Flavor

Committee in Charge 2014 ii Acknowledgements I would be remiss not to acknowledge the many people who have made this work possible, more or less chronologically: My parents, Martha Jurchak and Larry Johnson, for encouraging and pushing my intellectual, scientific, and creative development from an early age; my brother and sister, Eban and Adriana Johnson; my Grandmother, Marie Jurchak, for planting the seed of bon vivantism and supplying the younger me with plenty of cookbooks to read; to my de-facto in-laws Alice Meadows and Pete, Grace, Jack and Joe Pold for welcoming me into their family. From the early days of what would turn out to be my career, Kent Kirshenbaum, for letting me stand in the back of the room at the first Experimental Cuisine Collective meeting and giving me the space and support to start developing ideas about how to do scientific research on culinary questions; and Dave Arnold for taking my half-developed ideas seriously and giving me a lot of challenging questions about smell and chemistry to figure out. At UC Davis, my advisor, Susan Ebeler, for providing the tools and space to develop as an analytical chemist and learn the hard work of a writing, lecturing scientist, and putting up with my scientific wanderings; Hildegarde Heymann, for teaching me everything I know about sensory science and experimental design, cultivating my ideas about how science should be dealing with questions of flavor, chemistry, and cuisine, and freely offering profound words of encouragement when I needed them. Carolyn Doyle, for invaluable instrumentation help. My lab and office mates, for their support and friendship, Larry Lerno, Helene Hopfer, Ellie King, Maya Hood White and especially Anna Hjelmeland, a stalwart friend both in and outside of work. Roger Boulton, for introducing me to the technology of distilled beverages and being a valuable and enjoyably challenging presence on both my qualifying exam and dissertation committees. Alyson Mitchell and Doug Adams for their presence on my qualifying exam committee and help with academic issues and conference travel. Harold McGee, first as a role model, then as a QE committee member, and now as a dear friend and colleague. iii Related to the University of Copenhagen, Line Holler Mielby for being an early scientific role model and encouraging me to go to Denmark, Michael Bom Frøst, for enabling my coming to the Nordic Food Lab and KU, my sensory panel at KU, and Wender Bredie, Belinda Nielsen, and Charlotte Dandanell of the sensory science group.

Is the sense of smell a source of aesthetic perception? Traditional philosophical aesthetics has centered on vision and audition but eliminated smell for its subjective and inherently affective character. This article dismantles the myth that olfaction is an unsophisticated sense. It makes a case for olfactory aesthetics by integrating recent insights in neuroscience with traditional expertise about flavor and fragrance assessment in perfumery and wine tasting. My analysis concerns the importance of observational refinement in aesthetic experience. I argue that the active engagement with stimulus features in perceptual processing shapes the phenomenological content, so much so that the perceptual structure of trained smelling varies significantly from naive smelling. In a second step, I interpret the processes that determine such perceptual refinement in the context of neural decision-making processes, and I end with a positive outlook on how research in neuroscience can be used to benefit philosophical aesthetics.

Flavour compounds vary in physicochemical properties and therefore behave differently in foods with different fat content. The objective was to investigate differences in dynamic flavour intensity in a realistic food system and relate them to two relevant molecular descriptors for flavour compounds. Ice creams with different fat levels (3%, 6% and 12% milk fat) and flavouring (bionone (berry), d-nonalactone (coconut), isopentyl acetate (banana), vanillin (vanilla)) were examined. Approximately iso-intense concentrations (in 12% fat) were selected. Samples were analysed with time-intensity methodology, evaluating perceived melt rate and flavour intensity (trained panel N ¼ 12, 3 replicates). Data were analysed by ANOVA, principal component analysis (PCA) and ANOVA partial least squares regression (APLSR). Analyses of data showed faster perceived melt rates and faster increases and decreases in dynamic flavour perception with lower fat levels. Individual flavour compounds were not affected similarly by changes in fat level. Increase and decrease rates of dynamic flavour perception were related to boiling points and hydrophobicity of the flavour compounds. Isopentyl acetate with the lowest boiling point had the fastest increase rate and the slowest decrease rate in intensity. Vanillin with the lowest hydrophobicity index (log P ) had the fastest decrease rate. d-nonalactone and b-ionone with high boiling points and high log P had similar increase rates as vanillin, but had a slower decrease rate in flavour intensity.

