Equine Behavior

Equine-Human Relations –a shift in perspectives

• From a functional to an emotional/relational relationship/partnership
• From object to subject
• From un-equal to equal
• From non-sentient to sentient
• From species to individual
• From parts to whole
• From owned to agency
• From obey to choose etc.

This chapter explores how representatives of the thoroughbred racing industry conceptualise thoroughbred welfare, what their ethical underpinnings are, how this contrasts with welfare conceptions expressed by thoroughbred protection advocates and what this means for thoroughbred welfare. The research presented here is part of a larger study that investigates the future for horses in thoroughbred racing and the sustainability of welfare concepts. Nine industry representatives from the US and Australia, and seven representatives of thoroughbred advocacy organisations from the US, Australia and Great Britain, have been interviewed. Industry informants characterise welfare mainly in terms of basic health and functioning. The welfare dimensions of thoroughbred agency, integrity and telos are largely ignored. Three main groups of welfare issues emerge: the use and potential overuse of drugs and medication; injuries and death on the racetrack; and the aftercare of thoroughbreds exiting the industry. It appears the industry pursues three objectives with their welfare initiatives: to address only the most egregious welfare violations of industry practices on and off the track; to influence the public’s perception of the industry and its treatment of the thoroughbred; and to focus on productivity, efficiency and optimisation of the commodifiable characteristics of the thoroughbred. It is not likely that this will result in net gains for thoroughbred welfare.

Recumbent horses are fractious, frustratingly difficult, and very dangerous to handle. Even dead horses represent a significant challenge to manipulate for staff safety due to their great weight and
size. Safe manipulation requires knowledge of anatomy and physiology to prevent injury when emplacing webbing or slings, as well as proper personnel positioning. Technical Large Animal Emergency Rescue

Humans use food rewards as positive reinforcement for training horses, but there is little evidence to show that human interaction (scratching or patting) has reward value or if domestic horses perceive human touch as social bonding. Most equine training is based on negative reinforcement, but food is a known reward for training through positive reinforcement. This study looked at how horses perceive human interaction as a form of positive reward by examining whether scratching and patting can serve as a reward for a behavior and how this compares to known rewards (treats) based on horses’ ability to use symbols to show preferences. A secondary purpose of this study was to explore behaviors before, during, and after the choice test and code changes based on known equine ethology and determine any correlations between known individual histories of horses, their behavior, and any differences in preferences for human interactions based on whether the human was familiar versus unfamiliar. For the quantitative component, the study counted the number of times each horse touched each target (touch counts) and behaviors were recorded with use of a GoPro Hero camera. The touch counts for each symbol for the last trial were compared using Observation Oriented Modelling (OOM), a non-parametric approach to analyze patterns in data, and the behaviors were coded and compared to known behaviors in equine ethology. Post-hoc analysis of final touch counts resulted in a pattern of fewer than 2 touches for both scratches and pats for most horses and consistently ten touches (the maximum) for treats for all horses. Post-hoc pattern analysis resulted in a Percent Correct Classification (PCC) index of 93.94 (c-value <.001) for the familiar human and 87.88 (c-value <.001) for the unfamiliar researcher suggesting that, given the study conditions, all horses in this study showed preference for treats over human contact, regardless of handling or training histories. All horses also displayed arousal behaviors during the study suggesting the study, and potentially the novel food component, induced an arousal response.

This chapter will give you a brief introduction to the horse as a biological being. I have tried to include facts that are not commonly found in textbooks about horses, but help in advancing the welfare and well-being of horses and deepen the understanding of who the horse is, both from a biological and evolutionary perspective.

This study reviews ethological literature and the views of working riders on the manners in which horses communicate nonverbally; explores social-scientific paradigms of human nonverbal communication as presented in the academic discipline of Communication Studies; and outlines crucial ways in which horse-horse, horse-human, and human-horse communication can be viewed using paradigms for human-human nonverbal communication. With this in place, I explore and present photographs of what I have termed horses’ ability for “corporeal synchronicity”—the ability to move in exact, foot-for-foot synchrony with one another—and the meaning this may hold for both human and horse.

