binary) classifiers to increase the overall classification accuracy. The generalization ability of the combined classifiers is evaluated and optimized on a testing dataset where a classification rate of more than 80% for each of the six rock groups is achieved. The combined, trained classifiers are then applied on the whole dataset obtaining a statistical reconstruction of the logged formation. Compared to a single multi-class classifier the combined binary classifiers show better classification results for certain rock groups and more stable results in larger intervals of equal rock type.

The interdisciplinary project Stone Monuments and Stone Quarrying in the Carnuntum – Vindobona Area aims to acquire new knowledge about Roman economic and settlement history, art, quarrying and infrastructure through the analysis of archaeological and geological data collections. Based on macroscopic examination of Roman stone objects as well as the analysis of historical maps and airborne laser scans, potential quarrying regions were selected and samples taken.
The main quarrying areas were located near Perchtoldsdorf (Lower Austria) and in Vienna. It seems that after the installation of the Roman legionary garrison, the building material was quarried from the eastern margin of the Eastern Alps, including the Vindobona vicinity. Additionally, it was possible to prove the origin of Neogene algal limestones from the Leitha Mountains, which played an important role in sculptured stone monuments.
All investigated lithotypes from the mentioned regions belong to the Austrian stratigraphic stages from Neogene sedimentary rock formations of the Central Paratethys.

Overpressure prediction in the North West of Niger Delta, using porosity data was carried out to safeguard hazards associated with drilling accident due to blowout. In the absence of seismic data to predict overpressure, porosity-dependent parameters and acoustic impedance could be used to predict the tops of overpressured zones in the area of study in the Niger Delta. Overpressure prediction is vital for safe and economic drilling. Composite logs were used to obtain the required data by digitizing the logs and deduction using the appropriate relationships. The findings from the study show that porosity decreases with depth, with overpressure zone detected at about 3500m depth due to porosity deviation from normal trend. Pressure gradient in the upper normal pressure of the field is determined to be 0.989 psi/ft, this implies that within the established normal pressure gradient of 0.71 -1.1 psi/ft in the Niger Delta. Formation overpressure gradient is determined to be 1.40 psi/ft. The overpressure zone coincides within the high shale-to-sand ratio of Agbada under compacted Formation. The identification of the tops of overpressure zones in any formation penetrated by a borehole enhances the use of normal drilling techniques of the borehole. This also reduces the cost of drilling the entire well as the special drilling technique will be applied only in the overpressure zones. This finding can aid in the prevention of drilling accident and resource wastage in exploration activities.

A field-based investigation into the frequency and magnitude of debris torrent systems reveals that lithology controls the spatial and temporal occurrence of debris torrents in the Tsitika Watershed, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. We identified 125 debris torrent systems in the watershed; for half these basins we used dendrochronology, historical air photographs, and field surveys to estimate debris torrent frequency and magnitude for a 30 year period. We find that the volcaniclastic half of the watershed contains more than twice as many debris torrent systems, in which debris torrents occur over seven times more frequently, and the deposits have a higher rate of delivery of sediment to the mainstem river than the intrusive half. Lithologic differences in weathering rates, weathering product grain size, and rock texture can explain the observed differences in debris torrent behaviour. Because debris torrents are the main sediment transport path from hilltop to valley bottom in the region, these results confirm an important lithologic control on regional sediment transport. While the exact numbers are uncertain, we estimate that the sediment flux of volcaniclastic debris torrents in the watershed is five times higher than that of the intrusive debris torrents.