The influence of human whole saliva on selected alcohols, aldehydes, 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines, and phenols in food-relevant concentrations was investigated. At pH 7.5-8 it was found that the alcohols, methoxyphenols, methoxypyrazines, and 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone remained unmodified by saliva, whereas aldehydes were reduced to their corresponding alcohols. Generally, the processes were found to be dependent on the salivary activity of the panelists as well as on the concentration of the applied odorants. Reduction of the aldehydes did not occur after thermal treatment of the saliva. These investigations are aimed at finding an explanation for longer lasting aftertaste in humans, as it is induced by some odor-active compounds after the consumption of food materials.

The effect of osmotic dehydration on the volatile fraction of kiwi fruit was studied, as well as the effect of freezing and frozen storage. Osmotic treatments were carried out in sucrose solutions until the kiwi fruit reached 30°Brix, at atmospheric pressure (OD) and by applying a vacuum pulse (PVOD), by using 45 and 65°Brix sucrose. Volatile compounds of fresh, dehydrated

Chocolate beverage powders (CBPs) were produced from alkalized cocoa powder (ACP) at 10–30% and soy lecithin (SL) at 0–4%. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimum level of ACP and SL on sedimentation, wettability, bulk density, despersibility, moisture content and flavor acceptability. SL was effective on wettability, and it also showed an optimum level for sedimentation and bulk density, while ACP was found to be significant for all physical properties. For sensory evaluation, flavor was acceptable at 20% ACP level soy taste was detected by panelists in CBPs with high SL and low ACP contents. It was found that as the ACP content was increased the soy taste of CBPs decreased. For overall physical characteristics, the optimum levels of 20% of ACP and 2–4% of SL were selected.

The volatile components of Hyuganatsu (Citrus tamurana Hort. ex Tanaka) peel oil, isolated by cold-pressing, were investigated by chemical and sensory analyses. According to chemical analysis by GC and GC-MS, limonene (84.0%) was the most abundant compound, followed by γ-terpinene (6.9%), myrcene (2.2%), R-pinene (1.2%), and linalool (1.0%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons were predominant in Hyuganatsu peel oil. The odor-active volatiles in Hyuganatsu flavor were studied by GC-olfactometry and omission tests. The characteristic flavor was present in the oxygenated fraction. Flavor dilution (FD) factors of the volatile flavor components of the Hyuganatsu coldpressed oil were determined by aroma extraction dilution analysis (AEDA). Furthermore, relative flavor activity was investigated by means of FD factor and weight percent. Ten kinds of odor compounds having Hyuganatsu-like aroma were detected by AEDA: limonene, linalool, octanol, neral, neryl acetate, tridecanal, trans-carveol, cis-nerolidol, trans,trans-farnesyl acetate, and trans,trans-farnesol. Linalool and octanol were regarded as the most odor-active or key compounds of Hyuganatsu aroma. Diluted solutions of linalool and octanol of ∼2 ppm gave a fresh and fruity aroma note similar to Hyuganatsu flavor.

The aim of the study was to describe and evaluate competitiveness of Estonian spice-cured sprat products in Estonia and in Thailand. Sample A was saltiest, sample B had lowest overall spiciness, and sample C had highest pepper flavor and sour taste intensity. The main drivers of consumer acceptance for the spice-cured sprat products were different, flavor and appearance in Estonia and appearance and odor in Thailand. In Estonia one cluster of consumers liked the traditional (sample A) and lightly spiced (sample B) sprat products, while the other cluster liked the traditional (sample A) and the marinated (sample C) sprat products. In Thailand all samples scored low, but manual clustering indicated that marinated (sample C) sprat products are most acceptable. The current study showed that spice-cured sprat products in general can be accepted by Thai consumers, especially as part of meals, if further flavor development is carried out with the products.

The production of acetaldehyde, diacetyl and ethanol was evaluated in whole plain yoghurts manufactured with commercial starter cultures, yoghurt acquired in a local market, and milk fermented by a single culture of either Streptococcus thermophilus or Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus. The headspace technique was used for sample preparation, following identification and quantification by gas chromatography. During an 8-h incubation period, mixed cultures were the most efficient in lowering the pH (from 6.30 to 4.8), followed by S. thermophilus (from 6.30 to 5.18) and L. bulgaricus (from 6.30 to 5.8). During the storage period, however, a single culture of L. bulgaricus decreased the pH more than S. thermophilus, but still less than the mixed commercial cultures. Plain yoghurts acquired in the market, those made with commercial starter cultures, and fermented milks obtained with single cultures showed, after 21 days of storage, concentrations of acetaldehyde from 11 to 35 mg/L, and of diacetyl from 0 to 0.85 mg/L. An increasing concentration of ethanol was observed during the storage period, and its production was observed even in the incubation stage of all products. It was also observed that the acetaldehyde concentration was inversely correlated to ethanol production in some products. The combination of headspace, identification and quantification techniques by gas chromatography in this work was efficient in the identification and quantification of the major aromatic compounds and ethanol content of yoghurt.

