Equine Biomechanics

Modern pressure plates (PP) could be an alternative to traditional force plates (FP) for quantitative equine gait analysis, thereby providing the clinician with objective data on the horse's gait while unravelling the loading of different regions of the hoof during the stance phase. The aim of this study was to determine whether a stand-alone PP allows reliable measurement of gait kinetics, compared to simultaneously recorded FP variables. Six sound Warmblood horses were walked and trotted over a combined PP and FP system for collection of a set of five valid kinetic measurements for each forelimb. A measurement was considered valid if the horse was moving in a straight line at a constant pace while gait velocity was within a preset range and the hoof fully contacted the plate surface.

Recumbent horses are fractious, frustratingly difficult, and very dangerous to handle. Even dead horses represent a significant challenge to manipulate for staff safety due to their great weight and
size. Safe manipulation requires knowledge of anatomy and physiology to prevent injury when emplacing webbing or slings, as well as proper personnel positioning. Technical Large Animal Emergency Rescue

The equine foot has a specific conformation (shape) that provides maximum biomechanical efficiency. Biomechanical efficiency allows the foot to withstand, accept, absorb, dissipate and transmit loading weight bearing forces in a manner that offers the greatest protection to the horse. This principle implies that there is some combination of foot size, foot shape, wall length and angles that make the foot an ideal shock absorbing, weight-bearing structure. It is the proper combination of these variables are said to constitute what has been described as the properly balanced foot. However, there are currently several conflicting hoof balance reference systems commonly utilised and what constitutes ideal balance has been the subject of great debate for many years. One goal of the research was to investigate the principle of equal geometric proportions and dependentcy on factors such as foot-type and environmental conditions. By utilising a standardised trimming protocol and a hoof mapping system to collect measurement data based on proportionality of the bearing border length the purpose of this study was, partly, to verify whether a commonly used theory of hoof balance, firstly described by Duckett, is achieved. Secondly to determine whether geometric proportions are equivalent following trimming, thereby achieving hoof balance.

Horse racing is a multi-billion-dollar industry that has raised welfare concerns due to injured and euthanized animals. Whilst the cause of musculoskeletal injuries that lead to horse morbidity and mortality is multifactorial, pre-existing pathologies, increased speeds and substrate of the racecourse are likely contributors to foot disease. Horse hooves have the ability to naturally deform during locomotion and dissipate locomotor stresses, yet farriery approaches are utilised to increase performance and protect hooves from wear. Previous studies have assessed the effect of different shoe designs on locomotor performance; however, no biomechanical study has hitherto measured the effect of horseshoes on the stresses of the foot skeleton in vivo. This preliminary study introduces a novel methodology combining three-dimensional data from biplanar radiography with inverse dynamics methods and finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the effect of a stainless steel shoe on the function of a Thoroughbred horse's forefoot during walking. Our preliminary results suggest that the stainless steel shoe shifts craniocaudal, mediolateral and vertical GRFs at mid-stance. We document a similar pattern of flexion-extension in the PIP (pastern) and DIP (coffin) joints between the unshod and shod conditions, with slight variation in rotation angles throughout the stance phase. For both conditions, the PIP and DIP joints begin in a flexed posture and extend over the entire stance phase. At mid-stance, small differences in joint angle are observed in the PIP joint, with the shod condition being more extended than the unshod horse, whereas the DIP joint is extended more in the unshod than the shod condition. We also document that the DIP joint extends more than the PIP after mid-stance and until the end of the stance in both conditions. Our FEA analysis, conducted solely on the bones, shows increased von Mises and Maximum principal stresses on the forefoot phalanges in the shod condition at mid-stance, consistent with the tentative conclusion that a steel shoe might increase mechanical loading. However, because of our limited sample size none of these apparent differences have been tested for statistical significance. Our preliminary study illustrates how the shoe may influence the dynamics and mechanics of a Thoroughbred horse's forefoot during slow walking, but more research is needed to quantify the effect of the shoe on the equine forefoot during the whole stance phase, at faster speeds/gaits and with more individuals as well as with a similar focus on the hind feet. We anticipate that our preliminary analysis using advanced methodological approaches will pave the way for new directions in research How to cite this article Panagiotopoulou et al. (2016), A preliminary case study of the effect of shoe-wearing on the biomechanics of a horse's foot. PeerJ 4:e2164; DOI 10.7717/peerj.2164