This work summarizes the results of a geomorphological and bivariate statistical approach to gully erosion susceptibility mapping in the Turbolo stream catchment (northern Calabria, Italy). An inventory map of gully erosion landforms of the area has been obtained by detailed field survey and air photograph interpretation. Lithology, land use, slope, aspect, plan curvature, stream power index, topographical wetness index and length-slope factor were assumed as gully erosion predisposing factors. In order to estimate and validate gully erosion susceptibility, the mapped gully areas were divided in two groups using a random partitions strategy. One group (training set) was used to prepare the susceptibility map, using a bivariate statistical analysis (Information Value method) in GIS environment, while the second group (validation set) to validate the susceptibility map, using the success and prediction rate curves. The validation results showed satisfactory agreement between the susceptibility map and the existing data on gully areas locations; therefore, over 88% of the gullies of the validation set are correctly classified falling in high and very high susceptibility areas. The susceptibility map, produced using a methodology that is easy to apply and to update, represents a useful tool for sustainable planning, conservation and protection of land from gully processes. Therefore, this methodology can be used to assess gully erosion susceptibility in other areas of Calabria, as well as in other regions, especially in the Mediterranean area, that have similar morphoclimatic features and sensitivity to concentrated erosion.

Le musée d'Anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco conserve plusieurs collections moustériennes provenant des Balzi Rossi (Grimaldi, Vintimille, Ligurie, Italie). La très grande majorité est issue des fouilles réalisées par le chanoine de Villeneuve, entreprises à l'aube du xx e siècle sous l'égide du prince Albert I er de Monaco à la grotte du Prince, la grotte du Cavillon, la grotte des Enfants et l'abri Lorenzi. Un autre lot, celui de la Barma Grande, fut l'objet d'une donation par le comte Costantini. Afin de réduire les biais inhérents à ce type de collections, anciennes, des recherches historiographiques ont éclairé, au préalable, le contexte historique des fouilles et des objets mis au jour. Cette démarche a mené au récolement muséal des assemblages et à la réattri-bution spatiale et archéostratigraphique de nombreux artefacts, jusqu'alors indéterminés. Des observations pétroarchéologiques, appuyées par des programmes de prospections régionaux, ont par la suite permis de caractériser les lithotypes utilisés a minima par les tailleurs moustériens d'une part, et les principales sources et aires de leurs approvisionnements en matières lithiques, d'autre part. Une exploitation préférentielle de ressources périphériques (silex de l'Éocène inférieur de Ciotti, calcaires) et semi-locales ligures (microquartzites, silex de Perinaldo, silex et calcaires noirs, grès fins) a été mise en évidence. Les chaînes opératoires de production liées à ces matériaux se revèlent longues et ramifiées et se sont le plus souvent déroulées in situ. La présence récurrente de matériaux allochtones (silex de l'Éocène inférieur et lutétiens de l'arc de Castellane, du Crétacé inférieur, oligo-miocènes, du Valanginien supérieur de la région nord varoise, zoné oligocène lacustre d'Apt-Forcalquier, rhyolite du massif permien de l'Estérel, radiolarite du Jurassique supérieur de Ligurie orientale) illustre toutefois des aires de circulation de la matière pouvant s'étendre de 35 km à 150 km suivant les occupations. Ces artefacts, toujours isolés et retouchés, ont très certainement été introduits sous une forme achevée. Suivant une stratégie d'acquisition très majoritairement fluviolittorale, certains groupes livrent des territoires d'acquisition étendus, couvrant de part et d'autres des sites des distances de 150-180 km. Cette étude a en outre enrichi la vaste litho-tèque liguro-provençale du musée d'Anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco. Les analyses effectuées ont également permis d'obtenir de précieux renseignements sur les systèmes techniques mis en oeuvre durant le Paléolithique moyen. Les travaux technotypologiques et morphofonctionnels, relatifs aux stratégies économiques et objectifs de production , ont rapproché certains assemblages. Ainsi, les industries du « foyer inférieur de Rivière » et des foyers I-II-III de la grotte du Cavillon ainsi que des foyers A-B-C-D-E de la grotte du Prince ont en commun l'emploi de percuteurs durs, des méthodes Levallois à pointes et à lames, des méthodes laminaires volumétriques et associent au sein de leurs corpus racloirs, encoches et pointes retouchées. Les assemblages les plus anciens de la grotte du Prince, D et E, se différencient néanmoins par la présence de grands éclats, galets aménagés, limaces et des retouches plus fréquemment écailleuses. Les assemblages du Moustérien sont allés en se singularisant. Ainsi, celui du Cavillon, dit « foyer inférieur de Rivière », le plus récent d'entre eux, est constitué de lames massives et allongées issues des méthodes Levallois et laminaires, alors que l'abri Lorenzi se différencie par sa surreprésentation de nucléus SSDA, laminaires et Leval-lois. Quant à ceux de la Barma Grande A-B-C-D-E, ils se caractérisent par leurs faciès faiblement Levallois. De manière générale, il est apparu que les matières premières exploitées par les différents groupes de tailleurs impliquent une même économie. En effet, les calcaires et quartzites locaux et semi-locaux offrant des galets isotropes et de grands modules, ont été plutôt contingentés aux débitages laminaires, les matériaux siliceux les plus homogènes aux débitages Levallois. Néanmoins, des variations comportementales en fonction des occupations, des matériaux employés et des objectifs souhaités, ont pu être révélées. Les résultats obtenus dans cette étude viennent ainsi compléter le panorama technique moustérien des Balzi Rossi et s'inscrire dans les problématiques liées aux Néandertaliens de l'arc liguro-provençal. Plusieurs projets de terrain et d'études sont en cours et à venir pour poursuivre l'approche des comportements des tailleurs de ce complexe de sites.

