Indoor air pollution

The objective of this study was to assess the level of macrocyclic trichothecenes (MCT), one of the most potent mycotoxins, on wall surfaces, floor dust and air samples from moldy dwellings. The study was based on an index group comprising 15 flooded dwellings contaminated by Stachybotrys chartarum or Chaetomium and a control group comprising nine dwellings without molds on visual inspection and mold sampling. Three samples were collected from each dwelling: a sample from the moldy wall, using a swab, a floor dust sample on a 0.5 m 2 surface with a cloth and an air sample using a pump comprising a 1 µ µ µ µ µm Teflon filter. The MCT level was measured using a monoclonal, antibody-based ELISA test. Compared with measurements performed in index dwellings, higher MCT values were measured on floor dust samples from moldy dwellings (P = = = = = 0.02). Samples from wall surfaces demonstrated nearly significant differences (P = = = = = 0.06). No significant differences were observed for air samples (P = = = = = 0.15), but some samples showed increased MCT levels. Significant correlations were observed between the levels measured on wall surfaces, floor dust and air samples (P = = = = = 0.02 to 0.05). In contrast, no correlation was observed between moldy surface and MCT levels. In conclusion, this paper reports for the first time direct evidence for the presence of MCT in moldy dwellings.

The allergist is generally recognized as possessing the greatest expertise in relating airborne contaminants to respiratory health, both atopic and nonatopic. Consequently, allergists are most often asked for their professional opinions regarding the appropriate use of air-cleaning equipment. This rostrum serves as a resource for the allergist and other health care professionals seeking a better understanding of air filtration.

The relative importance of sensory air pollution, thermal load and noise was studied under controlled conditions in two identical environmental chambers. In one chamber subjects were exposed to various levels of either thermal load or poor indoor air quality. For each condition tested in this chamber, the subjects were exposed to a number of noise levels in an adjacent chamber with neutral thermal conditions and good indoor air quality in order to determine a noise level causing the same degree of discomfort. A total of 68 comparisons of the conditions in the two chambers were made by the same group of 16 subjects after one-minute exposure in each chamber. In the operative temperature range of 23-29C, a 1°C change in operative temperature was found to have the same effect on human comfort as a change in perceived air quality of 2.4 decipol or a change in noise level of 3.9 dB. For levels of perceived air quality up to 10 decipol, a 1 -decipol change in perceived air quality had the same effect on human comfort as a change in noise level of 1.2 d B . A relationship between traffic noise level and percentage dissatisfied was established.

High-altitude populations using biofuels for household energy may be at health risk due to a combination of altitudinal stress and indoor exposures to biomass smoke. In this article, the authors measure indoor and outdoor breathing level concentrations of PM 2.5 and CO during periods of meal preparation in a convenience sample of homes above 3000 m in Cusco, Peru. From July 10 to 21, 2005, 237 measurements were taken during a pilot study at 41 residences. Results show the highest levels of PM 2.5 and CO occurred during the early morning in the kitchen when dung and wood were used. Additionally, findings suggest that residential biomass fuel combustion in Cusco results in elevated indoor PM 2.5 and CO exposure levels that are of potential human health concern, an issue that may be exacerbated by the physiological impact of living in a high-altitude environment.

Indoor and outdoor endotoxin in PM 2.5 was measured for the very first time in Santiago, Chile, in spring 2012. Average endotoxin concentrations were 0.099 and 0.094 [EU/m 3 ] for indoor (N = 44) and outdoor (N = 41) samples, respectively; the indoor-outdoor correlation (log-transformed concentrations) was low: R = −0.06, 95% CI: (−0.35 to 0.24), likely owing to outdoor spatial variability. A linear regression model explained 68% of variability in outdoor endotoxins, using as predictors elemental carbon (a proxy of traffic emissions), chlorine (a tracer of marine air masses reaching the city) and relative humidity (a modulator of surface emissions of dust, vegetation and garbage debris). In this study, for the first time a potential source contribution function (PSCF) was applied to outdoor endotoxin measurements. Wind trajectory analysis identified upwind agricultural sources as contributors to the short-term, outdoor endotoxin variability. Our results confirm an association between combustion particles from traffic and outdoor endotoxin concentrations. For indoor endotoxins, a predictive model was developed but it only explained 44% of endotoxin variability; the significant predictors were tracers of indoor PM 2.5 dust (Si, Ca), number of external windows and number of hours with internal doors open. Results suggest that short-term indoor endotoxin variability may be driven by household dust/garbage production and handling. This would explain the modest predictive performance of published models that use answers to household surveys as predictors. One feasible alternative is to increase the sampling period so that household features would arise as significant predictors of long-term airborne endotoxin levels.

