Excavation Methodology

Course Objectives • Attendees of this hands-on workshop will learn proper search and recovery methods used to locate, document, and recover scattered and buried human remains. *Improper recovery techniques, however well intentioned, have the potential to destroy or leave behind valuable information that may compromise the investigation or hinder the identification process.

A recent trend concerning archaeological research has focused on producing a real-time methodology for 3D digital models as archaeological documentation within the excavation setting. While such methodologies have now firmly been established, what remains is to explore how 3D models can be integrated more fully alongside other forms of archaeological documentation. This thesis explored one avenue by developing a method that combines the interpretative power of traditional archaeological drawings and the realistic visualisation capacity of 3D digital models. An experiment was developed during archaeological excavations at Uppåkra, Sweden where photographic data was captured to produce 3D digital models through Photoscan. These models were geospatially located within ESRI’s 3D GIS ArcScene where shapefile editing tools were used to draw overtop of their surfaces in three-dimensions. All drawings followed closely the single context method of drawing, were allotted context numbers, and given descriptive geodatabase attributes. This methodology resulted in the further integration of 3D models alongside other forms of archaeological documentation. The drawings increased the communicative powers of archaeological interpretation by enabling the information to be disseminated in a 3D environment alongside other formats of data that would have otherwise been disconnected in 2D space. Finally, the database attributes permitted the drawings complete integration within the geodatabase, thereby making them available for query and other analytical procedures. Archaeological information is three-dimensional, therefore archaeologists must begin to approach documentation bearing this in mind. This technique has demonstrated that 3D models are a fluidic form of documentation allowing for accurate preservation of archaeology while enabling new forms of data to be derived all within a limited amount of time. Archaeologists must begin to affect change towards embracing 3D models and their associated applications as a standard tool within the excavator’s toolbox.

"The relationship between archaeology and conservation has long been complex and, at times, challenging. Archaeologists are often seen as interested principally in excavation and research, while conservators are concerned mainly with stabilization and the prevention of deterioration. Yet it is often initial conservation in the field that determines the long-term survival and intelligibility of both moveable artifacts and fixed architectural features.

This user-friendly guide to conservation practices on archaeological excavations covers both structures and artifacts, starting from the moment when they are uncovered. Individual chapters discuss excavation and conservation, environmental and soil issues, deterioration, identification and condition assessment, detachment and removal, initial cleaning, coverings and shelters, packing, and documentation. There are also eight appendixes.

Geared primarily for professionals engaged in the physical practice of excavation, this book will also interest archaeologists, archaeological conservators, site managers, conservation scientists, museum curators, and students of archaeology and conservation.

AUTHORS
Corrado Pedelì is a senior conservator/restorer at Superintendence for Cultural Heritage of the Aosta Valley Regional Administration in Italy.
Stefano Pulga is a freelance restorer based in Aosta.

Development as a result of urban, agricultural, forestry or mining activity has drastically
threatened archaeological sites. Salvage archaeology is often necessary in order to collect data before a works process destroys an archaeological site forever. This thesis investigates how salvage archaeology has been used Internationally and at Australian historical sites. The paper reviews current techniques, methodologies and the equipment used whilst conducting salvage at historical sites and provides recommendations as to how current practice can be improved. The paper also explores the technical, legal and social limitations in undertaking such operations, and details current case studies whereby archaeological salvage has occurred.

Archaeologists’ excavation practices vary significantly from country to country and site to site. But variation in the most fundamental, ‘common-sense’ excavation practices is ‘black-boxed’ - it is not discussed outside casual, informal contexts, and is treated as having no effect on higher-level interpretation. These practices can, however, be a source of conflict when archaeologists from different communities of practice work together. In this paper, I explore what variation in excavation methodology reveals about the nature of archaeological knowledge itself. By comparing methodologies and the organization of labour on British and Andean excavations, I argue that archaeologists in different communities of practice have divergent understandings of what the object of archaeological investigation is, and of how it can be known, and by whom. This results in contrasting understandings of the nature of material/archaeological objects, as well as contrasting conceptualizations of excavation as an ‘expert’ practice – one requiring skills, knowledge and bodily practices that are specific to trained archaeologists. Situating these concerns in historical and ethnographic context, this paper suggests that archaeological excavation is, in fact, a far more complex, nuanced and variable practice than the lack of attention paid to it implies.