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Some 2200 years ago, people belonging to the Pazyryk archaeological culture gathered together to bury their dead in mounds on high plateaus in the remote Altai Mountains in the center of Asia. Entire horses—and often groups of horses—were sacrificed at these funerals and interred with the men and women, presumed leaders and commoners alike. By employing an human-animal studies approach to these burials, in this chapter I digress from the archaeological position which views nonhuman animals as calories or constructs to one which includes animal others as impactful upon human social realities.

After grounding this approach in multidisciplinary theory, I bring into the discussion facets of horses, and of human-horse relationships, through both ethological studies of horses and an inside auto-ethnographic research strategy which uses my position within the context of those I shall term working riders: riders who live with and care for horses and possess the ability and knowledge to school them to be ridden. I touch on aspects of human-horse intersubjectivities and situate particular elements of the Pazyryk horse burials. I then attempt to phenomenologically recreate the actual killing of the Pazyryk horse from the perspective of the humans—and the horses—and suggest some mental and emotional processes that might have caused certain behaviors of both at the burial ceremony. Finally I reflect on the viability of creating relational archaeologies of human-animal interactions which allow for both essentialist and constructionist perspectives.

Prior interpretations of the tattoos of nonhuman animals etched upon the preserved human bodies from the Pazyryk archaeological culture of Inner Asia have focused on solely human-generated meanings. This article utilizes an ethnoarchaeological approach to reassess these tattoos,
by analogizing the nature and possibilities of human-ridden horse intersubjectivities in the present with those of the past. As enlightened by people who live with horses, including the author, the process of learning to ride can be seen as an interspecies apprenticeship process, where both humans and horses pass along social knowledge as thoughtful actors with defined roles. From this perspective, the horse tattoos are presented as polysemic materializations of the
bonds between particular Pazyryk horses and people, of blended identities, and of cosmological values related to time, memory, and belonging. The article concludes that exploring smaller-scale
human-nonhuman animal interactions in the present allows for fresh interpretations of similar interactions in the past and provides a means for archaeology to move beyond the objectification of animals as sets of resources or symbols.

A Preliminary Investigation into Noseband Tightness and Oral Soft Tissue Damage in Elite and Non-Elite Horses

Perruccio, F.; Scofield, R.

Oxford Brookes University

Introduction: Growing concern in recent years regarding excessively tightened nosebands in horses across all disciplines has prompted increasing amounts of research. Various studies have found that tight nosebands may impair welfare by affecting facial nerve tissue, vascular perfusion, facial skin temperature, heart rate, heart rate variability, eye temperature, and the expression of post-inhibitory behaviours (McGreevy et al. 2012; Casey et al. 2013; Fenner et al. 2016). The study aimed to determine the relationship between noseband tightness and oral soft tissue damage in elite and non-elite horses.

Materials and Methods:16 horses of mixed age (mean 13.25), breed, discipline (dressage n=5, showjumping n=6, eventing n=1, leisure n=2, riding school n=2), work duration (mean 6.7 years), and work level (elite n=7, non-elite n=9) were used in this study. Non-elite horses included hackers and leisure horses while elite horses were those in competition or training, or had been in competition within the last 2 years. The first seven horses resided at El Pulté Equestrian Country Club and the remaining nine horses at La Ronda in Jocotenango, Guatemala. All horses had different owners except for 3 at El Pulté. Palpation data were collected by rinsing the mouth of leftover food or hay with a 400mL syringe of water on both sides. Using the index and middle finger, soft tissue of the rostral aspect of the mouth was palpated. Tissue integrity was then scored on an independently devised scale ranging from zero to five (see results in table 1). All dental examinations were performed by dentist and veterinarian Guillermo Alvarez and all photographs were taken with a Canon EOS Rebel T3i EF-S automatic camera with an 18-55mm lens, except for samples 13, 14, 15, and 16, whose images were captured on an iPhone 6s. Obtaining photographic evidence involved the administration of 5mL of Xylamed (xylazine) 100mg/mL as a sedative to allow full dental examination. Noseband tightness was assessed by having the owner, groom or general handler and tighten the noseband of the most often used bridle (used three or more times per week) on the horse. Once it was verified that the tightness of the noseband matched the imprints in the leather to reduce variability, the ISES taper gauge was used to determine which category the noseband tightness fell within (1. taper gauge cannot be inserted; 2. can be inserted up to the first ‘finger’ mark; 3. can be inserted up to the second ‘finger’ mark; 4. can be inserted past the second ‘finger’ mark). Due to the need of professional supervision by Dr. Alvarez, one set of data were collected per horse. Data were analysed using Minitab17©.

