Entheseal Changes

Objective. To describe enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features and characteristic entheseal changes in the knees in patients with seronegative spondyloarthropathy (SpA). Methods. The 56 patients included 30 with psoriatic arthritis, 5 with ankylosing spondylitis, 5 with reactive arthritis, 5 with ulcerative colitis (UC), 5 with Crohn's disease, and another 6 with skin psoriasis. Controls were 20 healthy subjects without knee complaints. MRI was performed in all participants, emphasizing entheseal sites. Results. Both knees were studied in 45 (80.3%) patients and one knee in 11 (19.6%). MRI showed evidence of bone marrow edema in 13 (23.2%) patients, cartilaginous erosions in 18 (32.1%), and bone erosions in 9 (16.1%). Enthesitis was found in medial collateral ligaments in 18 (32.1%), lateral collateral ligaments in 8 (14.3%), posterior cruciate ligaments in 3 (5.35%), patellar tendon in 18 (32.1%), biceps femoris insertion in 3 (5.35%), medial patellofemoral ligaments (MPFL) in 5 (8.9%), and lateral patellofemoral ligament in 1 patient (1.8%). In the UC and Crohn's patients (n = 10), 2 had bone erosions and 5 had enthesitis. In the skin psoriasis group (n = 6), one had bone marrow edema; enthesitis was detected in 5 at the patellar tendon insertion and in one in the MPFL. Entheseal-related changes were absent in the controls. Conclusion. This is the first study showing entheseal-related changes in the knees in patients with inflammatory bowel disease or skin psoriasis without clinical arthritis. Enthesitis of the knee on MRI may be an early finding in SpA.

Porosity is one of the big problems in the aluminum alloy casting industry, and as such this casting defect is closely studied. However majority of research is based on simple castings of little or no practical importance. The investigation described in this paper examined the porosity formation in the cast pistons, which were analyzed as a suited representative of a complex shape casting. For this reason, this research besides scientific could have great practical importance. The porosity was examined in detail using light microscopy as well as scanning electron microscopy and EDS. Same porosity problem was analyzed using computer simulations in order to study the influences of casting parameters on the porosity formation in pistons. Based on only a part of our results presented in the paper, significant correspondence between experimental and computer simulated results is obvious.

The analysis of the effect of age on entheseal changes (EC) and bone robusticity is still of anthropologists' interest. Some researchers assert a strong influence of age on bone morphology in adults, underlining the necessity of age control when EC and robusticity are used in activity reconstruction. Others claim the effect of age is not so obvious, noting the "bony self-limiting" process and multifactorial aetiology of bone morphology. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of age on entheseal changes (EC) and long bone robusticity in adults. The bone material used in the study came from a medieval cemetery in Cedynia (Poland). The analyses were performed on humeri on the right side. The sample consists of 59 males (33 young adults, 23 middle adults, and three old adults) and 48 females (26 young adults and 22 middle adults). Pectoralis major and deltoid attachments were observed, and humeral robusticity index was calculated. The effect of age on EC and robust...

In the year of 2015, the Group of Studies in Human evolution (GEEvH) completed ten years of existence. Since its foundation, GEEvH’s has played an important role in the difficult task of communicating science in Portugal in the field of human evolution. In this paper, an overview of the main activities developed by GEEvH in the last decade as well as upcoming goals, will be provided. This approach will be framed by a short theoretical introduction to Charles Darwin’s Assis et al. /Cadernos do GEEvH 4 (1) 2015: 8-24 9 theories, highlighting the impact of evolutionary biology views in the Portuguese academic and schools settings. The current situation with regard to the teaching of human evolution in Portuguese schools will also be presented.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between entheseal changes and sexual division of labor in the pre-Hispanic population of Gran Canaria Island (Spain). Ethnohistorical records from the period of contact between Europeans and the Canarian indigenous population provide rich information about the different activities performed by men and women. For this purpose, entheseal changes in a sample of 138 individuals (82 males and 56 females) buried in ten pre-Hispanic cemeteries (11th and 15th centuries cal. CE) were analyzed. Forty-one entheses located in the clavicle, humerus, ulna and radius were analyzed (fibrous and fibro-cartilaginous attachment sites). Entheses were graded using a visual and descriptive standard which summarized the entheseal changes. This method interprets the changes as a sign of robustness on a scale from low to high development and includes enthesopathies. The intra- and inter-observer error of this method was minimal. Sex differences in the...