edizioni QuaSar e s t r a t t o MiniStero dei Beni e deLLe attività cuLturaLi e deL turiSMo Soprintendenza per i Beni archeoLogici deL Lazio a cura di Giuseppina Ghini e Zaccaria Mari Coordinamento Giuseppina Ghini L'editore si dichiara pienamente disponibile a soddisfare eventuali oneri derivanti da diritti di riproduzione. È vietata la riproduzione con qualsiasi procedimento della presente opera o di parti di essa. © 2013 Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici del Lazio © Roma 2013, Edizioni Quasar di Severino Tognon srl via Ajaccio 43 -00198 Roma, tel. 0685358444 fax 0685833591 e-mail: [email protected] www.edizioniquasar.it ISBN 978-88-7140-513-1 e s t r a t t o

Review of settlements and settlement archaeology in Scandinavia with special focus on the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Settlement archaeology has taken different paths at
varying paces in different regions of southern Scandinavia.
Until recently houses of the Pre-Roman Iron Age
were only known in a few regions, but during the latter
two decades this picture has changed radically. The
emerging picture is that of diversity, although some trails
and tendencies are seen everywhere. First of all, the period
appears to be one of settlement expansion. Furthermore,
social inequality seems to be expressed through architecture
already from the start of the period, although it becomes more accentuated towards the end of it. The regionality
in house architecture and structure of the settlements
at large is another important facet of the material culture,
which may prove to be important when interpreting
the meaning of cultural contacts and social organization
of the Pre-Roman Iron Age.

The Százhalombatta Excavation Project – SAX Project – represents both the continuity of the Hungarian
Bóna tell-excavation school and through international co-operation the exploration of new methods and
theoretical approaches. The focus of this paper is the methodological advances that have taken place on the
Százhalombatta-Földvár tell site, including their benefits and in some cases their disadvantages. We demonstrate how detailed sampling, small finds analysis and single context excavation can add to our understanding of site use and site formation processes. After a short overview of the documentation system that has come
to be used at Százhalombatta, we concentrate on the development of the theoretical approaches applied to
the site. In conclusion, we reflect on these new methods and interpretative concerns in the hope that some of
them may become new standards in settlement research in general.

In mining operations carried out below the water table, mine area could potentially affect the surrounding. With further deepening of the mine and quarry, the drawdown can impact on water supply wells and base flow. The variation in radius of influence under confined and unconfined aquifer condition is assessed using a hypothetical case study with three operational quarry sites. Average pit-wise radius of influence (R0) for the pit mine, under unconfined and confined aquifer conditions is 963 m and 61 km, respectively, whereas effective radius (Re) for total (cumulative) excavated mine area is 1.7 and 146 km, respectively. It means that the maximum and minimum value of overall impact/influence for the unconfined aquifer lies in-between 963 m and 1.7 km. Similarly that the maximum and minimum value of overall impact/influence for the confined aquifer lies in-between 61 and 146 km. Meanwhile, Re or effective radius for total (cumulative) excavated area seems more appropriate from evaluation viewpoint due to the overlapping (superposition) concentric mining quarries. Thus, assessment of quarry-wise and total radius of influence is of importance to fulfil targeted production, economically with minimum interruptions as part of the mine planning. Moreover, it helps us to assess, monitor and regulate the impact of a mine-dewatering program in the area. Also, the pumping test is often used to estimate radius of influence; it can trigger the inflow or radius of influence. Estimate of the radius of influence using analytical equation mainly independent of discharge/abstraction from the aquifer stands as a preferred choice for the prediction of radius of influence at the quarry/mine pit. There is a strong rationale that policies should be informed by such analytical assessment because it helps us to prevent or minimize negative impacts as part of regulation and pit-mining management and are useful tools for practitioners to design economically efficient and cost-effective in situ groundwater remediation systems, to contain contaminant plumes, to evaluate the surface–subsurface water interaction and to verify numerical models.

A recent trend concerning archaeological research has focused on producing a real-time methodology for 3D digital models as archaeological documentation within the excavation setting. While such methodologies have now firmly been established, what remains is to examine how 3D models can be integrated more fully alongside other forms of archaeological documentation. This work explored one avenue by developing a method that combines the interpretative power of traditional archaeological drawings and the realistic visualisation capacity of 3D digital models. An experiment was initiated during archaeological excavations at Uppåkra, Sweden where photographic data was captured to produce 3D digital models through Photoscan. These models were geospatially located within ESRI’s 3D GIS ArcScene where shapefile editing tools were used to draw overtop of their surfaces in three-dimensions. All drawings closely followed the single context method of drawing, were allotted context numbers, and given descriptive geodatabase attributes. This methodology resulted in the further integration of 3D models alongside other forms of archaeological documentation. The drawings increased the communicative powers of archaeological interpretation by enabling the information to be disseminated in a 3D environment alongside other formats of data that would have otherwise been disconnected in 2D space. Finally, the database attributes permitted the drawings complete integration within the geodatabase, thereby making them available for query and other analytical procedures. Archaeological information is three-dimensional; therefore, archaeologists must begin to approach documentation bearing this in mind. This technique has demonstrated that 3D models are a fluidic form of documentation allowing for accurate preservation of archaeology while enabling new forms of data to be derived all within a limited amount of time. Archaeologists must begin to affect change towards embracing 3D models and their associated applications as a standard tool within the excavator’s toolbox.