Results: Statistical analysis using Chi-squared goodness of fit showed non-significance for noseband tightness (X2=6, df=15, P=0.98) and palpation score (X2=14.8092, df=15, P=0.465). There was a significant difference (X2=35, df=15, P=0.002) between the expected and observed values for image score. 18% of the cohort scored one (irritated, tender tissue or old scar tissue) and 6% scored two (minor visual or palpable scar tissue). Additionally, Pearson’s correlation coefficient produced an r value of 0.05, non-significant (p=0.84) for noseband (median = 2, mean = 2) and image score (median = 0.5, mean = 0.8). 

Discussion and Conclusions: While the relationship between noseband tightness and image score was non-significant, the high level of soft tissue damage raises concerns regarding potential effects of tight nosebands. Further research should undertake a larger longitudinal cohort study of naïve horses undergoing different training programs to measure both short and long-term effects of noseband tightness.

Acknowledgements: Many thanks to Dr. Guillermo Alvarez in helping collect photographic evidence and overseeing all procedures.

References: 
Casey, V., McGreevy, P., O'Muiris, E. and Doherty, O. 2013. A preliminary report on estimating the pressures exerted by a crank noseband in the horse. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 8(6), 479-484.
Fenner, K., Yoon, S., White, P., Starling, M. and McGreevy, P., 2016. The Effect of Noseband Tightening on Horses’ Behavior, Eye Temperature, and Cardiac Responses. Public Library of Science ONE, 11(5), 0154179.
McGreevy, P., Warren-Smith, A. and Guisard, Y., 2012. The effect of double bridles and jaw-clamping crank nosebands on temperature of eyes and facial skin of horses. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 7(3), 142-148.

Keywords: equine, noseband, welfare, oral soft tissue damage

A Preliminary Investigation into Noseband Tightness and Oral Soft Tissue Damage in Elite and Non-Elite Horses

Perruccio, F.; Scofield, R.

Oxford Brookes University in partnership with Abingdon and Witney College

Introduction: Growing concern in recent years regarding excessively tightened nosebands in horses across all disciplines has prompted increasing amounts of research. Various studies have found that tight nosebands may impair welfare by affecting facial nerve tissue, vascular perfusion, facial skin temperature, heart rate, heart rate variability, eye temperature, and the expression of post-inhibitory behaviours (McGreevy et al. 2012; Casey et al. 2013; Fenner et al. 2016). The study aimed to determine the relationship between noseband tightness and oral soft tissue damage in elite and non-elite horses.

Materials and Methods: 16 horses of mixed age (mean 13.25), breed, discipline, work duration (mean 6.7 years), and work level (elite versus non-elite) in Guatemala were used in this study. All photographs were taken on a Canon EOS Rebel T3i EF-S automatic camera with an 18-55mm lens, apart from 4 horses whose images were captured on an iPhone 6s. All horses underwent oral palpation of soft tissues of the mouth, assessment of noseband tightness using the ISES (International Society for Equitation Science) taper gauge, and photography of the inside of the mouth. Palpation results and images were then scored on a scale of 1-5. Noseband tightness was categorized into 4 classes. Data were analysed using Minitab17©.