ObjectivesThe current article explores the effectiveness of entheseal changes (EC) as skeletal activity markers by testing the correlation between such changes and cross‐sectional geometric (CSG) properties while controlling for the effect of age and body size.Materials and methodsThe originality of the article lies in capturing EC in a continuous quantitative manner using three‐dimensional microscopy. Roughness and bone resorption were recorded on Zones 1 and 2 of three humeral entheses (subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus) in a documented sample of 29 male skeletons.ResultsOur analysis found that merely 5.91% of the partial correlations between EC and CSG properties were statistically significant. In addition, two unexpected patterns were identified, namely a higher number of significant correlations on the left side entheses compared to the right side ones, and a higher number of correlations between minimum roughness and CSG properties compared to mean and maximum ro...

Thrower's elbow (medial epicondylosis) is a rare occupational syndrome today. The lateral to medial (L/M) epicondylar ratio is greater than 1 in living populations. The L/M ratio permits comparisons in past populations. European prehistoric males display a specific pattern of lesions for the right elbow. Right upper limb use in throwing motions is a long-term status-linked male proclivity.

This article presents a consensus terminology for entheseal changes that was developed in English by an international team of scholars and then translated into French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and German. Use of a standard, neutral terminology to describe entheseal morphology will reduce misunderstandings between researchers, improve the reliability of comparisons between studies, and eliminate unwarranted etiological assumptions inherent in some of the descriptive terms presently used in the literature.

Entheseal changes have been widely studied with regard to their correlation to biomechanical stress and their usefulness for biocultural reconstructions. However, anthropological and medical studies have demonstrated the marked influence of both age and sex on the development of these features. Studies of entheseal changes are mostly aimed in testing functional hypotheses and are mostly focused on modern humans, with few data available for non-human primates. The lack of comparative studies on the effect of age and sex on entheseal changes represent a gap in our understanding of the evolutionary basis of both development and degeneration of the human musculoskeletal system. The aim of the present work is to compare age trajectories and patterns of sexual dimorphism in entheseal changes between modern humans and African great apes. To this end we analyzed 23 postcranial entheses in a human contemporary identified skeletal collection (N = 484) and compared the results with those obtai...

Differential diagnosis is a fundamental step in every palaeopathological study. It is a challenging exercise since many intrinsic and extrinsic factors may negatively impact the accurate interpretation of bone changes in human skeletal remains. Among these, the completeness and preservation of skeletal elements plays a significant role. This study aims to explore the limits of differential diagnosis in the analysis of disarticulated, fragmented bones. The sample consists of twelve adult bone fragments with noticeable changes. The remains were identified in a dis-articulated skeletal assemblage from the former necropolis of Juncal (Porto de Mós, Portugal), which probably closed in the late 19th century/early 20th century. They were analysed visually and with X-radiography, and the changes carefully described prior to differential diagnosis. Six bones presented signs of healed bone trauma and one showed features compatible with leg amputation. Periosteal reactions were observed in sev...

This article presents a consensus terminology for entheseal changes that was developed in English by an international team of scholars and then translated into French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and German. Use of a standard, neutral terminology to describe entheseal morphology will reduce misunderstandings between researchers, improve the reliability of comparisons between studies, and eliminate unwarranted etiological assumptions inherent in some of the descriptive terms presently used in the literature.