Indoor environmental health is now recognized as an important factor in preventing respiratory health problems in the United States. It is also a concern in Canada due to the amount of time that Canadians spend indoors because of cold weather and the potential for increased time indoors during the summer if the climate warms. The negative health effects are often labeled as sick building syndrome, but diagnosing a building or its occupants as sick is complicated by the variety of symptoms, the presence of chronic versus acute symptoms and social and psychological (socio-psychological) factors that may reduce the effectiveness of an engineering solution. As a case study, the contribution of various factors to indoor environmental health, in three buildings at the University of Toronto, was examined using five different methods. The results indicate that the inhabitants of the buildings consider features other than air quality in considering building health such as design, maintenance...

A year-long investigation of air change rates in an occupied house was undertaken to establish the effects of temperature, wind velocity, use of exhaust fans, and window-opening behavior. Air change rates were calculated by periodically injecting a tracer gas (SF 6) into the return air duct and measuring the concentration in 10 indoor locations sequentially every minute by a gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. Temperatures were also measured outdoors and in the 10 indoor locations. Relative humidity (RH) was measured outdoors and in five indoor locations every 5 min. Wind speed and direction in the horizontal plane were measured using a portable meteorological station mounted on the rooftop. Use of the thermostat-controlled attic fan was recorded automatically. Indoor temperatures increased from 218C in winter to 278C in summer. Indoor RH increased from 20% to 70% in the same time period. Windows were open only a few percent of the time in winter but more than half the time in summer. About 4600 hour-long average air change rates were calculated from the measured tracer gas decay rates. The mean (SD) rate was 0.65 (0.56) h À 1. Tracer gas decay rates in different rooms were very similar, ranging only from 0.62 to 0.67 h À 1 , suggesting that conditions were well mixed throughout the year. The strongest influence on air change rates was opening windows, which could increase the rate to as much as 2 h À 1 for extended periods, and up to 3 h À 1 for short periods of a few hours. The use of the attic fan also increased air change rates by amounts up to 1 h À 1. Use of the furnace fan had no effect on air change rates. Although a clear effect of indoor-outdoor temperature difference could be discerned, its magnitude was relatively small, with a very large temperature difference of 308C (548F) accounting for an increase in the air change rate of about 0.6 h À 1. Wind speed and direction were found to have very little influence on air change rates at this house.

Airflow distributes contaminants inside buildings. Infiltration through unintentional openings in the building envelope controls the airflow in unoccupied repositories without heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) systems. A restricted airflow may lead to the development of thermal stratification and "dead-spaces" where air pollutants emitted from construction materials or the heritage collection accumulates. Heritage collections can act as both an emission source and a sink for carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids can cause irreversible heterogeneous reactions with the surface of materials, e.g. tarnishing metals. It is therefore crucial to establish the dynamics of carboxylic acids inside repositories without HVAC systems, in order to determine and control its impact on the longterm preservation of heritage collections. This paper presents a literature review on air dynamics and control of carboxylic acids inside unoccupied repositories without HVAC systems. It furthermore reviews reported levels of carboxylic acids found inside heritage institutions and sorbents used to remove them. Further research on air dynamics and whether carboxylic acids is removed primarily by deposition onto collections, or by filtration in HVAC systems inside heritage institutions is, however, necessary in order to establish the benefits of air filtration. This paper presents a literature review on air dynamics and control inside unoccupied repositories without heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) systems. Section 2 lists the principal building design of unoccupied repositories with semi-passive climate control as found in several Danish storage facilities with heritage collections. Information from a state-of-theart repository in Vejle, Denmark, with semi-passive climate control is used as an example; however, the data is applicable to other countries as well.