Quantitative analyses of volatile compounds isolated from raw carrots were combined with sensory analysis in order to identify the role of these compounds on aroma and flavour perception in coloured carrots. A sensory map of carrots with different colours was developed, the content of the isolated volatiles was determined and the role of these compounds for harsh flavour perception in raw coloured carrots was evaluated using multivariate data analysis. The sensory map showed that the coloured carrots formed distinct groups within the sensory profile. The orange genotypes were characterised by having significantly higher intensities in carrot flavour and aroma, while the reverse was true for the yellow genotypes. The purple genotype was characterised by having significantly higher intensity in sickenly sweet flavour and nutty flavour, and the red genotype was characterised by having significantly higher intensities in green aroma and flavour, bitterness and burning aftertaste. From the multivariate data analysis it was concluded that the isolated terpenes do correlate to the harsh flavour attributes.

Encapsulating properties of skimmed milk powder (SMP) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) for the coating of the essential oil (EO) of oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and aroma extracts (AE) of citronella (Cymbopogon nardus G.) and sweet marjoram (Majorana hortensis L.) by spray-drying were evaluated. The efficiency of microencapsulation expressed as a percentage of flavoring entrapped into the microcapsules varied from 54.3% (marjoram in WPC) to 80.2% (oregano in SMP). The content of flavoring remaining on the surface of encapsulated oregano EO was remarkably lower (1.1% and 1.4%) as compared with citronella (11.2% and 15.2%) and marjoram (16.7% and 22.1%) AEs encapsulated in SMP and WPC matrixes, respectively. Consequently, the changes in the composition of individual flavor compounds during encapsulation were considerably smaller for oregano EO as compared with citronella and marjoram AEs. The release of aroma compounds from the encapsulated products was assessed by solid phase microextraction (SPME) of headspace volatiles and their analysis by gas chromatography; some differences were observed between the analysed products. However, the effect of SPME fiber polarity was another important factor affecting the amount of extracted aroma compounds from encapsulated flavors. The percentages of nonpolar aliphatic terpenes were higher in the extracts obtained by nonpolar polydimethylsiloxane or bipolar polydimethylsiloxane-divinylbenzene fibers, while the content of oxygenated constituents in most cases was higher on the polar polyacrylate fiber. The latter extracted lower amounts of volatiles during 10 min exposure. The scanning electron microscopy and particle size analysis revealed that microcapsules were well-formed spherically shaped particles; however, SMP coated products had smoother surface as compared to WPC, containing more dents and wrinkles on the capsule surface. Particle size varied from 6 to 280 lm for SMP and from 2 to 556 lm for WPC microencapsulated products.

A marine actinobacterium isolated from the Bay of Bengal, India and previously found to be producing an antimicrobial and cytotoxic terpenoid was further investigated for antimicrobial metabolites. The bacterium was preliminarily identified as a new species of the genus Streptomyces (strain MS1/7). The cell-free culture broth was extracted with n-butanol and purified using silica gel column chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. Molecular characterization was done using ESI mass, IR and 1 H and 13 C NMR spectrometry. 2-Allyloxyphenol (MW 150; C 9 H 10 O 2 ), a synthetic drug and chemical intermediate, was obtained as a natural product for the first time. Serendipitous natural occurrence provided new insights into the synthetic molecule. 2-Allyloxyphenol was found to be inhibitory to 21 bacteria and three fungi in the minimum range 0.2-1.75 mg mL −1 determined by agar dilution method. 2-Allyoxyphenol possesses strong antioxidant property (IC 50 22 μg mL −1 , measured by 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl scavenging activity). Hydroxyl and allyloxy groups in 2-allyloxyphenol were responsible for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. 2-Allyloxyphenol has marked resemblance to smoky aroma and is two to three times more active as an antimicrobial than some commercial smoke-flavour compounds. Absence of hemolytic toxicity, potential carcinogenicity, cytotoxicity and reports of toxic reactions in literature suggest possible application of 2-allyloxyphenol as a food preservative and an oral disinfectant.