A review of fortified places in Northern Central Europe and Scandinavia dated to the Pre-Roman Iron Age. It is shown that only very such places have been investigated, but that the diversity in spite of this is great. In Denmark two fortified villages have been investigated while in most other places the inner space of the fortifications have either not been excavated or did not show signs of settlement of a permanent character. Beside enclosures also a number of cross country barrages  as well as sub marine barrages are known. The implication of the various types of fortifications for our understanding of the Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe is finally discussed.

At graveyards in lowlands, windthrows there are unwished features
since roots of trees might destroy the inventory of the graves. As a result,
pottery assigned to such features is usually ignored and is not taken into
consideration for estimating the number of graves. Such methodology,
from a statistical point of view, is not problematic at sites which consist
of many graves, but it is a big problem in the case of the graveyards which
are marked by poor archaeological sources. Such a situation is typical
for the graveyards in highlands. Consequently, in the following paper,
I would like to show, that the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age graveyards
in mountain regions, with proper digging methods and detailed
studies of the potteries’ taphonomy and technology, might be based
on such features as a source of very valuable information. The following
study, conducted on the urnfield graveyard in Janowice, located
in the Western Carpathians is even more important when one considers
the cultural background of this site. In the researched area we
are dealing with the fusion of cultural traditions of three subgroups
of the Lusatian Culture. The analyzes of the stylistic traditions of ceramic
grave inventories are a very compelling (but surely not sufficient)
factor in describing cultural tradition and transition of past communities
in the Dunajec river valley.

Feminist and postcolonial studies have often criticized Freudian psychoanalysis for staging the analysis of the hysterical, female patient through the metaphor of conquering terra incognita. Freud, in these perspectives, undermines the credibility of her speech by characterizing it as “enigmatic, ungrammatical, disjointed, fragmented and polylingual.” Freud also has been often criticized for employing scientific positivism, whose underlying assumption is that the analyst knows better than the woman/analysand. In recent years, however, the return to Freud has engaged new feminist and postcolonial readings which interpret his text against its historical constraints. Thus, Freud’s Eurocentric worldview appears to be more fragile and less homogeneous as we revisit it today. Moreover, the feminine figure of terra incognita triggers defensive (hysterical) responses from its various explorers: the psychoanalyst, the archeologist and the philologist. This essay offers a reading of Freud’s metaphor of archeology. It uncovers symptoms of fragility and ambivalence underlying the scientific efforts to preserve the distinction between the objective analyst and the hysterical patient, as well as the distinction between modernity and antiquity so central to the disciplines of archeology and philology.

The basis of archaeological knowledge of the past are artifacts and their context. Over the last hundred years has seen a huge shift postexcavation stages of research and evaluation. It is devoted little attention to method field work itself. The quality of the result is primarily influenced by the procedure of field research and ongoing transformations with him. The emphasis on non-destructive methods of research and maximize protection of the archaeological heritage paradoxically leads to unwanted postpone methods of field research into the background of interest.
This book deals with methods of archaeological field work in destructive research and its interconnection with the methods of evaluation. Options for further evaluation are directly affected by the direction of archaeological research. Yield information be directly dependent on the method used field research.
Second part of the text is devoted to the research methodology and documentation of archaeological situations commonly found in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites, and focuses primarily on how it interacts with its own methodology for evaluating archaeological research. Are presented in detail procedures for documentation and evaluation of the stratigraphy.
Text of the third part is devoted to the basic methods of visualization and analysis of spatial data gathered by archaeologists. Shows which data enter into the analysis and how can the different types of data transfer between them. Furthermore, a basic data parameters that define the parameters of the analysis, are presented. Attention is paid to the basic methods of visualization of point and non-point data and advanced calculations interpolating areal density as a spatial parameter. In short, the also refittings and structural analyzes of spatial data, are presented.
Detailed research methodology is presented during the fourth part of the seven model examples, which more or less follow the real research conducted in the field. Keep in mind that every archaeological situation is in some way unique. It is not possible to define in advance the only correct research methodology, and then it carelessly applied to any situation. Unique situations require unique solutions, and there must be seen a major role of archaeological research leader.