As equine musculoskeletal models become common, it is important to determine their sensitivity to the simplifications used. A subjectspecific distal forelimb model was created using bones extracted from CT scans to examine movement from in-vivo invasive-marker motion capture. The movements of the sesamoid bones were simulated using the constraints of maintaining an isometric virtual ligament and maintaining contact between the appropriate articular surfaces, creating a variable moment arm for the tendons. The simulation of the proximal sesamoid bones was compared to movement recorded in-vitro. The paths and origins used for the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and suspensory ligament (SL) were altered and the effects on their calculated strains during trot stance were examined. The most influential alteration tested was the dorsopalmar changes to the tendon paths at the level of the proximal sesamoid bones, which led to a maximum length reduction of 4 and 2 mm for the SDFT and DDFT, respectively. Alterations to the virtual origins of the SDFT and DDFT were not influential leading to up to a 0.01% effect on strains for a 1 cm dorsopalmar shift. In the SL, the choice of the proximal or distal edge of the proximal attachment site varied the strains calculated by up to 1% (3 mm). These results show that within the anatomically realistic spectrum, changes to tendon paths can have an appreciable effect on calculated strains; however the origin sites chosen are not as influential as changes to paths at the metacarpo-phalangeal joint. r

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common cause of lameness in equine and a potential cause of wastage
of valuable animals. Furthermore, horse is the ideal large animal model for the preclinical study
of cell-based therapy in human joints. In contrast to the drug therapy, regenerative therapy
promotes the body’s own healing, restoring the structural architecture and biomechanical function
of the injured tissue. Therefore, regenerative therapy field in veterinary medicine continues to
evolve rapidly both experimentally and clinically. As the field of regenerative therapy continues to
advance, equine practitioners need contemporary information regarding the choice of regenerative
biologic type and recommendations regarding clinical implementation of regenerative therapies.
Meanwhile, clinicians must also be aware of the limitation in the available knowledge regarding
regenerative therapy and the impending regulatory laws that may limit its use in clinical joint
diseases in equine. Although, preliminary data generated from clinical trials in human patients and
experimental studies in equine osteoarthritis are encouraging, preliminary data have been
published about very limited clinical application of regenerative therapies in horses suffering from
clinical joint disease and the commercialization of these treatments may be premature. Additional
studies are needed to determine the optimum conditions for harvest, culture and expansion of these
biologics, appropriate dosing, optimal delivery method, short and long term safety. This review
describes the three main biologics used for regenerative therapy, namely; stem cells, Platelet Rich
Plasma (PRP) and Autologous Conditioned Serum (ACS) and draws together research findings from
in vitro and in vivo studies to give an overview of current regenerative therapies for treatment of
osteoarthritis in equine.