Sokli is located in the municipality of Savukoski in eastern Lapland, Finland, nearby the Russian border. GTK’s research area of Kaulus is situated in the southern part of the Sokli carbonatite complex.

The purpose of this work is to solve the petrography, geochemistry and P2O5-, Nb- and REE-mineralizations of rock types in the Kaulus region. In addition, the lithology of the area and the petrogenesis of these Devonian rocks are examined.

A total of 1581.15 meters of drill core from 19 drill holes have been examined. Multi-element analysis has been done by XRF-method, trace elements have been analysed by ICP-MS-method and carbon has been analysed separately. From a total of 60 thin sections, 26 representative samples for the rock types of Kaulus have been selected, and were examined by EPMA, MLA and SEM. Some of the minerals have been imaged by BSE.

The protolith rocks of Kaulus fenites are tonalite, granitic gneiss, gneiss, schist gneiss and amphibolite. The degree of metasomatism depends on the rock type and vicinity of carbonatite dikes. Felsic and intermediate fenites range from low-degree fenites through—medium degree fenites— to syenitic fenites. Phlogopitization reflect potassium metasomatism. No significant P2O5-, Nb- or REE-mineralizations were found in the fenites. Non-coherent mineralizations are local in respect to carbonatites.

Metaphoscorites and metasilicocarbonatites are carbonated and alkali-metasomatized. The precursors of the metacarbonatites were probably magnetite olivinite, magnetite-olivine-amphibolite, olivine-pyroxenite, fenitized schist gneiss or gneiss and olivine-amphibolite. Metacarbonatites are enriched in P2O5 (2.6—4.0 %). Metaphoscorites occasionally have enriched Nb values (up to 1799 ppm), which may reflect to the composition of magmatic phoscorite. As CO2 concentrations increase in metacarbonatites, their REE-concentrations get similar with the REE-concentrations of carbonatites.

According to average U/Th-ratios, Kaulus’s carbonatites magmatic Stages have developed in the following order: magnesiumcarbonatite ≈ ferrocarbonatite → magnesiumcarbonatite → calciumcarbonatite → ferrocarbonatite → REE-carbonatite. Carbonatites have probably developed from metasomatized mantle at a depth of 70—80 km. Ferrocarbonatites and magnesiumcarbonatites may have acted as a source to the REE-carbonatites of magmatic Stage 5. The richest P2O5-concentrations are in calciumcarbonatites and ferrocarbonatites (3.3 % and 4.4 %, respectively). The richest Nb-concentrations are in the REE-carbonatites, ferrocarbonatites and calciumcarbonatites (1834 ppm, 1790 ppm and 1636 ppm, respectively). The average REO-concentration of the REE-carbonatites is 1.63 % and the maximum is 1.94 %.