Exposure to arsenic (As) via residential soil and dust is a global concern, in regions affected by mining or with elevated concentrations present in underlying geology. Cornwall in south west England is one such area. Residential soil (n = 127) and household dust (n = 99) samples were collected from across Cornwall as part of a wider study assessing exposure to environmental As. Samples were analysed for total As (soil and dust samples) and human ingestion bioaccessible As (soil samples from properties with home-grown produce). Arsenic concentrations ranged from 12 to 992 mg kg(-1) in soil and 3 to 1079 mg kg(-1) in dust and were significantly higher in areas affected by metalliferous mineralisation. Sixty-nine percent of soils exceeded the 37 mg kg(-1) Category 4 Screening Level (C4SL), a generic assessment criteria for As in residential soils in England, which assumes 100% bioavailability following ingestion. The proportion of exceedance was reduced to 13% when the bioavailability...

Lung cancer rates in Xuanwei County have been among the highest in China for both males and females, and have been causally associated with exposure to indoor smoky (bituminous) coal emissions that contain very high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. There are numerous coal mines across the County. Although lung cancer risk is strongly associated with use of smoky coal as a whole, variation in risk by smoky coal subtype has not been characterized as yet. We conducted a population-based case-control study of 498 lung cancer cases and 498 controls, individually matched to case subjects on age (±2 years) and sex, to examine risk by coal subtype. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for coal subtype were calculated by conditional logistic regression, adjusting for potential confounders. Overall, smoky coal use was statistically significantly associated with lung cancer risk, as compared to use of smokeless coal or wood (OR=7.7, 95% CI=4.5 to 13.3). Furthermore, there was marked heterogeneity in risk estimates for specific subtypes of smoky coal (test for heterogeneity: p=5.17 × 10 −10 ). Estimates were highest for coal from the Laibin (OR=24.8, 95% CI=12.4 to 49.6) and Longtan (OR=11.6, 95% CI = 5.0 to 27.2) coal types, and lower for coal from other types. These findings strongly suggest that in Xuanwei and elsewhere, the carcinogenic potential of coal combustion products can exhibit substantial local variation by specific coal source.

The recent movement of regulatory agencies toward probabilistic analyses of human health and environmental risks has focused greater attention on the quality of the estimates of variability and uncertainty that underlie them. Of particular concern is how uncertainty -a measure of what is not known -is characterized, as uncertainty can play an influential role in analyses of the need for regulatory controls or in estimates of the economic value of additional research. This paper reports the second phase of a study, conducted as an element of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey ( NHEXAS ), to obtain and calibrate exposure assessment experts' judgments about uncertainty in residential ambient, residential indoor, and personal air benzene concentrations experienced by the nonsmoking, nonoccupationally exposed population in U.S. EPA's Region V. Subjective judgments ( i.e., the median, interquartile range, and 90% confidence interval ) about the means and 90th percentiles of each of the benzene distributions were elicited from the seven experts participating in the study. The calibration or quality of the experts' judgments was assessed by comparing them to the actual measurements from the NHEXAS Region V study using graphical techniques, a quadratic scoring rule, and surprise and interquartile indices. The results from both quantitative scoring methods suggested that, considered collectively, the experts' judgments were relatively well calibrated although on balance, underconfident. The calibration of individual expert judgments appeared variable, highlighting potential pitfalls in reliance on individual experts. In a surprising finding, the experts' judgments about the 90th percentiles of the benzene distributions were better calibrated than their predictions about the means; the experts tended to be overconfident in their ability to predict the means. This paper is also one of the first calibration studies to demonstrate the importance of taking into account intraexpert correlation on the statistical significance of the findings. When the judgments were assumed to be independent, analysis of the surprise and interquartile indices found evidence of poor calibration ( P < 0.05 ). However, when the intraexpert correlation in the study was taken into account, these findings were no longer statistically significant. The analysis further found that the experts' judgments scored better than estimates of Region V benzene concentrations simply drawn from earlier studies of ambient, indoor and personal benzene levels in other U.S. cities. These results suggest the value of careful elicitation of expert judgments in characterizing exposures in probabilistic form. Additional calibration studies need to be undertaken to corroborate and extend these findings.

Cockroach infestations have been indicated as a major contributor to asthma throughout the world. Several studies have shown that large numbers of asthmatic patients are sensitized to cockroach allergens. Eliminating this pest from homes, schools, and public buildings involves a long-term commitment to a rational extermination process. This article covers the characteristics of the major cockroach species that invade homes, assesses the role of environmental exposure to cockroaches in asthma, and provides an intervention program for their extermination.