The Bourbon tunnels are a valuable evidence of the excavation methods in the eighteenth century. Although a precise line of evolution of the techniques cannot be identified, in the modes of management, and documentation they reflect the personality and the talent of the in- dividual officers in charge for the management. By analyzing the excavation diaries of those officials in charge (Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre, Francesco Rorro, Pierre Bardet de Villeneuve, Karl Weber, Francesco and Pietro La Vega), and other archival documents published in the last forty years, we can today formulate a less negative judgment about their work. Moreover, we need to adopt a historical perspective, and we need to consider their efforts as the first step in the elaboration of archaeology as we conceive it today. The excavations of Amedeo Maiuri, set on a large scale, intercepted the Bourbon tunnels, reclaimed them and, progressively, marginalized them. The tunnels were left visible at the excavation fronts only. The Archaeological Park of Herculaneum is engaged in an action of re- valuation of these evidences as an integral part of the chronological stratification of the Site, also of the cultural contents that it can and must offer to the visitors.Although a precise line of evolution of the techniques cannot be identified, in the modes of management, and documentation they reflect the personality and the talent of the individual officers in charge for the management. By analyzing the excavation diaries of those officials in charge (Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre, Francesco Rorro, Pierre Bardet de Villeneuve, Karl Weber, Francesco and Pietro La Vega), and other archival documents published in the last forty years, we can today formulate a less negative judgment about their work. Moreover, we need to adopt a historical perspective, and we need to consider their efforts as the first step in the elaboration of archaeology as we conceive it today. The excavations of Amedeo Maiuri, set on a large scale, intercepted the Bourbon tunnels, reclaimed them and, progressively, marginalized them. The tunnels were left visible at the excavation fronts only. The Archaeological Park of Herculaneum is engaged in an action of re-valuation of these evidences as an integral part of the chronological stratification of the Site, also of the cultural contents that it can and must offer to the visitors.

While photogrammetry has become popular in archaeology and heritage management as an effective, low-cost method for generating detailed three-dimensional models, it remains to be established that the accuracy of model-derived measurements is sufficient for analytical purposes. Based on an expedient, in-field model processing protocol, we report preliminary results concerning the accuracy of artifact provenience information derived from photogrammetry models of excavation surfaces at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Shuidonggou Locality 2 in China. Error in model-derived provenience can range easily into the centimeter scale; accuracy in some spatial axes are significantly, but weakly, affected by the size of the sampled surface. While the observed error range is larger than thresholds proposed for Palaeolithic excavations, it is arguably acceptable in settings where the analytical demand for provenience precision is lower. We identify possible sources of error and discuss how model accuracy can be improved by additional systematic testing.