Materials and Methods:16 horses of mixed age (mean 13.25), breed, discipline (dressage n=5, showjumping n=6, eventing n=1, leisure n=2, riding school n=2), work duration (mean 6.7 years), and work level (elite n=7, non-elite n=9) were used in this study. Non-elite horses included hackers and leisure horses while elite horses were those in competition or training, or had been in competition within the last 2 years. The first seven horses resided at El Pulté Equestrian Country Club and the remaining nine horses at La Ronda in Jocotenango, Guatemala. All horses had different owners except for 3 at El Pulté. Palpation data were collected by rinsing the mouth of leftover food or hay with a 400mL syringe of water on both sides. Using the index and middle finger, soft tissue of the rostral aspect of the mouth was palpated. Tissue integrity was then scored on an independently devised scale ranging from zero to five (see results in table 1). All dental examinations were performed by dentist and veterinarian Guillermo Alvarez and all photographs were taken with a Canon EOS Rebel T3i EF-S automatic camera with an 18-55mm lens, except for samples 13, 14, 15, and 16, whose images were captured on an iPhone 6s. Obtaining photographic evidence involved the administration of 5mL of Xylamed (xylazine) 100mg/mL as a sedative to allow full dental examination. Noseband tightness was assessed by having the owner, groom or general handler  and tighten the noseband of the most often used bridle (used three or more times per week) on the horse. Once it was verified that the tightness of the noseband matched the imprints in the leather to reduce variability, the ISES taper gauge was used to determine which category the noseband tightness fell within (1. taper gauge cannot be inserted; 2. can be inserted up to the first ‘finger’ mark; 3. can be inserted up to the second ‘finger’ mark; 4. can be inserted past the second ‘finger’ mark). Due to the need of professional supervision by Dr. Alvarez, one set of data were collected per house.
Results: Statistical analysis using Chi-squared goodness of fit showed non-significance for noseband tightness (X2=6, df=15, P=0.98; see distribution in table 2) and palpation score (X2=14.8092, df=15, P=0.465; see distribution in table 3). There was a significant difference (X2=35, df=15, P=0.002) between the expected and observed values for image score. 18% of the cohort scored one (irritated, tender tissue or old scar tissue) and 6% scored two (minor visual or palpable scar tissue). Additionally, Pearson’s correlation coefficient produced an r value of 0.05, non-significant (p=0.84) for noseband and image score. A Friedman test found noseband data when compared with elite versus non-elite were found to be parametric (p> 0.05).

Discussion and Conclusions: While the relationship between noseband tightness and image score was non-significant, the high level of soft tissue damage raises concerns regarding potential effects of tight nosebands. Further research should undertake a larger longitudinal cohort study of naïve horses undergoing different training programs to measure both short and long-term effects of noseband tightness.

Acknowledgements: Many thanks to Dr. Guillermo Alvarez in helping collect photographic evidence and overseeing all procedures.

References: 
Casey, V., McGreevy, P., O'Muiris, E. and Doherty, O. 2013. A preliminary report on estimating the pressures exerted by a crank noseband in the horse. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 8(6), 479-484.

Fenner, K., Yoon, S., White, P., Starling, M. and McGreevy, P., 2016. The Effect of Noseband Tightening on Horses’ Behavior, Eye Temperature, and Cardiac Responses. Public Library of Science ONE, 11(5), 0154179.

McGreevy, P., Warren-Smith, A. and Guisard, Y., 2012. The effect of double bridles and jaw-clamping crank nosebands on temperature of eyes and facial skin of horses. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 7(3), 142-148.

Keywords: equine, noseband, welfare, oral soft tissue damage

Recent research has shown that domestic dogs are particularly good at determining the focus of human attention, often outperforming chimpanzees and handreared wolves. It has been suggested that the close evolutionary relationship between humans and dogs has led to the development of this ability; however, very few other domestic species have been studied. We tested the ability of 36 domestic horses to discriminate between an attentive and inattentive person in determining whom to approach for food. The cues provided were body orientation, head orientation or whether the experimenters' eyes were open or closed. A fourth, mixed condition was included where the attentive person stood with their body facing away from the subjects but their head turned towards the subject while the inattentive person stood with their body facing the subject but their head turned away. Horses chose the attentive person significantly more often using the body cue, head cue, and eye cue but not the mixed cue. This result suggests that domestic horses are highly sensitive to human attentional cues, including gaze. The possible role of evolutionary and environmental factors in the development of this ability is discussed.

We hypothesized that in an open environment, horses cope with a series of challenges in their interactions with human beings. If the horse is not physically constrained and is free to move in a small enclosure, it has additional options regarding its behavioral response to the trainer. The aim of our study was to evaluate the influence of 2 different training strategies on the horse's behavioral response to human stimuli. In all, 12 female ponies were randomly divided into the following 2 groups: group A, wherein horses were trained in a small enclosure (where indicators of the level of attention and behavioral response were used to modulate the training pace and the horse's control over its response to the stimuli provided by the trainer) and group B, wherein horses were trained in a closed environment (in which the trainer's actions left no room for any behavioral response except for the one that was requested). Horses' behavior toward the human subject and their heart rate during 2 standardized behavioral tests were used to compare the responses of the 2 groups. Results indicated that the horses in group A appeared to associate human actions with a positive experience, as highlighted by the greater degree of explorative behavior toward human beings shown by these horses during the tests. The experience of the horses during training may have resulted in different evaluations of the person, as a consequence of the human's actions during training; therefore, it seems that horses evaluate human beings on daily relationship experiences.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues.