In the majority of citrus juices, bitterness is mainly ascribed to the presence of limonoids (triterpenes) and flavanone glycosides (flavonoids), namely limonin and naringin. In this study, the selective removal of limonin and naringin from citrus juice by batch adsorption to different materials was investigated. Since the removal of reducing sugars, pigments and vitamin C may also occur, the eventual adsorption of these compounds was also investigated. The following adsorbents were tested: activated diatomaceous earths, granulated activated carbon and synthetic neutral resins (Amberlite XAD-4, XAD-7 and XAD-16). Both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models showed a good fit to the adsorption of limonin to the resins used. Concerning naringin adsorption, a good fit of these models was only observed when the XAD-7 resin was used. Sigmoidal profiles were obtained for the adsorption of limonin to granular activated carbon. Unfavourable isotherms were also observed for limonin and naringin adsorption to activated earths. These isotherm adsorption profiles can be explained by a multilayer adsorption phenomenon. The highest adsorption efficiency for the bitter compounds was observed when synthetic neutral resin, Amberlite XAD-7 was used. The separation factor limonin/naringin varied from 16 (with earths) to 57 (with XAD-7 resin). The adsorption of sugars and pigments to the resins was low. No adsorption of vitamin C was detected for any of the adsorbents tested. The estimated affinity and separation factors show that the neutral resins tested are adequate for the selective removal of limonin from orange juices. The estimated values of free energy of adsorption, lower than-13.3 kJ mol-1 K-1 , indicate that a physiosorption process occurred.

The eating quality characteristics of farmed and wild Atlantic salmon, from locations in and around Northern Ireland, were compared by sensory analysis of frozen salmon. Quantitative descriptive analysis, using a trained panel, was used to compare specific attributes, while an untrained panel used hedonic scaling methods to assess acceptability. Freezing affected texture and appearance but had little influence on flavour, while extended frozen storage had few further effects. The main differences in eating quality occurred between river-caught salmon and sea-caught salmon, whether farmed or wild; river-caught salmon tended to receive the highest scores for earthy aroma, flavour and aftertaste and the lowest scores for salmon-like odour and flavour. However, farmed salmon tended to exhibit textures which were more moist and light and less firm than salmon from wild sources. Farmed salmon were at least as acceptable as wild salmon in terms of appearance, odour, flavour, texture, aftertaste and overall acceptability. q

The volatile components of Hyuganatsu (Citrus tamurana Hort. ex Tanaka) peel oil, isolated by cold-pressing, were investigated by chemical and sensory analyses. According to chemical analysis by GC and GC-MS, limonene (84.0%) was the most abundant compound, followed by γ-terpinene (6.9%), myrcene (2.2%), R-pinene (1.2%), and linalool (1.0%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons were predominant in Hyuganatsu peel oil. The odor-active volatiles in Hyuganatsu flavor were studied by GC-olfactometry and omission tests. The characteristic flavor was present in the oxygenated fraction. Flavor dilution (FD) factors of the volatile flavor components of the Hyuganatsu coldpressed oil were determined by aroma extraction dilution analysis (AEDA). Furthermore, relative flavor activity was investigated by means of FD factor and weight percent. Ten kinds of odor compounds having Hyuganatsu-like aroma were detected by AEDA: limonene, linalool, octanol, neral, neryl acetate, tridecanal, trans-carveol, cis-nerolidol, trans,trans-farnesyl acetate, and trans,trans-farnesol. Linalool and octanol were regarded as the most odor-active or key compounds of Hyuganatsu aroma. Diluted solutions of linalool and octanol of ∼2 ppm gave a fresh and fruity aroma note similar to Hyuganatsu flavor.

Juice from six plum (Primus domestica L.) cultivars, Au Red, Abundance, Pobeda, Shiro, Peach Plum and Early Golden, was extracted using 0.2% Clarex® L pectinase. The juice was processed as high temperature-short time (HTST)-unfined juice, fined juice or HTST-fined juice, and analyzed for yield, clarity, pectin content, soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, color, sugars, total anthocyanins and total phenolics. Pectinase treatment resulted in 41–214% increase in juice yields, with highest increase for Au Red. Enzyme-extracted juice averaged 54% lower pectin than controls, and fining further reduced pectin. Enzyme treatment also improved juice soluble solids and color. A consumer type sensory panel indicated juice from Abundance, Pobeda and Peach Plum had best flavor and acceptability.

Yogurt is a simple ecosystem whose successful manufacture relies on interactions between two thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (Lb. bulgaricus). The present work studied the impact of co-culturing S. thermophilus with Lb. bulgaricus on bacterial growth in milk. To achieve this, we considered both sides of the bacterial association, by characterising proteolysis and quantifying formic acid in pure and mixed cultures of S. thermophilus and Lb. bulgaricus. In pure cultures, S. thermophilus CNRZ385 exhibited better growth than the two Lb. bulgaricus strains (1038 and CNRZ397). The S. thermophilus/Lb. bulgaricus association was positive for S. thermophilus growth with strain 1038, contrary to the association with strain 397. These effects were correlated with the different proteolytic capacities of the two Lb. bulgaricus strains. In contrast, the bacterial association had no significant effect on Lb. bulgaricus g...