Das Auftreten von unangenehmen oder unbekannten Gerüchen in Innenräumen wird von den Nutzern oftmals mit der Besorgnis einer Gesundheitsgefährdung assoziiert. Daher können Gerüche aufgrund der ausgelösten Stressreaktion auch ohne toxikologisch begründbare Expositionen das Wohlbefinden stark beeinflussen1 oder aufgrund einer beispielsweise als negativ empfundenen Geruchsnote eine Belästigung darstellen.
Das Vorliegen einer potentiellen Gesundheitsgefährdung kann durch die intensive Arbeit des AIR (Ausschusses für Innenraumschadstoffe) der letzten Jahre mittlerweile für einen Großteil der in Innenräumen auftretenden Schadstoffe gut beurteilt werden. In vielen Fällen enden die Untersuchungen jedoch an dem Punkt, an dem aufgrund chemisch-analytischer Raumluftmessungen aus regulatorisch-toxikologischer Sicht eine Gesund-heitsgefährdung ausgeschlossen werden kann. Auch wenn für die Raumnutzer damit die Gefahr einer potentiellen Gesundheitsgefährdung gebannt ist, bleibt oftmals die dauer-hafte Belästigungswirkung einer meist immer noch unbekannten Geruchsstoffemission bestehen.
Die Quantifizierung der Belästigungswirkung von Gerüchen bzw. die Bewertung, ob ein Geruch eine unzumutbare Belästigung oder einen üblichen und damit zu „akzeptierenden“ Geruch darstellt, ist bislang im deutschen Sprachraum, gerade auch vor dem Hintergrund der regulatorischen Anwendung, unzureichend geregelt. Während der Ansatz einer reinen Intensitätsbewertung in der Bauproduktprüfung2 vor allem aufgrund einer zu erwartenden Aromatisierung der Baustoffe durch die Hersteller als vertretbar erscheint, ist in Innen-räumen das entscheidende Kriterium für die Akzeptanz eines Geruches vielmehr dessen hedonische Ausprägung (angenehm oder unangenehm) und der jeweilige Nutzungshinter-grund (und damit der übliche und erwartbare Geruchseindruck des betreffenden Innen-raumes).
In den letzten Jahren wurden deutliche Fortschritte erzielt, die verschiedenen Instrumente zur objektiven Erfassung von Geruchsimmissionen in Innenräumen, sowohl national als auch international, normativ festzuschreiben. Dabei hat sich jedoch bislang in Fachkreisen noch keine einheitliche Vorgehensweise etabliert. Sowohl die personengebundenen Ver-fahren (direkte Bewertungsverfahren) als auch die chemisch-analytischen Verfahren (indirekte Bewertungsverfahren) weisen eine hohe Streubreite an Vorgehensweisen auf, so dass zusammen mit der Tatsache fehlender Beurteilungswerte die objektive Bewertung der Zumutbarkeit einer Geruchsbelästigung unter Umständen vom ausgewählten Gut-achter abhängen kann.

Objective. Parental atopy and environmental exposures are recognized risk factors for childhood asthma. However, the relative contributions of specific risk factors and the overall contributions of indoor and outdoor exposures remain unexplored. This study was undertaken to identify risk factors, estimate the population attributable risk of each exposure, and compare the data for boys versus girls for physician-diagnosed asthma in Taiwanese schoolchildren. Methods. During a February to June 2001 cross-sectional national survey, 35 036 6- to 15-year-old schoolchildren were chosen from 22 elementary and 22 middle schools located within 1-km catchment areas of 22 air-monitoring stations in Taiwan. The main outcome measure was physician-diagnosed asthma, as reported by the parents. We investigated hereditary and indoor and outdoor environmental factors for childhood asthma by questionnaire. The adjusted prevalences of questionnaire-determined outdoor indicators were also compared with a...