The Sokli Kaulus lamprophyres are possibly aillikites and metasomatic aillikites. The results indicate that the lamprophyres of Sokli were generated in shallower mantle depths (80 km) than the kimberlites of the Terskii coast (80—100 km).

Neanderthals have a distinctive suite of dental features, including large anterior crown and root dimensions and molars with enlarged pulp cavities. Yet, there is little known about variation in molar root morphology in Neanderthals and other recent and fossil members of Homo. Here, we provide the first comprehensive metric analysis of permanent mandibular molar root morphology in Middle and Late Pleistocene Homo neanderthalensis, and Late Pleistocene (Aterian) and recent Homo sapiens. We specifically address the question of whether root form can be used to distinguish between these groups and assess whether any variation in root form can be related to differences in tooth function. We apply a microtomographic imaging approach to visualise and quantify the external and internal dental morphologies of both isolated molars and molars embedded in the mandible (n = 127). Univariate and multivariate analyses reveal both similarities (root length and pulp volume) and differences (occurrence of pyramidal roots and dental tissue volume proportion) in molar root morphology among penecontemporaneous Neanderthals and Aterian H. sapiens. In contrast, the molars of recent H. sapiens are markedly smaller than both Pleistocene H. sapiens and Neanderthals, but share with the former the dentine volume reduction and a smaller root-to-crown volume compared with Neanderthals. Furthermore, we found the first molar to have the largest average root surface area in recent H. sapiens and Neanderthals, although in the latter the difference between M1 and M2 is small. In contrast, Aterian H. sapiens root surface areas peak at M2. Since root surface area is linked to masticatory function, this suggests a distinct occlusal loading regime in Neanderthals compared with both recent and Pleistocene H. sapiens.

Les campagnes océanographiques SEDIFAN (1997) réalisées par IFREMER sur la marge continentale celtique ont permis de reconnaitre et de caractériser le fan sousmarin profond celtique entre 4200 m et 4800 m de profondeur d'eau. La confrontation de deux types de données acoustiques (sondeur multifaisceaux EM12 à 13 Khz et le sondeur monofaisceau à 3,5 Khz) acquises lors de ces missions, avec les sédiments prélevés lors des carottages, permet d'établir dans la plupart des cas une bonne corrélation entre la nature lithologique des fonds et la réflectivité acoustique. Cependant il existe des cas où cette correspondance ne semble pas réalisée. Une explication possible pourrait résider dans l'état de consolidation de ces sédiments influençant la vitesse de propagation du son dans le sédiment, donc la pénétration du signal, et consécutivement la quantité de signal rétrodiffusé. Abs tract: The Sedifan cruises (1997) allowed us to acquire several kinds of acoustic data on the Celtic margin to recognise and characterize the Celtic deep sea fan, from 4200 m to 4800 m of water depth. We will compare two sets of acoustic data from the RJV L'Âtalante: the EMI2 Dual multibea...'Tl echosounder 03 kHz) data and the hull mounted subbottom profiler (3.5 l<-.Hz) data. The sonar image, giving a planar view of the seafloor, results from the measurement of the backscattering strength (BS in dB .mo2) depending on sediment lithology and physical properties. The echosounder profiler, giving a vertical view of the seafloor, is based on the difference of the sedirnent impedance encountered through deposits interfaces. Good correlation is obtained between backscattering changes on 1i~e EMI2 images and lithology variation on our five cases. But for two of them, neither the lithology nar the sand occurrence observed in cores could explain the acoustic results: the consolidation state and more probably the excess of pore pressure should have a major influence on the collected signal.

Mosul Dam, Iraq, was built in the 1980s on a foundation of soluble geologic materials. Because of the solubility of its foundation and abutments, maintenance grouting began immediately after construction and continues to the present. The U.S. Army is concerned about the stability of the dam, and about the potential military and political impacts that would accompany dam failure. At the request of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Gulf Region Division, the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) developed a three-dimensional (3-D) geologic conceptual model of the dam, as a tool to assist with improving dam safety and updating grouting operations. To develop the model, the ERDC Project Delivery Team built a geographic information system based on recent imagery, coupled with paper maps and geologic cross sections from the 1980s with minimal and inconsistent positional accuracy. Historic geologic data were translated into digital files and georeferenced, then consolidated and refined into a consistent set of lithologic information that was entered into the U.S. Department of Defense Groundwater Modeling System (GMS), the U.S. Army's specialized tool for performing subsurface modeling studies.