This study compares the behaviour of the mule (Equus asinus × Equus caballus) with that of its parent species to assess the effects of hybridization on cognition. Six mules, six ponies (E. caballus) and six donkeys (E. asinus) were given a two choice visual discrimination learning task. Each session consisted of 12 trials and pass level was reached when subjects chose the correct stimulus for at least 9 out of the 12 trials in three consecutive sessions. A record was made of how many pairs each subject learnt over 25 sessions. The mules’ performance was significantly better than that of either of the parent species (Kruskal-Wallis: Hx = 8.11, P = 0.017). They were also the only group to learn enough pairs to be able to show a successive reduction in the number of sessions required to reach criterion level. This study provides the first empirical evidence that the improved characteristics of mules may be extended from physical attributes to cognitive function.

Barn fires detrimentally affect equine recreational enthusiasts, horse owners, and practitioners regardless of geographic location or economic conditions. As the number one local emergency expected to affect agricultural facilities, fires kill more horses than any other type of disaster. Strategies and equipment to mitigate their effects are available but underutilized; the effectiveness of detection, alert, suppression, and immediate response systems is further emphasized by appropriate design, management, planning, and emergency drills.

This study compares the behaviour of the mule (Equus asinus £ Equus caballus) with that of its parent species to assess the eVects of hybridization on cognition. Six mules, six ponies (E. caballus) and six donkeys (E. asinus) were given a two choice visual discrimination learning task. Each session consisted of 12 trials and pass level was reached when subjects chose the correct stimulus for at least 9 out of the 12 trials in three consecutive sessions. A record was made of how many pairs each subject learnt over 25 sessions. The mules' performance was signiWcantly better than that of either of the parent species (Kruskal-Wallis: H x = 8.11, P = 0.017). They were also the only group to learn enough pairs to be able to show a successive reduction in the number of sessions required to reach criterion level. This study provides the Wrst empirical evidence that the improved characteristics of mules may be extended from physical attributes to cognitive function.

Resumo: Este trabalho descreve um estudo sobre a força tolerada pelos cavalos no uso de 3 tipos de bridões e 2 cabeçadas bitless, onde o objetivo é fornecer dados a respeito do quanto de força é aceitável que o cavaleiro utilize nas rédeas sem causar efeitos negativos sobre o animal. Para esse estudo foram utilizados 8 cavalos da modalidade de salto, onde os dados foram coletados com o uso de uma balança de mão conectada as rédeas, e através dela foi mensurado a força média e a máxima que cada cavalo executou por conta própria ao tentar pegar o alimento ofertado. Já nos testes em pista foi avaliado a força média e máxima que os equitadores exerciam para controlar os animais e, além destes dados, também foi descrito o comportamento dos cavalos ao longo do treino. Os resultados obtidos mostram que as cabeçadas bitless tiveram uma alta tolerância em relação aos bridrões, e que a faixa de força média exercida pelos equitadores durante o treino foi similar a força média que cada animal marcou durante a avaliação do grupo das embocaduras, mas em contra partida também foi observado que quase todos os animais demonstraram alguma reação negativa em resposta a pressão exercida sobre as rédeas durante a avaliação na pista.
Palavras chaves: Hipismo, rédeas, cavalo, bem-estar, tolerância.

Abstract: This work describes a study where wo conduced an assessment of the strength tolerated by the horses with the use of 3 types of bridles and 2 bitless bridles types, where the objective is to provide data about of the force is acceptable that the rider uses in the reins without cause negative effects on the animal. In this study, 8 jumping horses were used, the data were collected using a hand scale connected as reins, where was measured the average and maximum strength that each horse executed on his own when trying to get the offered food. In the tests on the arena was evaluated the average and maximum force that the riders exert to control the animals, and besides these data was also described the behavior of animals during training. The obtained results showing how the bitless pieces were highly tolerated compared to bits, and that the average strength range exerted by the riders during training was similar to the average strength that each animal displayed during the mouth group evaluation. However, it was also observed that almost all animals showed some negative reaction due to the pressure exerted on the reins during in arena evaluation.