The inyuence of fat content (700 and 820 g/ kg) and homogenization on the texture and yavour of mayonnaise with added citral (semi-polar) or pyroligneous acid (polar) was investigated. The quality of mayonnaise was described by sensory descriptive proxling. Mayonnaise containing 820 g fat/kg had the highest intensity of sour smell, sour taste, thickness and fattiness. Increased fat content, from 700 to 820 g/kg, did not signixcantly awect the perception of smoke yavour due to pyroligneous acid, or lemon yavour due to citral. Homogenization increased sweetness and whiteness, and depressed thickness and fattiness in mayonnaises with added pyroligneous acid.

Malvasia nera di Brindisi' and 'Malvasia nera di Lecce' are two of the few Malvasias with black berries and belong to the Apulian ampelographic assortment (South Italy). Their presumed synonymy has been recently ascertained with SSR markers and therefore these two black 'Malvasias' can be considered as an unique variety. We discovered that this cultivar is the cross between 'Malvasia bianca lunga' alias 'Malvasia del Chianti' and 'Negroamaro' by using 42 nuclear SSR. Both parents belong to the Apulian varietal resources, since centuries. So far, 'Malvasia nera di Brindisi/Lecce' origin has been obscure; now we may assert that this cultivar was born right in Apulia. Three sets of chloroplast SSR loci were used to determine the female and the male parent: 6 ccmp loci, already used in previous pedigree studies, 15 ccSSR loci and 2 NTCP loci, derived from tobacco. The second set of loci was sequenced in order to compare the length of the markers with the reference species where they were originally obtained: in 4 cases no microsatellite motives were detected and in other 4 cases the perfect repetition found in tobacco was not maintained in grape. Unfortunately, the three sets of markers failed to show any polymorphism. A detailed comparison of the black Malvasia morphology with its two parents showed a closer similarity to 'Negroamaro'. Also the anthocyanin profile is in agreement with that of the black parent; its varietal aroma presents interesting levels of free and bound 2-phenylethanol, responsible for rose flavor, and of bound linalool compounds.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and multidimensional gas chromatography olfactometry (GC/GC-O) were utilized to study the aroma profile and the aroma active components of commercial kiwi essence and the initial fresh fruit puree. Totals of 29 and 33 components were identified and quantified in the essence and the puree, respectively. Ten components were quantified for the first time as constituents of the kiwi fruit including 3-penten-2-ol, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 2-hexanol, nonanal, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-2-butanone, 3-methyl 3-buten-2-one, and octane. Analysis of these samples by multidimensional gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) allowed for the identification of >80% of the aroma active components present at level traces in this fruit. A total of 35 components appear to contribute to the aroma of kiwi fresh puree and its aqueous essence. Components described for the first time as constituents of the aroma profile in this fruit were 2-ethylfuran, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-cyclohexen-1-one, (E,E)-2,6nonadienal, diethyl succinate, and hexyl hexanoate.

Our experience of flavour involves integration of multiple sensory inputs, and the hedonic evaluation of this complex flavour experience is important in determination of food choice. The appearance of food also generates expectations about food flavour, and past work suggests that these expectations if confirmed enhance the flavour experience. What is less clear is what happens when cues prior to ingestion predict a flavour which is in marked contrast to the actual flavour characteristics. To test this, we conducted three experiments where expectations about food flavour were generated by plausible but inaccurate food labels for a highly novel food, smoked-salmon ice-cream. In Experiment 1, the experience of the food in the mouth generated strong dislike when labelled as ice-cream, but acceptance when labelled as frozen savoury mousse. Labelling the food as ice-cream also resulted in stronger ratings of how salty and savoury the food was than when labelled as a savoury food. Experiment 2 confirmed these findings, and also found that an uninformative label also resulted in acceptable liking ratings. Experiment 3 explicitly tested the effect of labels on flavour expectation, and confirmed that the ice-cream label generated strong expectations of a sweet, fruity flavour, consistent with the visual appearance of the ice-cream, but in marked contrast to the flavour of salty fish. As in Experiments 1 and 2, liking was minimal when the food was tasted after the ice-cream label condition, but liking was acceptable in the other label conditions. These data show that the contrast between expected and actual sensory qualities can result in a strong negative affective response and enhancement of the unexpected sensory qualities.