Background: Although the merits of ventilating operating theatres and isolation rooms are well known, the clinical benefits derived from ventilating hospital wards and patient rooms are unclear. This is because relatively little research work has been done in the ventilation of these areas compared with that done in operating theatres and isolation rooms. Consequently, there is a paucity of good quality data from which to make important decisions regarding hospital infrastructure. This review evaluates the role of general ward ventilation to assess whether or not it affects the transmission of infection. Methods: A critical review was undertaken of guidelines in the United Kingdom and United States governing the design of ventilation systems for hospital wards and other multibed rooms. In addition, an analytical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of various ventilation strategies in removing airborne pathogens from ward spaces. Results: The CFD simulation showed the bioaerosol concentration in the study room to be substantially lower (2467 cfu/m 3 ) when air was supplied and extracted through the ceiling compared with other simulated ventilations strategies, which achieved bioaerosol concentrations of 12487 and 10601 cfu/m 3 , respectively. Conclusions: There is a growing body of evidence that the aerial dispersion of some nosocomial pathogens can seed widespread environmental contamination, and that this may be contributing to the spread infection in hospital wards. Acinetobacter spp in particular appear to conform to this model, with numerous outbreaks attributed to aerial dissemination. This suggests that the clinical role of general ward ventilation may have been underestimated and that through improved ward ventilation, it may be possible to reduce environmental contamination and thus reduce nosocomial infection rates. (Am J Infect Control 2008;36:250-9.) From the Bradford

M. Effects of disinfectant fogging procedure on dust, ammonia concentration, aerobic bacteria and fungal spores in a farrowing-weaning room. Abstract Introduction and Objective. In the last decades, large-scale swine production has led to intensive rearing systems in which air quality can be easily degraded by aerial contaminants that can pose a health risk to the pigs and farm workers. This study evaluated the effects of fogging disinfectant procedure on productive performance, ammonia and dust concentration, aerobic bacteria and fungal spores spreading in the farrowing-weaning room. Materials and Method. This trial was conducted in 2 identical farrowing-weaning rooms of a piggery. In both rooms, 30 pregnant sows were lodged in individual cages. At 75 days of age, the piglets were moved to the fattening room. In the treated room, with the birth of the first suckling-pig, the fogging disinfection with diluted Virkon S was applied once a day in the experimental room per 15 minutes at 11:00. The fogging disinfectant treatment was switched between rooms at the end of the first trial period. Temperature, relative humidity, dust (TSP-RF fractions and number of particles), ammonia concentration and aerial contaminants (enterococci, Micrococcaeae and fungal spores) were monitored in both rooms. Results. Ammonia concentration reduction induced by fogging disinfection was estimated 18%, total suspended particles and the respirable fraction were significantly lower in the experimental room. Fungal spores resulted in a significant reduction by the fogging procedure, together with dust respirable fraction and fine particulate matter abatement. Conclusions. The fogging disinfection procedure improved air quality in the piggery, thereby enhancing workers and animals health.

We conducted a cleaning trial in 40 northern New Jersey homes where home renovation and remodeling (R&R) activities were undertaken. Two cleaning protocols were used in the study: a specific method recommended by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), in the 1995 ''Guidelines for the Evaluation and Control of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing,'' using a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-filtered vacuum cleaner and a tri-sodium phosphate solution (TSP); and an alternative method using a household vacuum cleaner and a household detergent. Eligible homes were built before the 1970s with potential lead-based paint and had recent R&R activities without thorough cleaning. The two cleaning protocols were randomly assigned to the participants' homes and followed the HUD-recommended three-step procedure: vacuuming, wet washing, and repeat vacuuming. Wipe sampling was conducted on floor surfaces or windowsills before and after cleaning to evaluate the efficacy. All floor and windowsill data indicated that both methods (TSP/HEPA and non-TSP/non-HEPA) were effective in reducing lead loading on the surfaces (Po0:001). When cleaning was applied to surfaces with initial lead loading above the clearance standards, the reductions were even greater, above 95% for either cleaning method. The mixed-effect model analysis showed no significant difference between the two methods. Baseline lead loading was found to be associated with lead loading reduction significantly on floors (Po0:001) and marginally on windowsills (P ¼ 0:077). Such relations were different between the two cleaning methods significantly on floors (Po0:001) and marginally on windowsills (P ¼ 0:066), with the TSP/HEPA method being favored for higher baseline levels and the non-TSP/non-HEPA method for lower baseline levels. For the 10 homes with lead abatement, almost all post-cleaning lead loadings were below the standards using either cleaning method. Based on our results, we recommend that contractors or homeowners can use a household vacuum cleaner and a household detergent to clean lead-contaminated environments after R&R activities when HUD-recommended equipment is not available. r

The Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant Program (Evaluation) was a HUD-funded study of the effectiveness of lead hazard control (LHC) treatments conducted by 14 grantees in communities across the country. A stratified random sampling scheme was used to select treated units at four grantee sites for continued environmental assessment at 6 years postintervention. The study compared the relative effectiveness after 6 years of the different classes of interventions used by the grantees, after controlling for such factors as housing conditions and characteristics and resident and neighborhood characteristics. Geometric mean dust-lead levels on floors and window sills were 11% and 23% lower, respectively, at 6 years post-intervention than at any preceding point following the intervention. Although geometric mean window trough dust-lead levels were slightly higher at 6 years postintervention than at other post-intervention time periods, they were still over 75% lower than before intervention. Treatment at moreintensive levels was associated with lower window sill and window trough dust-lead levels; however, statistical modeling found no significant difference in floor dust-lead loadings over time between the levels of treatment; however, significant differences in window sill and window trough dust-lead levels between treatment levels were evident. Findings from the 6-Year Extension study indicate that across all grantees and treatment strategies the treatments applied were effective at significantly reducing environmental lead levels on floors, window sills, and window troughs at least 6 years following the intervention.

The impact of an improved wood burning stove (Patsari) in reducing personal exposures and indoor concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and carbon monoxide (CO) was evaluated in 60 homes in a rural community of Michoacan, Mexico. Average PM 2.5 24-h personal exposure was 0.29 mg/m 3 and mean 48-h kitchen concentration was 1.269 mg/m 3 for participating women using the traditional open fire (fogon). If these concentrations are typical of rural conditions in Mexico, a large fraction of the population is chronically exposed to levels of pollution far higher than ambient concentrations found by the Mexican government to be harmful to human health. Installation of an improved Patsari stove in these homes resulted in 74% reduction in median 48-h PM 2.5 concentrations in kitchens and 35% reduction in median 24-h PM 2.5 personal exposures. Corresponding reductions in CO were 77% and 78% for median 48-h kitchen concentrations and median 24-h personal exposures, respectively. The relationship between reductions in median kitchen concentrations and reductions in median personal exposures not only changed for different pollutants, but also differed between traditional and improved stove type, and by stove adoption category. If these reductions are typical, significant bias in the relationship between reductions in particle concentrations and reductions in health impacts may result, if reductions in kitchen concentrations are used as a proxy for personal exposure reductions when evaluating stove interventions. In addition, personal exposure reductions for CO may not reflect similar reductions for PM 2.5 . This implies that PM 2.5 personal exposure measurements should be collected or indoor measurements should be combined with better time-activity estimates, which would more accurately reflect the contributions of indoor concentrations to personal exposures.

Background: Despite indoor home environments being where people spend most time, involving residents in testing those environments has been very limited, especially in marginalized communities. We piloted participatory testing and reporting that combined relatively simple tests with actionable reporting to empower residents in Main South/Piedmont neighborhoods of Worcester, Massachusetts. We answered: 1) How do we design and implement the approach for neighborhood and household environments using participatory methods? 2) What do pilot tests reveal? 3) How does our experience inform testing practice? Methods: The approach was designed and implemented with community partners using community-based participatory research. Residents and researchers tested fourteen homes for: lead in dust indoors, soil outdoors, paint indoors and drinking water; radon in basement air; PM2.5 in indoor air; mold spores in indoor/outdoor air; and drinking water quality. Monitoring of neighborhood particulates by residents and researchers used real-time data to stimulate dialogue. Results: Given the newness of our partnership and unforeseen conflicts, we achieved moderate-high success overall based on process and outcome criteria: methods, test results, reporting, lessons learned. The conflict burden we experienced may be attributable less to generic university-community differences in interests/culture, and more to territoriality and interpersonal issues. Lead-in-paint touch-swab results were poor proxies for lead-in-dust. Of eight units tested in summer, three had very high lead-in-dust (>1000 μg/ft 2 ), six exceeded at least one USEPA standard for lead-in-dust and/or soil. Tap water tests showed no significant exposures. Monitoring of neighborhood particulates raised awareness of environmental health risks, especially asthma. Conclusions: Timely reporting back home-toxics' results to residents is ethical but it must be empowering. Future work should fund the active participation of a few motivated residents as representatives of the target population. Although difficult and demanding in time and effort, the approach can educate residents and inform exposure assessment. It should be considered as a core ingredient of comprehensive household toxics' testing, and has potential to improve participant retention and the overall positive impact of long-term environmental health research efforts.