The analogical transferring of a technological approach used in Prehistory towards the History of sciences, is a new method for the study of the everyday-ethnographic scientific practices, which uses the analysis of operational sequences (chaînes opératoires) of scientific techniques. The study of excavation techniques is best suited to illustrate this as excavation is a complex sequence of the removal of cuts and fills, surfaces and volumes that brings into play archaeological deposits and the scientific know-how and skills of the archaeologists.
Using the archives of André Leroi-Gourhan’s excavation field-school at Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne, France, 1946-1963), we aim to present a case study, which we find relevant for three reasons. Firstly, it is an important source of evidence concerning the intellectual and social complexity of humans during the transition towards the Upper Palaeolithic. Secondly, it was a locus of methodological innovation, particularly in relation to the development of excavation techniques of “habitation surfaces”. Thirdly, it provides an overview of the unreleased archives, the data remaining largely unpublished.
Our case study is based on the analysis of documentation relating to the first excavation campaign at the grotte du Renne during the summer of 1949. This body of work includes a series of written documents that pertain to the entire research cycle: from administrative files and personal correspondence, working papers such as hand-written field journals and preliminary campaign reports, to the final reports and drafts of scientific papers. It also contains an ensemble of visual documents such as field-sketches, stratigraphic profiles, and artistic perspectives, as well as a series of photographic takes and film recordings of the daily flow of activities on the field.
In the last three decades, the archaeological record of the grotte du Renne has been entangled in a scientific debate on the behavioural and cognitive capacities of the last Neanderthal. It represents one of the exceptional sites where fossil remains were directly linked to personal ornaments, lithic, bone, and antler technologies of “Upper Palaeolithic-look”,and mammoth tusk and stone slab structures. Nevertheless, scholars question the integrity of such a correlation on the grounds of an alleged incoherence concerning the reliability of the stratigraphic levels and the 3D recording of vestiges on the living surfaces.
The answer to the question on the integrity of the archaeological record of the grotte du Renne lies beyond the simple evaluation of the collections and other data under the light of current scientific criteria. We are dealing with a corpus of data produced by a scientific worldview dating to nearly a century ago within the socio-historical context of post- Second World War France. In order to address such questions this research proposes a historical re-contextualization of the first excavation campaign at the grotte du Renne.
Reconstructing the excavation sequence (chaîne opératoire de la fouille) requires analysis of the indirect traces of the excavation’s technical performance recorded in the documents (e.g. a photographic take of a stratigraphic profile analysed not as a direct source of information of the sediments but as an indirect testimony of excavation’s installations, tools, procedures, etc.). This analysis builds up a detailed story of the excavation almost on a daily basis as well as the plan and 3D models of the entire sequence of operations. These constitute in turn the empirical source for the construction of a comprehension of the operations from the point of view of the excavators. Using this empirical basis, we are able to interpret and to define the scientific goals of the excavators as well as the methodological aims that were developed to attain them, while taking stock of the historical significance of their work within the comparative framework of the period. Effectively, the 1950’s and 1960’s were fundamental in revising the chrono-cultural classifications of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic lithic industries. The “bataille périgordienne” was brought to a head by a multiplicity of traditions originating from multiple local and foreign sources that indicated, for instance, a local development of anatomically Modern Humans from a Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition source, whilst denying the capacity of invention of Upper Palaeolithic lithic technologies to the last Neanderthal.
Our micro-historical analysis of the part played by Leroi-Gourhan’s field-school at Arcy-sur-Cure, underlines its role in the postulation of Neanderthal behavioural and cognitive modernity by proving his socio-cultural complexity. The development of recording techniques of “habitation structures” was one of the innovative aspects of Leroi-Gourhan’s school. The professionalization of excavation and the construction of alliances amongst local amateurs was the counterpart of Leroi-Gourhan’s strategy in order to construct a new and solid institutional niche for prehistoric archaeology in the academic sphere during the post War years to the 1960’s, which culminated in the development of modern “ethnographic excavation” techniques. This was one of the unforeseen developments of the Arcy-sur-Cure experience at the excavation-field school of Pincevent (Seine-et-Marne from 1964 onwards).

In recent years the gap between archaeological theory and practice has been closing, but although there have been calls for ‘reflexivity’, there has been little critical examination of its meanings. Proposed reflexive methodologies still perpetuate many traditional hierarchies of power,and fail to consider the creative nature of excavation and post-excavation. Much archaeological work in Britain, Europe and North America also takes place within the commercial sphere, and post-processual ideas cannot advance archaeological practice unless they can be implemented in contract archaeology. This paper examines theoretical considerations of reflexivity, representation, subjectivity and sensual engagement to highlight their relevance to everyday archaeological practice, and their political potential to undermine existing hierarchies of power within commercial archaeology.

In the year 2006, the hamman of Churriana de la Vega (Granada, Spain), a XVth Century Listed Building, was for the first time the subject of archaeological study. An archival and historiographical research was followed by the stratigraphic analysis and  excavation of the building. The information recovered will hopefully be useful for future restoration projects.

Ostia is one of the most extensively excavated cities in the Roman world and we are still analysing the ruins today. The ruins were excavated on a large-scale up to 1941, but were not documented in a scientific way. This has meant, in particuar, that the processes involved in the transition of Ostia to a late antique city (from the 3rd to the 5th c.) are still largely unknown. The idea put forward by Ostia's most famous excavator, Guido Calza, that Ostia's 'end' and irreversible decay began in the late 3rd c., had still influenced scholars until recently. The author's research projects from 2001-2006 show that this is only true for certain areas of Ostia. Thanks to city-wide surveys and keyhole cleaning-excavations, the abandonment of predominantly commercial quarters can be verified from the 3rd c. onwards by the existence of blocked streets, ruins and rubbish dumps in these parts of the city. Yet, at the same time, we see the concentrated rebuilding of Ostia's secular infrastructure in the 4th and early 5th c., including all major public buildings along the Decumanus and the creation of new 'pedestrian-zones', with the maintenance of both continuing into the later 5th c. at least.