Rivers State as the nomenclature depicts is a state richly blessed with both surface and subsurface water. As a result of this, there is less problem of water scarcity, especially in the elite cities of the state, but so many other communities due to one reason or the other still wallow in abject water scarcity. In this survey, a total of seven (7) vertical electric soundings were carried out using Schlumberger configuration at Obibi community in Omuma local government area, Rivers State, to ascertain the location and depths to aquifer. ABEM terrameter SAS 300 was used in the survey with electrode spacing AB/2 of 150 m, thus probing to a depth of about 200 m. Geoelectric software (IPI2WIN) was utilized in the plotting, iteration and interpretation of the resistivity data obtained. From the quantitative interpretation and the lithology of the areas, five different subsurface layers were delineated with their geoelectric curve given as AK, AKQ and AKH. Aquifer in these areas is highly prolific and mostly located at an average depth of 52 m.

The investigation was carried out at the built up area of Ahmadu Bello University, main campus samara, Zaria. In order to map the ground water potential structure of the area a seismic refraction tomography method was used. The compressional seismic wave (P-wave) velocity variations provided information about the rock distribution in the subsurface. A close interpretation of the seismic refraction tomography model shows a reliable image of the velocity layers from which the saturated layers are delineated. Six profiles of 5 m geophone spacing were carried randomly around the study area. The results obtained from each of the profile highlighted the presence of structure(s) that can support underground water and hence the ground water potential can be determined.

Landslides are very common natural problems in the Black Sea Region of Turkey due to the steep topography, improper use of land cover and adverse climatic conditions for landslides. In the western part of region, many studies have been carried out especially in the last decade for landslide susceptibility mapping using different evaluation methods such as deterministic approach, landslide distribution, qualitative, statistical and distribution-free analyses. The purpose of this study is to produce landslide susceptibility maps of a landslide-prone area (Findikli district, Rize) located at the eastern part of the Black Sea Region of Turkey by likelihood frequency ratio (LRM) model and weighted linear combination (WLC) model and to compare the results obtained. For this purpose, landslide inventory map of the area were prepared for the years of 1983 and 1995 by detailed field surveys and aerial-photography studies. Slope angle, slope aspect, lithology, distance from drainage lines, distance from roads and the land-cover of the study area are considered as the landslide-conditioning parameters. The differences between the susceptibility maps derived by the LRM and the WLC models are relatively minor when broad-based classifications are taken into account. However, the WLC map showed more details but the other map produced by LRM model produced weak results. The reason for this result is considered to be the fact that the majority of pixels in the LRM map have high values than the WLC-derived susceptibility map. In order to validate the two susceptibility maps, both of them were compared with the landslide inventory map. Although the landslides do not exist in the very high susceptibility class of the both maps, 79% of the landslides fall into the high and very high susceptibility zones of the WLC map while this is 49% for the LRM map. This shows that the WLC model exhibited higher performance than the LRM model.

Microbialites are organogenic deposits formed as the result of the vital activities of colonies of benthic micro
organisms, which entrap and bind sedimentary particles to form mineral deposits. This article considers two
types of such structures: layered (stromatolites, biofilms) and detached formations (thrombolites, oncolites,
etc.). The mechanisms and conditions of their development and evolution in the history of the Earth are
shown. At present, integrated studies on microbialites are becoming an important subdiscipline of lithology.