This review compiles personal and indoor microenvironment particulate matter (PM) monitoring needs from recently set research objectives, most importantly the NRC published ''Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (1998)''. Techniques and equipment used to monitor PM personal exposures and microenvironment concentrations and the constituents of the sampled PM during the last 20 years are then reviewed. Development objectives are set and discussed for personal and microenvironment PM samplers and monitors, for filter materials, and analytical laboratory techniques for equipment calibration, filter weighing and laboratory climate control.

In support of planning efforts for the National Children's Study, we conducted a study to test field methods for characterizing pesticide exposures to 20 farmworker children aged 5-27 months old living in the Salinas Valley of Monterey County, California. We tested methods for collecting house dust, indoor and outdoor air, dislodgeable residues from surfaces and toys, residues on clothing (sock and union suits), food, as well as spot and overnight diaper urine samples. We measured 29 common agricultural and home use pesticides in multiple exposure media samples. A subset of organophosphorus (OP), organochlorine (OC) and pyrethroid pesticides were measured in food. We also analyzed urine samples for OP pesticide metabolites. Finally, we administered four field-based exposure assessment instruments: a questionnaire; food diary; home inspection; and a self-administered child activity timeline. Pesticides were detected more frequently in house dust, surface wipes, and clothing than other media, with chlorpyrifos, diazinon, chlorthaldimethyl, and cis-and trans-permethrin detected in 90% to 100% of samples. Levels of four of these five pesticides were positively correlated among the house dust, sock, and union suit samples (Spearman's r ¼ 0.18-0.76). Pesticide loading on socks and union suits was higher for the group of 10 toddlers compared to the 10 younger crawling children. Several OP pesticides, as well as 4,4 0 -DDE, atrazine, and dieldrin were detected in the food samples. The child activity timeline, a novel, low-literacy instrument based on pictures, was successfully used by our participants. Future uses of these data include the development of pesticide exposure models and risk assessment. a One participant had two liquid and two solid food samples and another participant had two liquid food samples: the second aliquot from each was not analyzed. b 10 24-month olds and five 6-month olds had leftover handled food samples. Leftover handled foods are those that were liquid and/or solid leftover samples. c Numbers in parentheses represent the LOD of the liquid (L) and solid food (S) samples, respectively.

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Practical Implications This paper reports comprehensive indoor air quality (IAQ) and energy studies in a hot and humid climate and presents data from both objective and subjective measurements. Performance indices, such as ventilation index, energy index and the newly introduced indoor pollutant standard index (IPSI) are envisaged as practical tools for a quick assessment in exploring the integrated issues of IAQ and energy in buildings. Based on a detailed analysis of all the available data, it is found that building symptom index (BSI) values are found to correlate among them as well as with IAQ and THERMAL COMFORT acceptability, but no significant correlation exists between BSI and IPSI. This implies that the occupantsÕ perception of symptoms experienced as well as environmental acceptability is quite distinct from IAQ acceptability determined from empirical measurements of indoor pollutants, which reinforces the complex nature of IAQ issues.

In October 2000, joint sealants containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were discovered in various public buildings in Switzerland. Triggered by this event, a nationwide comprehensive study was initiated by the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests, and Landscape, and 1348 samples of joint sealants as well as 160 indoor air samples from concrete buildings erected between 1950 and 1980 were analyzed. Out of 1348 samples, 646 (48%) contained PCB. In 279 (21%) samples, PCB concentrations of 10 g/kg and more were detected, and concentrations of 100 g/kg of PCB or more were found in 129 (9.6%) samples. These data indicate that PCB were widely used as plasticizers in joint sealants in Switzerland. In buildings constructed between 1966 and 1971, one-third of all joint sealants investigated contained more than 10 g/kg of PCB. PCB concentrations exceeding the limit of 0.050 g/kg above which material is required to be treated as PCB bulk product waste were reached by 568 samples (42%). PCB with a chlorine content between 45 and 55%, corresponding to mixtures such as Clophen A50, Aroclor 1248, and Aroclor 1254, were encountered in 316 samples (70%). In 42 cases (26%) where joint sealants containing PCB were present, clearly elevated PCB indoor air concentrations above 1 µg/m 3 were encountered. In eight cases (5%), levels were higher than 3 µg/m 3 . The Swiss tentative guideline value of 6 µg/m 3 (based on a daily exposure of 8 h) for PCB in indoor air was exceeded in one case (0.6%). On the basis of this work, representing the first largescale nationwide analysis of the issue of PCB-contaminated joint sealants, we estimate that there are still 50-150 t of PCB present in these materials, acting as diffuse sources. They are distributed over many hundreds of buildings all over the country and represent a significant but frequently overlooked inventory of PCB. In light of the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants that entered into force last year, reduction of the release of PCB from these widely used materials is an important issue to be addressed.