Little data are available in the normal range of conformation traits in jumping thoroughbred horses. The aim of this study was to characterize objectively baseline measurements of lengths and angles in fifty-one jumping thoroughbred horses using tape meter and a computer-aided design program (AutoCAD, 2013). An objective photographic method of evaluating conformation was used. All data were analyzed statistically. The results of the present study revealed that the mean lengths of neck, back and breast width were 100.69±5.6, 92.47±5.66 and 51.2±5.6 cm, respectively. The mean lengths of shoulder, arm, forearm and fore cannon were 69±5, 34±2.9, 46±2.4 and 28.67±2.3 cm, respectively. The back length represented 91.8% of neck length and the arm length represented 49.7% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length represented 62.3% of the forearm length and the forearm length represented 66.6% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length represented 41% of the shoulder. The mean lengths of pelvis, thigh, gaskin and hind canon were 51.39±5.12, 49.66±5.12, 53.09±4.8 and 37.44±3.67 cm, respectively. The pelvis, thigh and gaskin lengths were nearly equal. The hind cannon length represented nearly 70% of the lengths of pelvis, thigh and gaskin length. The fore cannon was 25% shorter than the hind cannon. In lateral view, the mean shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 99±3.74°, 138.37±4.7°, 177.7±2.32° and 142.73±6°, respectively. The mean croup, hip, stifle, hock and hind fetlock angles were 144.63±4.8°, 89±8.34°, 114.94±13°, 148.59±5.3° and 149.84±8°, respectively. In dorsal view, the mean right and left shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 74.31±3°, 168.27±4°, 176.47±2.4° and 173.53±4.8°, respectively. In conclusion, the obtained results provide guidelines for establishing database for selection jumping thoroughbred with better athletic performance.

Artificially induced tendinitis animal models are crucial to guarantee the significance and applicability of the study output. Herein, we propose that increasing tendon temperature could be a good model that is capable to mimic the clinically introduced tendinitis cases. Microwave radiofrequency radiation is one of the techniques used clinically to increase the heat of tissue situated superficial in the body. The aim of this study is to investigate the thermal effect of the microwave beam on the flexor tendons at the metacarpal/metatarsal region of donkey's cadaver. Twelve hindlimb and twelve forelimb were obtained from six cadaveric donkeys were exposed to different microwave setting 30W/30min, 30W/15min, 25W/30 min, 25W/15min, 20W/30min and 20W/15min. The temperatures were recorded after each microwave session using a sensitive thermometer. Our results revealed a highly significant effect on temperature output between different watt setting and time at all the anatomical sites. Using of 30W/30min setting resulted in significantly higher temperature which estimated by 53.5±0.6, 47.5±0.6 and 45.5±0.6 C o at the following areas skin/superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), SDFT/ deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) and DDFT/ Check ligament (CKL) respectively. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that increasing the exposure time is more effective in increasing the local temperature than increasing power exposure. In conclusion, the microwave diathermy can provide temperature gradient on flexor tendons that mimic that occurring during over exercise.

Little data are available in the normal range of conformation traits in jumping thoroughbred horses. The aim of this study was to characterize objectively baseline measurements of lengths and angles in fifty-one jumping thoroughbred horses using tape meter and a computer-aided design program (AutoCAD, 2013). An objective photographic method of evaluating conformation was used. All data were analyzed statistically. The results of the present study revealed that the mean lengths of neck, back and breast width were 100.69±5.6, 92.47±5.66 and 51.2±5.6 cm, respectively. The mean lengths of shoulder, arm, forearm and fore cannon were 69±5, 34±2.9, 46±2.4 and 28.67±2.3 cm, respectively. The back length represented 91.8% of neck length and the arm length represented 49.7% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length represented 62.3% of the forearm length and the forearm length represented 66.6% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length represented 41% of the shoulder. The mean lengths of pelvis, thigh, gaskin and hind canon were 51.39±5.12, 49.66±5.12, 53.09±4.8 and 37.44±3.67 cm, respectively. The pelvis, thigh and gaskin lengths were nearly equal. The hind cannon length represented nearly 70% of the lengths of pelvis, thigh and gaskin length. The fore cannon was 25% shorter than the hind cannon. In lateral view, the mean shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 99±3.74°, 138.37±4.7°, 177.7±2.32° and 142.73±6°, respectively. The mean croup, hip, stifle, hock and hind fetlock angles were 144.63±4.8°, 89±8.34°, 114.94±13°, 148.59±5.3° and 149.84±8°, respectively. In dorsal view, the mean right and left shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 74.31±3°, 168.27±4°, 176.47±2.4° and 173.53±4.8°, respectively. In conclusion, the obtained results provide guidelines for establishing database for selection jumping thoroughbred with better athletic performance.