We applied the Interferometric Point Target Analysis (IPTA) technique to study the city of Rome (Italy) aiming to detect and measure the surface movements of buildings and urban structures. The available SAR dataset has been delivered by ESA CAT1 3258 and ranges the period 1992-2005. In particular ERS1-ERS2 data processed covers , while Envisat ASAR 2002. The Point Target velocity map shows a general stability except for some very local areas affected by subsidence rate larger than 10 mm/year. The analysis of the time series, compared to a detailed geological and geotechnical investigation of the lithostratigraphy of the alluvial sediments of the Tiber River, and combined with a temporal reconstruction of the expansion of the city over the alluvial valleys, allowed us to depict the main factors controlling the observed subsidence. These are: the in situ effective stress conditions, the related compressibility and viscous characteristics of the loaded soils, the thickness of the compressible stratum, the time since loading instant, and the entity of loading. Furthermore the observed subsidence is time-dependent, even at a long time-scale, with respect to the age of the buildings being most of the buildings constructed since the '50s still affected by slow subsidence. We mainly focused on the Grottaperfetta stream valley that is characterized by an anomalous high and time-lasting subsidence. Original data on the lithostratigraphic setting of this alluvial valley indicate that the high subsidence rate measured up to 2005 is caused by a still active primary consolidation process.

The study integrates petrographical and lithological data from deep exploration wells and outcrops in northern Iraq to better understand the sedimentary environments present in the basin and to evaluate the depositional evolution of the Paleozoic rocks in Iraq. The studied Paleozoic successions are represented by five sedimentary cycles of intracratonic sequences. These are dominated mainly by siliciclastic and mixed sedimentary packages, and are separated by major and minor unconformity surfaces.

Palaeoecological techniques and radiocarbon datings were used to reconstruct the initiation and development of a sloping bog system near Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada. Peat initiation began around 12 000 cal. BP, possibly as a result of a cool, wet climate prior to the insolation maximum. A Picea sitchensis-Tsuga heterophylla-Alnus minerotrophic wet fern forest occupied the study site from 9300 to 8300 cal. BP. Between 8300 and 7500 cal. BP, cooler and wetter climatic conditions promoted increased organic matter accumulation and paludification by Sphagnum species. Subsequent lateral expansion has been very slow in the later Holocene. Paludification resulted in a shift to a scrubby, less productive Pinus contorta-T. heterophylla-Cupressaceae-Cyperaceae bog woodland around approximately 7500-3000 cal. BP. The modern Cupressaceae-Pinus contorta-T. heterophylla-Ericaceae-Cyperaceae mire was well established by 2000 cal. BP and a modern oceanic climate was predominant. The initiation and development of the studied bog corresponds to regional climatic and successional trends. However, the average long-term apparent rate of carbon accumulation (LORCA) was low compared to rates from other northern mires, only 6.3 Ϯ 0.6 (SE) g m Ϫ2 yr −1 . About 53% of the present carbon store was already accumulated by 6200 cal. BP. This study emphasizes that mire initiation and slow forest paludification in north coastal British Columbia is a multidirectional process resulting 37 from complex interactions between climatic and autogenic factors.

We have carried out geological studies including mapping at the scale 1 : 50 000 in the southern part of the San Salvador Metropolitan Area to support urban planning and natural hazard mitigation. The study area extends over the Cordillera del Bálsamo, marginal fault system and southern part of the Central Graben between the active San Salvador volcano and Ilopango caldera. It represents a segment in the Central American Volcanic Front. Volcanic rocks of the Late Miocene to recent age, classified as the Bálsamo, Cuscatlán and San Salvador formations, occur in the area. Remnants of two large basaltic andesite to andesite stratovolcanoes, Panchimalco and Jayaque, represent the Bálsamo Formation. They show periclinal dips and facies zoning from lava flows and coarse epiclastic volcanic breccias of the proximal zone through epiclastic volcanic breccias/conglomerates of the medial zone to epiclastic volcanic conglomerates and sandstones of the distal zone. Their ages are 7.2-6.1 Ma and 2.6-1.5 Ma respectively. The Cuscatlán Formation comprises the Jayaque and Santo Tomás calderas, the andesitic-dacitic Ilopango and Jayaque ignimbrites (1.9-1.4 Ma) in the SW and SE parts of the area, the Ilopango andesitic volcano (1.5-0.8 Ma), the Loma Larga basaltic volcano (0.8-0.5 Ma), the Planes de Renderos caldera, the dacite-andesite San Jacinto extrusive domes and effusive cone (0.4-0.25 Ma), the San José tuff/scoria cone, the Ilopango caldera extrusive domes (0.25-0.05 Ma), the Antiguo Cuscatlán scoria cone (0.2-0.08 Ma) and older tephra deposits of the Coatepeque and Ilopango calderas exposed along marginal faults of the Central Graben. The San Salvador Formation occurs as tephra cover along the crest of the Cordillera del Bálsamo where it rests on laterites atop the Bálsamo Formation and in the Central Graben. Tephra units belong to the Coatepeque caldera (Arce and Congo), San Salvador volcano (Apopa, G1 and G2) and Ilopango caldera (Tierra Blanca 1-4) spanning 70-1 ka. Tephra units are separated by palaeosols and aeolian dusty deposits.