The recent increased prevalence of childhood asthma and atopy has brought into question the impact of outdoor pollutants and indoor air quality. The contributory role of aldehydes to this problem and the fact that they are mainly derived from the domestic environment make them of particular interest. This study therefore measures six different aldehyde levels in Paris dwellings from potentially different sources and identifies their indoor determinants. The study was carried out in the three principal rooms of 61 flats with no previous history of complaint for olfactory nuisance or specific symptoms, two-thirds of the flats having been recently refurbished. Aldehydes were sampled in these rooms using passive samplers, and a questionnaire on potential aldehyde sources was filled out at the same time. A multiple linear regression model was used to investigate indoor aldehyde determinants. Our study revealed that propionaldehyde and benzaldehyde were of minor importance compared to formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, pentanal, and hexanal. We found that levels of these last four compounds depended on the age of wall or floor coverings (renovations less than 1 year old), smoking, and ambient parameters (carbon dioxide levels, temperature). These results could help in the assessment of indoor aldehyde emissions. r

Green building design is becoming broadly adopted, with one green building standard reporting over 3.5 billion square feet certified to date. By definition, green buildings focus on minimizing impacts to the environment through reductions in energy usage, water usage, and minimizing environmental disturbances from the building site. Also by definition, but perhaps less widely recognized, green buildings aim to improve human health through design of healthy indoor environments. The benefits related to reduced energy and water consumption are well-documented, but the potential human health benefits of green buildings are only recently being investigated. The objective of our review was to examine the state of evidence on green building design as it specifically relates to indoor environmental quality and human health. Overall, the initial scientific evidence indicates better indoor environmental quality in green buildings versus nongreen buildings, with direct benefits to human health for occupants of those buildings. A limitation of much of the research to date is the reliance on indirect, lagging and subjective measures of health. To address this, we propose a framework for identifying direct, objective and leading BHealth Performance Indicators^for use in future studies of buildings and health.

In the aftermath of natural disasters like hurricane Katrina water-damages on infrastructure and public and private property are often associated with health risks for remediation workers and returning residents. In the case of New Orleans evaluations of health hazards, health studies, and assessments of bioaerosol have been conducted previously. However, until now mycotoxins have not been addressed. Our study shows, for the first time, the presence of mycotoxins in dust collected in houses in New Orleans mold-contaminated because of the hurricane Katrina. The results may highlight the potential health threats posed by mold aerosols in post-disaster inhabited areas.

An alternative approach to maintaining indoor air quality may be the biofiltration of air circulated within the space. A biofilter with living botanical matter as the packing medium reduced concentrations of toluene, ethylbenzene, and o-xylene concurrently present at parts per billion (volume) in indoor air. The greatest reduction in concentrations per pass was under the slowest influent air flux (0.025 m s-1); however, the maximum amount removed per unit time occurred under the most rapid flux (0.2 m s-1). There was little difference between the different compounds with removal capacities of between 1.3 and 2.4 µmol m-3 biofilter s-1 (between 0.5 and 0.9 g m-3 biofilter h-1) depending on influent flux and temperature. Contrary to biofilters subjected to higher influent concentrations, the optimal temperatures for removal by this biofilter decreased to less than 20°C at the most rapid flux for all three compounds. Microbial activity was decreased at these cooler temperatures suggesting the biofilter was not microbially limited but rather was limited by the availability of substrate. The cooler temperatures allowed greater partitioning of the VOCs into the water column which had a greater impact on removal than its reduction in microbial activity.