Keywords: Equestrianism, reins, horse, welfare, tolerance.

In social species, yawning behaviour is considered to serve as social cue. In particular, contagious yawning  seems  to  reflect  an  empathic  relation  between  individuals in  human  and  non-human primates, and probably in dogs. In horses, highly social animals, yawning has been explored only in isolation, with results related to stereotypic behaviours, psychological stress or physical diseases.
This is an exploratory analysis of the social modulation of yawning behaviour in the domestic horse. The study was conducted on a herd of 5 males and 3 females, living in semi-free ranging conditions at  a  rescue  center  in  Italy  (IHP).  From  10  hours  of  video-recordings,  89  yawning  events were collected: 45 spontaneous events, defined as the condition where A yawns while B is close to A but does not yawn, and 44 events apparently derived from contagion, defined as the condition where B yawns within a 4 minutes time-window from the yawn of an individual A. The two kind of yawning events  seem  to  occur  a  t  random  (p>0.46,  One-way  Anova),  even  between  affiliate  individuals (‘friends’; p>1.00, One-way Anova), suggesting that contagious yawning may be absent in domestic horses. Nevertheless, social interactions (grooming, body contact, aggression) and yawns seem to be reciprocally influenced. Interactions between friends preceding a yawn event induce an increase in the number of yawns during a sequence (p>0.001, vs p>0.29 in non-friends; runs test). After a yawn event, interactions do not increase (p>0.38, One-way Anova), but they are nevertheless more frequent  between  friends  (p>0.001,  One-way  Anova).  The  act  of  yawning  seems  to  affect  the immediate social behaviour of the yawner, that switches from a passive to an interacting condition, and vice versa (p<0.03, c-score), or it moves closer or narrower to other individuals (p<0.001, cscore). These preliminary data support a social modulation of yawning behaviour in the domestic horse, that seems related with affiliative relations between subjects. Further analysis are needed to describe this behaviour in domestic horses and to assess its role in the species' social dynamics.

Is everybody aware of the fact that a wrong saddle or a poor saddle fit can be dangerous for the horse welfare and affect its performance?
Siamo tutti consapevoli del fatto che una sella sbagliata o inadatta può essere dannosa per il benessere del cavallo e influire negativamente sulla sua performance?

The Sable Island herd of wild horses is the only completely 'unmanaged' wild herd in North America. Residing for the past hundred years on Sable Island – a very long (42 kilometers) and slender (1.5 kilometers wide), crescent shaped sandbar off the coast of Atlantic Canada – this four hundred-strong herd lives, breathes, mates, dies and is born wild. In an unbroken cycle of natural equine life-style, the Sable Island horses express a reality that is seldom seen anywhere on the globe. Since the wild herds of North America proliferated in the wake of the conquistadors, such a sight as that captured by Garside’s lens is truly rare. Owing to the stringent restrictions in place that allow only very limited access to the wildlife preserve that Sable Island has become, few people will actually ever have first hand experience of witnessing these incredible creatures in their phenomenal, elemental setting. Debra Garside is one of those very privileged few, vouchsafed the opportunity to develop such a relationship with the island’s landscape and wildlife over the course of her many visits there.

Individual recognition is considered a complex process and, although it is believed to be widespread across animal taxa, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this ability are poorly understood. An essential feature of individual recognition in humans is that it is cross-modal, allowing the matching of current sensory cues to identity with stored information about that specific individual from other modalities. Here, we use a cross-modal expectancy violation paradigm to provide a clear and systematic demonstration of cross-modal individual recognition in a nonhuman animal: the domestic horse. Subjects watched a herd member being led past them before the individual went of view, and a call from that or a different associate was played from a loudspeaker positioned close to the point of disappearance. When horses were shown one associate and then the call of a different associate was played, they responded more quickly and looked significantly longer in the direction of the call than when the call matched the herd member just seen, an indication that the incongruent combination violated their expectations. Thus, horses appear to possess a cross-modal representation of known individuals containing unique auditory and visual/olfactory information. Our paradigm could provide a powerful way to study individual recognition across a wide range of species.

When we talk about horses in equine assisted therapies, we are more often concerned with the negative impact meeting clients and dealing with their emotional hardship can have on them, than with the positive impact it can have for their welfare and well-being.