Is everybody aware of the fact that a wrong saddle or a poor saddle fit can be dangerous for the horse welfare and affect its performance?
Siamo tutti consapevoli del fatto che una sella sbagliata o inadatta può essere dannosa per il benessere del cavallo e influire negativamente sulla sua performance?

accepted for interactive workshop presentation at the International Symposium of the Veterinary Schools Council (VetEd), (University of Liverpool, 6 th July 2017) Sophie Pullen, Eve Rapley & Veronica Brewster – The Royal Veterinary College, University of London " Make the shoe fit the horse, not the horse fit the shoe ". Exploring the challenges of developing academic skills and academic confidence with farriery students at the Royal Veterinary College There is an old saying amongst farriers … " Make the shoe fit the horse, not the horse fit the shoe ". Tutors from the RVC Learning Development team have taken inspiration from this adage when designing and facilitating an academic study skills module for the newly created Graduate Diploma in Equine Locomotor Research (GDELR) programme. In response to the growing need to recognise the essential role farriers play in maintaining equine health and welfare, the GDELR programme is aimed at strengthening the evidence base of farriery, and reinforcing the importance of farriers as allied professionals within the wider veterinary/animal care sector. The programme aspires to develop research and enquiry skills amongst a community of working farriers, in order to generate new knowledge and understanding of farriery and foot care. By way of prefacing the specific scientific content modules, students take part in a 12 week blended learning module covering academic writing, reading, information searching and communication, all of which culminate in students producing a 3000 word, Level 6 essay at the end of the module. This is commonly the first academic assessment the students have done since school. Typically the cohort is comprised of mature students, many of which have specific learning differences, poor school experiences and low confidence. As such, they might typically be classed as being students from a widening participation background. Drawing up pedagogic and inclusive education literature, the team will facilitate participants to explore notions of personalised and inclusive learning, consider the relative fragility of learning, and reflect upon barriers to learning for students at their own institutions. Within an interactive workshop, student video narratives from the first GDELR cohort will provide participants with the opportunity to begin to understand the lived experiences of students who are returning to learning after many years of absence. With an emphasis on exploring solutions to engage and motivate students, participants will take part in practical activities and discussions as a means of teasing out why students can find academic writing and reading so daunting, and how teachers and tutors can smooth the student journey by exploring their own teaching practices, and developing more inclusive teaching approaches.

There is ethical debate on the use of ponies for carousel rides at city fairs, as these animals may develop progressive locomotor asymmetry during their career. To investigate this issue, 21 ponies used for carousel rides were walked and trotted over a pressure plate system. Non-directional symmetry ratios and directional asymmetry indices of forelimb peak vertical force (PVF), vertical impulse (VI), stance time (ST) and hoof contact area (CA) were calculated and compared to reference data. In both the carousel and reference groups, most ponies presented higher loading of the right forelimb at the walk and trot. Carousel ponies presented slightly, though significantly, lower symmetry ratios and more negative asymmetry indices than the reference group for PVF and VI, but not for ST and CA. However, repeated analysis after exclusion of the ponies with visually observed lameness revealed no significant differences in asymmetry indices, whereas symmetry ratios remained lower in the carousel group. Interestingly, 10/21 carousel ponies were subjectively more difficult to lunge on the circle opposite to their routine working direction, whereas the ponies in the reference group were easily lunged in both directions. In the absence of clear unilateral lameness or locomotor asymmetry in the majority of ponies, it is reasonable to assume a behavioural explanation for this observation. There was no significant association between the duration of the career and all symmetry indices. These results indicate an overall less symmetric locomotion in carousel ponies, but progressive locomotor asymmetry due to long-term unilateral circling seems to be unlikely.