The Sibiciu Basin is located in Romania between the Buzȃu Mountains and the Buzau Subcarpathians (Curvature Carpathians and Subcarpathians). The geology of the basin consists of Paleogene flysch deposits represented by an alternation of sandstones, marls, clays and schists and Neogene deposits represented by marls, clays and sands. The area is affected by different types of landslides (shallow, medium-deep and deep-seated failures). In Romania, in the last decades, direct and indirect methods have been applied for landslide susceptibility assessment. The most utilized before 2000 were based on qualitative approaches. This study evaluates the landslide susceptibility in the Sibiciu Basin using a bivariate statistical analysis and an index of entropy. A landslide inventory map was prepared, and a susceptibility estimate was assessed based on the following parameters which influence the landslide occurrence: slope angle, slope aspect, curvature, lithology and land use. The landslide susceptibility map was divided into five classes showing very low to very high landslide susceptibility areas.

With the increase in demand for water for competing uses, it is difficult to meet the entire demand from a single source and it is a challenge to plan and manage the different water resources. Among the two major water resources, surface and ground water, it is the ground water resource, which needs to be managed carefully, especially in drought prone areas. The hydro-geological features such as subsoil structure, rock formation, lithology and location of water play a crucial role in determining the potential of water storage in groundwater reservoirs. To assess the groundwater potential, a suitable and accurate technique is required for a meaningful and objective analysis. A critical study is carried out on the different methods of estimating the groundwater potential and compared to arrive at the most suitable technique for practical utility. In this work, four methods of estimating groundwater recharge were studied viz., yearly water level fluctuation, ten year average water level fluctuation, fluctuation between the lowest and highest water levels over ten years and fluctuation in monsoon seasons. The results of this study help in accurate prediction of groundwater availability, which in turn may avoid groundwater over exploitation and help restore the aquatic ecosystems .

In this paper the lithological study and mapping of Barind Tract is done by using irrigation boreholes log data in the context of an upazila under Barind Tract in northwest Bangladesh. Northwestern part of Bangladesh is severely drought prone area with lowest yearly rainfall in the country. Before groundwater irrigation only one crop was cultivated in this area in rainy season. After spreading of groundwater irrigation agriculture is flourished here, but groundwater level is severely going down, which is making this area risky for several adverse effect like land subsidence, biodiversity loss etc. Lithology is one of the important factors that affect the recharging of groundwater aquifer of any area. This research mainly based on secondary data. Irrigation boreholes log data are collected from Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA), a local authority under the Ministry of Agriculture of Bangladesh government provide irrigation in Barind Tract. A GPS survey is conducted to locate the boreholes in the study area. From the study highest thickness of clay layer found 90 ft and lowest 20 ft, and thickness gradually increase from eastern to western side. Aquifer is located between 20 -90 ft depth from the surface and direction of aquifer is western to eastern side. Agriculture of study area is totally dependent on groundwater irrigation. Thick layer of clay impede recharging of groundwater table. Due to thick layer of sticky and plastic clay land subsidence risk is low, but it act as aquitard which impede groundwater recharging and increase surface runoff.