To thrive, a horse needs (besides having his biological and social needs catered for) to feel a sense of agency. Which means interacting with his environment to learn more about it, to be able to handle it better,  to develop his skills and master and solve the problems he encounters, to meet the future increasingly equipped.

Horses' natural environment is both complex and ever changing, so horses need to adopt and respond to this. They develop competencies, gathering cognitive and behavioral tools and strategies to meet novel challenges. They constantly need to learn new things and thereby  acquire behavioral flexibility.

Horses interact and communicate with conspecifics as with individuals from other species within their home ecosystem, and take part in complex social dynamics, and practice observational learning. Problem solving, exploration and play are important components in obtaining agency and competence. A horse needs to encounter challenges containing a balanced, useful level of stress – eustress. This puts him into a learning and growth mode and keeps him intensely engaged through focused attention and sustained concentration, leading to  a positive mood. By initiating and maintaining cycles of cognitive and behavioral effort he experience a meaningful state of being.

So, agency makes horses happier and psychologically and physiologically healthier. Play, problem solving and exploration improve physical endurance and sensorimotor coordination and increase neural connections – which is the same as to say it helps the horse to develop behavioral plasticity and increase adaptability.

For horses in captivity, one of the biggest challenges they meet in life is – humans.

If a horse develops more understanding of humans, will this understanding provide him  with a higher quality of life? Can he learn about humans, to expand on his human competence? Is it a challenge for him to do so? Will it also give him more agency in his life to do so?

To meet a diverse range of people, working to solve social interaction problems, to take part in playful activities that contain problem solving and exploration and to initiate and maintain cognitive and behavioral efforts, will improve equine welfare and well-being. For this, monitored and ethically conducted equine assisted therapies can be perfect.

Individual recognition is considered a complex process and, although it is believed to be widespread across animal taxa, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this ability are poorly understood. An essential feature of individual recognition in humans is that it is cross-modal, allowing the matching of current sensory cues to identity with stored information about that specific individual from other modalities. Here, we use a cross-modal expectancy violation paradigm to provide a clear and systematic demonstration of cross-modal individual recognition in a nonhuman animal: the domestic horse. Subjects watched a herd member being led past them before the individual went of view, and a call from that or a different associate was played from a loudspeaker positioned close to the point of disappearance. When horses were shown one associate and then the call of a different associate was played, they responded more quickly and looked significantly longer in the direction of the call than when the call matched the herd member just seen, an indication that the incongruent combination violated their expectations. Thus, horses appear to possess a cross-modal representation of known individuals containing unique auditory and visual/olfactory information. Our paradigm could provide a powerful way to study individual recognition across a wide range of species.

This study compares the behaviour of the mule (Equus asinus £ Equus caballus) with that of its parent species to assess the eVects of hybridization on cognition. Six mules, six ponies (E. caballus) and six donkeys (E. asinus) were given a two choice visual discrimination learning task. Each session consisted of 12 trials and pass level was reached when subjects chose the correct stimulus for at least 9 out of the 12 trials in three consecutive sessions. A record was made of how many pairs each subject learnt over 25 sessions. The mules' performance was signiWcantly better than that of either of the parent species (Kruskal-Wallis: H x = 8.11, P = 0.017). They were also the only group to learn enough pairs to be able to show a successive reduction in the number of sessions required to reach criterion level. This study provides the Wrst empirical evidence that the improved characteristics of mules may be extended from physical attributes to cognitive function.

Individual recognition is considered a complex process and, although it is believed to be widespread across animal taxa, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this ability are poorly understood. An essential feature of individual recognition in humans is that it is cross-modal, allowing the matching of current sensory cues to identity with stored information about that specific individual from other modalities. Here, we use a cross-modal expectancy violation paradigm to provide a clear and systematic demonstration of cross-modal individual recognition in a nonhuman animal: the domestic horse. Subjects watched a herd member being led past them before the individual went of view, and a call from that or a different associate was played from a loudspeaker positioned close to the point of disappearance. When horses were shown one associate and then the call of a different associate was played, they responded more quickly and looked significantly longer in the direction of the call than when the call matched the herd member just seen, an indication that the incongruent combination violated their expectations. Thus, horses appear to possess a cross-modal representation of known individuals containing unique auditory and visual/olfactory information. Our paradigm could provide a powerful way to study individual recognition across a wide range of species.