The odor thresholds of 12 different compounds have been determined in an AEDA experiment using a panel composed of 8 individuals. Only in one case is the distribution of thresholds among judges significantly different from the log-normal. The cause of that departure from normality seems to be a cross adaptation rather than anosmia. The standard deviations (SD) range from 2 0.7 to 2 4.1 , with 2 1.8 as average. If the AEDA is carried out at a dilution rate, R, and dilution R P (where P) 0, 1, 2...) is the last one at which a compound was detected by a judge, the flavor dilution (FD) factor that should be provided for that judge is R (P+0.5). In the case where several judges carry out the AEDA, the FD for a given compound should be the geometric mean of the FD provided by all the judges. The SD of the distribution of FDs is related to that of the distribution of odor thresholds, but is strongly influenced by the dilution rate, R, being higher with higher R values. The relationship between both SDs can be used to determine the expected precision (measured as the geometric length of the 95% confidence interval) of the result of an AEDA experiment as a function of the dilution rate, the number of judges, and the SD of the distribution of thresholds. Different simulations have shown that in most cases, a dilution rate of 10 is the best option, and that lower dilution rates are advantageous only if the analyzed solution contains compounds with a very narrow distribution of thresholds.

Sumac flavour, obtained by an aqueous extraction of sumac berries, was spray dried using several carriers (sodium chloride, sucrose, glucose and starch). Among the carriers tested, only sodium chloride was observed to be appropriate under the conditions of the spray-dryer used for the spray drying. Sucrose and glucose adhered on the surface of the spray dryer due to caramelization. Starch caused problem such as clogging the nozzle due to its heterogeneous form.

This study was aimed to evaluate the Sensory evaluations of camel, beef and goat sausages. Camel, beef and goat sausages were not significantly different (P> 0.05) in color of the cooked sausages. However, camel and beef sausages with sweet potato received higher scores compared to goat sausages. Most noticeably, sausages of camel meat containing sweet potato had higher tenderness scores followed by beef sausages and goat sausages. Also it was noticed that sausages became juicier with the addition of sweet potato compared to bread crumbs. The camel and goat sausages with sweet potato had received the highest scores in flavor, whereas the flavor scores of different sausages (camel, beef or goat sausages) with bread crumbs showed decreased values. The results showed that the camel and goat sausage resembled beef sausage in taste, appearance and palatability. Sausages made of camel and goat meat were also acceptable to the panelists. Camel sausage recorded higher scores in sensory evaluation compared to beef and goat sausage. Sausages processed by adding sweet potato and bread crumbs were acceptable. However, addition of sweet potato slightly improved the texture and juiciness of the sausage.

The integration of olfactory, taste and trigeminal perceptions must be taken into account to better understand the perception of beverages. To do this, seven beverages were formulated to investigate the role of ingredients on trigeminal perception. All mutual interactions between olfactory, gustatory and trigeminal perceptions were studied. Instrumental measurements and sensory evaluation were used to elucidate both physicochemical and sensory interactions. Sensory profiling was conducted according to monadic product presentation, and in vivo aroma release was assessed in the nasal cavities of subjects during beverage consumption.This study further revealed the influence of trigeminal perception on taste and aroma in complex beverages. The addition of CO2 in beverages induced a decrease in sweetness perception, an increase in sourness perception and an enhancement of aroma perception. Physicochemical and/or physical mechanisms (pH, aroma stripping effect) were assumed to be at the origin of these gustatory and olfactory interactions. Furthermore, the addition of mint flavoring enhanced tingling and freshness perceptions, highlighting perceptual interactions. The presence of sugar was shown to decrease the freshness perception but not the tingling perception.

Sensory profiling, analysis of aroma, sugar and dry matter, as well as consumer liking test were used to characterise the quality of six carrot cultivars, grown at two locations in Denmark. The carrot samples were examined at harvest, and after three months of cold storage. Carrot cultivar had an effect on most sensory and flavour compound variables, due particularly to the influence of one cultivar; and also location influenced carrot quality. Storage of carrots was characterised by an increase of a range of aroma components, but the changes in flavour compounds were not correspondingly observed by the sensory analysis. By Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) two thirds of the flavour compound variables was found to correlate significantly with one or more of the nine sensory attributes; and all of the sensory attributes were significantly correlated with one or more of the consumer liking test variables bitterness, sweetness and liking.