Multidisciplinary research evaluates structural, metamorphic and petrochemical data of selected rock types in different units located in the northeastern part of the Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic: (1) the Strážek Unit in the northeastern part of the Moldanubian Zone, (2) the Svratka and Kutná Hora units correlated with the Orlice-Sněžník Unit in Western Sudetes as well as (3) the Polička, Hlinsko and Zábřeh units belonging to the Teplá-Barrandian Zone. Petrochemical data for metasediments of the Polička, Hlinsko and Zábřeh units are mutually comparable and confirm a lithological affinity to the upper-crustal Teplá-Barrandian Zone. The FeO t /MnO ratios in metasediments of the Strážek Unit and the Svratka Unit indicate differences in the origin of sedimentary protolith rocks. Relict pre-Variscan structures, including extensive migmatization, and high-grade mineral assemblages with peak metamorphic pressures of ~1.4 GPa in skarn bodies, are preserved in the Svratka Unit. The evidence for Palaeo-Variscan (390-355 Ma) HP and UHP events, recorded in the high-grade Kutná Hora and Orlice-Sněžník units, was observed neither in the NE part of the Moldanubian Zone (Strážek Unit) nor the Teplá-Barrandian Zone (Polička and Zábřeh units). The Variscan orogenic event imprinted in the Svratka, Polička and Zábřeh units was the right-lateral slip along WNW-ESE trending shear zones. This deformation was accompanied by metamorphism at ~580-650 °C and ~0.5-0.7 GPa (352-343 Ma) and intrusion of numerous small bodies of syn-deformation calc-alkaline granitoids in the Polička and Zábřeh units. The younger metamorphic fabrics in the northeastern part of the Moldanubian Zone reflect a fast exhumation of deep-seated high-grade complexes at ~340 Ma, which was constrained by post-tectonic emplacement of durbachites at ~339 Ma. Metamorphic development in felsic granulites of the Strážek Unit, metamorphosed c. 340 Ma ago at 850 °C and 1.8 GPa, was followed by decompression to T ≅ 790 °C and P = 1.3 GPa and finally T = 700 °C and P = ~0.4 GPa. In contrast, Běstvina granulite in the Kutná Hora Unit, with the ~360 Ma high-grade metamorphism at 800-920 °C and 1.8-2.1 GPa, is free of such a HT-LP overprint. Thus the data indicate that the Svratka and Kutná Hora units, exhibiting numerous mutual differences, should not be considered as belonging to the Moldanubian Zone as they evolved as independent entities. The geochemical data on garnet-clinopyroxene skarns from the Moldanubian Zone, the Svratka and Kutná Hora units do not provide mutually distinguishing features. This is largely due to a very wide compositional variation in rocks interpreted as metamorphosed exhalite with detrital material admixture. Skarns from the Svratka Unit preserve clinopyroxenes with elevated jadeite component (0.5-24 mol. %) and prograde compositional zoning in garnet-features obliterated in samples from the Moldanubian Zone and the Kutná Hora Unit.

Precambrian sedimentary successions are difficult to date and correlate. In the Scottish Highlands, potential correlations between the thick, undeformed siliciclastic 'Torridonian' successions in the foreland of the Caledonian Orogen and the highly deformed and metamorphosed siliciclastic Moine succession within the Caledonian Orogen have long intrigued geologists. New and detailed mapping of the Neoproterozoic A 'Mhoine Formation (Morar Group, lowest Moine Supergroup) in Sutherland has discovered low strain zones exhibiting well-preserved sedimentary features. The formation comprises 3-5 kilometres of coarse, thickbedded psammite with abundant nested trough and planar cross-bedding bedforms, defining metre-scale channels. Palaeocurrent directions are broadly unimodal to the NNE-ENE. We interpret the A 'Mhoine Formation as high-energy, braided fluvial deposits. The A 'Mhoine Formation and the unmetamorphosed, Neoproterozoic Applecross-Aultbea formations (Torridon Group), are similar in terms of lithology, stratigraphical thickness, sedimentology, geochemistry, detrital zircon ages and stratigraphical position on Archaean basement. Depositional age constraints for both successions overlap and are coeval with late-