Horse racing is a multi-billion-dollar industry that has raised welfare concerns due to injured and euthanized animals. Whilst the cause of musculoskeletal injuries that lead to horse morbidity and mortality is multifactorial, pre-existing pathologies, increased speeds and substrate of the racecourse are likely contributors to foot disease. Horse hooves have the ability to naturally deform during locomotion and dissipate locomotor stresses, yet farriery approaches are utilised to increase performance and protect hooves from wear. Previous studies have assessed the effect of different shoe designs on locomotor performance; however, no biomechanical study has hitherto measured the effect of horseshoes on the stresses of the foot skeletonin vivo. This preliminary study introduces a novel methodology combining three-dimensional data from biplanar radiography with inverse dynamics methods and finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the effect of a stainless steel shoe on the function o...

Introduction: According to previous research, horses alter the action of their hindlimbs to suit clearance of fences of differing heights. Little research exists, on the action of the hindlimb over differing widths of fences. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate differences in the angle of the hock throughout each phase of the jump; take-off, bascule and landing, over a vertical and an oxer fence during a competition 
Materials & methods: Conducted in a competition environment, hock angle of 16 horses were captured with high definition GoPro cameras over an upright and an oxer fence. Using the landmarks of the points of the stifle joint and the tuber calcaneus and the abaxial surface of the, lateral, proximal sesamoid bone the relative angle of the hock was drawn down using Dartfish Software for each stage of the jump.
Results: A significant difference of the relative hock angle was found during each phase of the jump stride for each fence; vertical: take-off (126.48±11.78), bascule (113.86±9.39) and landing (83.34±62.33) and oxer: take-off (117.29±9.62), bascule (99.68±11.82) and landing (62.33±9.16) and specifically between the bascule and landing phases for both fences (p≤0.001).  Differences were also found between the two fences for the bascule (p≤0.05) and landing (p≤0.001) phases of the stride.
Conclusion: Significant differences were found throughout all phases of the jump over both fences and also between the vertical and oxer fence. It is therefore, possible to establish that the horse alters its hock angle over differing widths of fences during all phases of the jump. These findings allow for a greater understanding of the horse during the jump, to help advance areas including equipment, training techniques and methods to reduce injury. Further research can now be conducted to refine the areas of analysis to improve the understanding of the horses hind limb over fences.

Little data are available in the normal range of conformation traits in jumping thoroughbred
horses. The aim of this study was to characterize objectively baseline measurements of lengths and
angles in fifty-one jumping thoroughbred horses using tape meter and a computer-aided design
program (AutoCAD, 2013). An objective photographic method of evaluating conformation was used.
All data were analyzed statistically. The results of the present study revealed that the mean
lengths of neck, back and breast width were 100.69±5.6, 92.47±5.66 and 51.2±5.6 cm, respectively.
The mean lengths of shoulder, arm, forearm and fore cannon were 69±5, 34±2.9, 46±2.4 and
28.67±2.3 cm, respectively. The back length represented 91.8% of neck length and the arm length
represented 49.7% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length represented 62.3% of the forearm
length and the forearm length represented 66.6% of the shoulder length. The fore cannon length
represented 41% of the shoulder. The mean lengths of pelvis, thigh, gaskin and hind canon were
51.39±5.12, 49.66±5.12, 53.09±4.8 and 37.44±3.67 cm, respectively. The pelvis, thigh and gaskin
lengths were nearly equal. The hind cannon length represented nearly 70% of the lengths of pelvis,
thigh and gaskin length. The fore cannon was 25% shorter than the hind cannon. In lateral view,
the mean shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 99±3.74°, 138.37±4.7°,
177.7±2.32° and 142.73±6°, respectively. The mean croup, hip, stifle, hock and hind fetlock angles
were 144.63±4.8°, 89±8.34°, 114.94±13°, 148.59±5.3° and 149.84±8°, respectively. In dorsal view,
the mean right and left shoulder, elbow, carpus and fore fetlock joint angles were 74.31±3°,
168.27±4°, 176.47±2.4° and 173.53±4.8°, respectively. In conclusion, the obtained results provide
guidelines for establishing database for selection jumping thoroughbred with better athletic
performance.