The sensory properties and volatile composition of bread flavour were measured to allow improved understanding of perceived bread freshness. Twenty bread varieties consisting of specialty breads (n = 10) and commercial breads (n = 10) were evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis, and volatile composition of all breads was measured by proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). The specialty breads (n = 10) studied had been evaluated by consumers, and perceived freshness was known. All sensory attributes and 33 mass ions representative of the PTR-MS spectra significantly (p < 0.05) distinguished between the different breads. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was used to model and predict sensory profiles as a function of volatile composition for all breads. In addition, a separate model that related volatile composition to known consumer freshness of the 10 specialty breads was created. For each model, accuracy was validated by comparing the differences between predicted and actual, sensory and freshness intensities.

Seventy-nine children ages 36-71 months evaluated 2 % commercial UHT milk and 2% commercial pasteurized milk for taste, color and mouthfeel with age appropriate facial hedonic scales with Peryam and Kroll verbal descriptors. Children significantly preferred the pasteurized milk over UHTmilk for taste and mouthfeel attributes. Descriptive analysis of milks with an adult trained panel showed a significantly higher cooked note in UHT milk products which may explain the difference in preference. The results also showed that children 36-47 months were able to use the 3-point scale; children 47-59 months the 5-point scale; and children 60-71 months the 7-point scale to score preferences forfood. Data transformation for a 0 to 100 point scale provided erne of comparison between age groups. Using the appropriate testing instruments, young children were able to provide valid food preference information.

Eighteen cultures of starter lactic acid bacteria with or without added adjunct cultures, isolated from Egyptian dairy products, were evaluated in experimental Ras cheese for flavour development. Chemical composition of experimental cheeses was within the legal limit for Ras cheese in Egypt. All cultures used in this study had no effect on chemical composition of Ras cheese. Very significant variations in free amino acids, free fatty acids and sensory evaluation have been found among the cultures used in Ras cheesemaking. The levels of free amino acids and free fatty acids were correlated well with flavour development in Ras cheese. Seven of the tested cultures produced acceptable flavour and texture of Ras cheese. The highest overall score of flavour intensity, flavour and texture acceptability were in cheese made using YY47 lactic culture in addition to adjunct culture of Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis and Enterococcus faecium. This culture can be recommended for Ras cheese manufacture using pasteurized milk.

Cheese analogues are usually defined as products made by blending individual constituents, including non-dairy fats or proteins, to produce a cheese-like product to meet specific requirements. They are being used increasingly due to their cost-effectiveness, attributable to the simplicity of their manufacture and the replacement of selected milk ingredients by cheaper vegetable products. Sales of cheese analogues are closely linked to developments in the convenience food sector, where they extend the supply and lower the cost. Moreover, there is an ever-increasing interest among consumers in food products which contain less total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and calories. Development of cheese analogues involves the use of fat and/or protein sources other than those native to milk, together with a flavour system simulating as closely as possible that of the natural product. It is also necessary to develop a suitable processing regime capable of combining these elements to provide the required textural and functional properties. Cheese analogues may be regarded as engineered products. Cheese analogues represent little threat to the continued consumption of natural cheeses: Their major role at present is undoubtedly in the cost-cutting exercises of pizza manufacturers. The dairy industry has to take the view that imitation products are the result of developments in product technology and market demand. Thus not to get involved would mean curtailment of product innovation and market opportunities.

An experiment was conducted at to add value to Watermelon rind and to study quality of watermelon rind jam as influenced by different concentration of rinds and sugar with flavors. This single factors experiment was consisted of sixteen treatments with three replications and laid out in CRD. The treatments were T 1 F 0 =50% rind+50% sugar+no flavor; T 1 F 1 =50% rind+50% sugar+strawberry flavor; T 1 F 2 =50% rind+50% sugar+pineapple flavor; T 1 F 3 =50% rind+50% sugar+vanila flavor; T 2 F 0 =80% rind+20% sugar+no flavor; T 2 F 1 =80% rind+20% sugar+strawberry flavor; T 2 F 2 =80% rind+20% sugar+pineapple flavor; T 2 F 3 =80% rind+20% sugar+vanila flavor; T 3 F 0 =60% rind+40% sugar+no flavor; T 3 F 1 =60% rind+40% sugar+strawberry flavor; T 3 F 2 =60% rind+40% sugar+pineapple flavor; T 3 F 3 =60% rind+40% sugar+vanila flavor; T 4 F 0 =40% rind+60% sugar+no flavor; T 4 F 1 =40% rind+60% sugar+strawberry flavor; T 4 F 2 =40% rind+60% sugar+pineapple flavor; T 4 F 3 =40% rind+60% sugar+vanila flavor. At first qualitative test was done for prepared jam. Then organolaptic test was done and last of all various chemical changes were determined with the storage period. T 1 F 1 was statistically best. The chemical analysis of T 1 F 1 jam was pH (3.80), TSS (6.00 %,), TA (2.48%), vitamin C (0.26mg/100g). This suggested that 50% rind+50% sugar and strawberry flavor was the promising formulation for the preparation of good quality of watermelon rind jam.

The sensory profile and acceptability of nine commercial samples of cracker type biscuits were measured. The descriptors used by a trained sensory panel that best separated samples were: appearance: color, quantity, uniformity, distribution, size and breakage of hills, hole related descriptors and ease of brand reading; aroma and flavor: total intensity, sweet, salty, cheesy, margarine, flour and toasted; texture: rough and powdery surface, crispness, noise, hardness, oiliness and greasiness. A total of 360 regular cracker consumers (1/3 youths and 2/3 adults) from three different cities in Argentina measured appearance, texture, flavor and overall acceptance. On average, adults scored crackers higher in acceptability than youths; likewise consumers from the smaller inland towns scored higher than consumers from Buenos Aires, the largest city in Argentina. Average overall acceptance scores for the nine samples ranged from 62 to 76 on a 0-100 scale with a least significant difference (LSD) of 4. Seven, nine, nine and seven consumer clusters were found for appearance, texture, flavor and overall acceptance, respectively. For each attribute there was one cluster representing between 10 and 23% of consumers who scored all samples high. Extended preference mapping showed the sensory descriptors of crackers which drove the preference of some of the consumer clusters. #

The feasibility of survival analysis methodology was used to determine the shelf-life of probiotic strawberry flavored yogurt supplemented with Bifidobacteirum animalis DN 173010 W was investigated. The quality parameters of probiotic yogurts were related to storage conditions which they are submitted. The consumers were shown sensitive to changes towards sensory characteristics introduced into the products. Using the survival analysis and considering 25% and 50% probability of consumer rejection, the shelf-life of the probiotic yogurt was estimated at 38 and 53 days, respectively. The findings of this research highlighted the feasibility this technique to determine the shelf-life of foods, in particular, functional foods, as probiotic yogurts.

Fruit and vegetables have many similarities with respect to their compositions, methods of cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing.In reference to fruits and vegetables, the characteristics that impart distinctive quality may be described by four different attributes -1) color and appearance, 2) flavor (taste and aroma), 3) texture and 4) nutritional value.

When eating or drinking, the individual experiences a multitude of sensations, including taste, smell, touch, temperature, sight, sound, and sometimes pain/irritation. This multi-faceted sensory experience is the underpinning of perceived flavor, although certainly some sensations contribute more than others. This paper reviews how all these sensations interact, both on a perceptual and a physical level, and discusses the resulting impact each has on flavor ratings. Interactions between taste and smell, and interactions of the remaining sensations will be discussed. Finally, practical implications of these interactions for sensory evaluation are discussed. #

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It has been well established, in the last two decades, that neutrinos are massive. On a theoretical point of view, this important discovery demands the extension of the Standard Model of elementary particles, which currently does not explain such evidence.

Following on from ecological theories of perception, such as the one proposed by [Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin] this paper reviews the literature on the multisensory interactions underlying the perception of flavor in order to determine the extent to which it is really appropriate to consider flavor perception as a distinct perceptual system. We propose that the multisensory perception of flavor may be indicative of the fact that the taxonomy currently used to define our senses is simply not appropriate. According to the view outlined here, the act of eating allows the different qualities of foodstuffs to be combined into unified percepts; and flavor can be used as a term to describe the combination of tastes, smells, trigeminal, and tactile sensations as well as the visual and auditory cues, that we perceive when tasting food.

Aromatic cocktail bitters are derived from the alcoholic extraction of a variety of plant materials and are used as additives in mixed drinks to enhance aroma and flavor. In this study sixteen commercial bitters were analyzed using volatile (GC–MS) and sensory profiling and multivariate statistics including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS). The samples differed significantly in their citrus, celery, and spice characteristics. 148 volatile compounds were tentatively identified and the composition varied significantly with the type of bitters sample evaluated. PLS analysis showed that the volatile data correlated well overall to the sensory data, explaining 60% of the overall variability in the dataset. Primary aldehydes and phenylpropanoids were most closely related to green and spice-related sensory descriptors. However, the sensory impact of terpenoid compounds was difficult to predict in many cases. This may be due to the wide range of aroma qualities associated with terpenes as well as to concentration, synergistic or masking effects.