Studies on identified skeletal collections yield discordant results about the association between osseous changes and activity. These dissonances can be ascribed to several factors: the variability of the osseous changes selected for observation, the inconsistency of their interpretative criteria and the inhomogeneous classification of occupation, here used as synonym of profession, within each study. The need to standardize the concept of occupation in its biomechanical and socio-cultural expression is currently addressed by the authors, as members of a working group created after the workshop "Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): limitations and achievements in the reconstruction of past activity patterns" (Coimbra University, 2009). Within this framework, the authors reviewed the literature dedicated to entheseal changes and functional adaptation of long bones, focusing their research on studies based on European identified skeletal collections and on the criteria used in each study to classify occupations. The aim of this research was to (a) assess agreements and disagreements between authors with regard to the criteria used to categorize occupation, and (b) highlight the steps needed to build a classification system permitting future comparisons between collections of different chronological and geographical contexts. Data from the literature was exported to a table including the assessment criteria used to classify the occupation for each profession and the assignment of specific occupations to occupational categories. Overall, our results revealed two main issues: an ambiguous historical interpretation of occupation, and a marked influence of the researcher's perspective on the criteria used to classify occupations. Therefore, although the table allows basic comparisons between collections, further research is needed in order to obtain shared classifications based on each profession's specifics.

Entheseal changes have been widely used in anthropology to study activity patterns, but there is an increasing awareness that ageing is associated with these changes. The aim of this study was to test each feature of the new Coimbra method for its variability, side asymmetry and its relationship with age. In addition to this, an overall relationship with age was tested for a larger sample. Males 16 and over from the Coimbra skeletal collection of historically identified individuals were recorded using the new method (N = 260). To reduce the impact of occupation, side variability in asymmetry and age were only tested in the labourers (N = 51). All occupation groups were included to test the overall relationship with age using a random forest test. The results show that scores lack variability for many of the features and entheses. Where there is side asymmetry this is typically in favour of higher scores in the right side, excepting the biceps brachii insertion. Most of the features ...

This paper explores mechanical stress in the Hellenistic/early Roman community of Menainon (Sicily) to test the existence of sex-based division of labor. For this pur- pose, human skeletal remains from 79 males and 65 females, dating to the 4th–1st ca. BCE, were examined for degenerative joint disease, intervertebral disc disease, cross-sectional geometric properties, and entheseal changes. Our findings support an equal share of workload between males and females, who appeared to have experi- enced similar mechanical stress levels. In contrast, they do not support a systemati- cally greater mechanical load among males, as would have been expected if females had been restricted indoors taking care of domestic tasks only, while men had dealt with most physically demanding outdoor activities. The patterns identified in the cur- rent study agree with a scenario where agriculture was a prominent subsistence activity (as attested historically for this region) and most members of this rural com- munity engaged in agricultural tasks irrespective of sex. Our study has limitations regarding the available historical and archaeological information, which restrict our ability to formulate solid research hypotheses or fully contextualize the bioarchaeolo- gical results. Nonetheless, it does highlight the importance of critically assessing his- torical information regarding the role of men and women in the Greco-Roman society.

Apprentissage et reproductibilité d'une méthode de cotation de l'aspect osseux des enthèses fibrocartilagineuses: résultats d'un test effectué lors du Workshop de la Société Suisse d'Anthropologie (Genève, 25 et 26 Juin 2010) [Learning and reproducibility of a scoring method of entheseal changes at fibrocartilaginous attachment sites. Results of a test performed during the Workshop of the Swiss Society of Anthropology (Geneva, 25th and 26th June 2010)]

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), musculoskeletal disorders are the most common disability induced or aggravated by occupation and its performance1,2. This relationship has been repeatedly challenged in the study of past populations and more recently in identified collections3,4,5,6,7. One aspect that contributes to clarify the association between activity-related osseous changes and activity is the use of Identified Skeletal Collections for which the individual's occupation is known. Different studies have shown both negative and positive associations8,9. For instance, these changes have shown to be mostly age-related when examined for relationships with activity10. Positive associations tend to be more linked with occupational groups than specific activities. These dissonances reflect not only biological factors (either morphological or geometrical osseous changes), but also the manner in which occupations were grouped, and the methods considered in their interpretation. The need to decrypt, make explicit and standardize the concept of occupation, in its multiple expressions, has been dealt with by the working group created at the workshop "Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): limitations and achievements in the reconstruction of past activity patterns"

In bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology the most reliable skeletal element for sex estimation is the pelvis; nevertheless, when it is missing, other postcranial elements must be used. The main goal of this research is to provide sectioning points for sex assessment from humeral and femoral head diameters for three prehispanic and two contemporary Mexican populations. Using a sliding caliper, a total of 386 (45.3% female and 54.6% male) humeral and femoral head diameters were recorded. The sectioning point was calculated as the mean between sexes, and univariate independent sample t-tests were performed to test significant differences between sexes. The results demonstrate significant sexual differences in all populations and high percentages of correct sex classification (90%-94%). We conclude that the proposed cut-off points can be used as an alternative for sex estimation in Mexican populations, in contexts with incomplete skeletons and/or fragmented bones.

Les fractures du bassin representent entre 1 et 4 % des cas de boiteries du membre pelvien chez le cheval. Elles sont souvent sous-diagnostiquees du fait d’une difficulte d’exploration de cette zone recouverte de muscles volumineux. De plus, le diagnostic de cette affection n’est pas aise car il demande a la fois competence du praticien, equipement adapte et investissement financier de la part du proprietaire. Plusieurs options diagnostiques s’offrent alors au clinicien en fonction du contexte. Ce travail rappellera l’anatomie et la physiologie fonctionnelles du bassin chez le cheval, puis s’interessera aux differents types de fractures qui peuvent affecter celui-ci et leurs origines. L’analyse clinique et les diverses methodes d’imagerie seront detaillees et illustrees de cas concrets. Le traitement, la reeducation et le pronostic des fractures du pelvis seront ensuite discutes en fonction des cas. Une derniere partie donnera un apercu de cette affection chez l’Homme, afin de compa...

Objectives: To highlight conditions that may cause early-onset degenerative joint disease, and to assess the possible impact of such diseases upon everyday life. Material: Four adults aged under 50 years from a medieval skeletal collection of Prague (Czechia). Methods: Visual, osteometric, X-ray, and histological examinations, stable isotope analysis of bone collagen. Results: All four individuals showed multiple symmetrical degenerative changes, affecting the majority of joints of the postcranial skeleton. Associated dysplastic deformities were observed in all individuals, including bilateral hip dysplasia (n=1), flattening of the femoral condyles (n=3), and substantial deformation of the elbows (n=3). The diet of the affected individuals differed from the contemporary population sample. Conclusions: We propose the diagnosis of a mild form of skeletal dysplasia in these four individuals, with multiple epiphyseal dysplasia or type-II collagenopathy linked to premature osteoarthritis as the most probable causes. Significance: Combining the skeletal findings with information from the medical literature, this paper defines several characteristic traits which may assist with the diagnosis of skeletal dysplasia in the archaeological record. Limitations: As no genetic analysis was performed to confirm the possible kinship of the individuals, it is not possible to definitively assess whether the individuals suffered from the same hereditary condition or from different forms of skeletal dysplasia. Suggestions for Further Research: Further studies on premature osteoarthritis in archaeological skeletal series are needed to correct the underrepresentation of these mild forms of dysplasia in past populations.

Twenty non-pregnant doe rabbits, 8 months old (10 New Zealand White; NZW and 10 Californian; CAL) in the second parity of their first year of production were used in this study. After parturition, does are chosen in both the two breeds nearly equal in their litter size at birth. Milk yield from each doe was estimated by the difference in doe weight before and after nursing once a week for a period of 5 weeks. One milk sample was collected from each doe during colostrum period (1-2 days post-partium) and biweekly until weaning the kids (35 days). Results showed that milk yield and major milk components except lactose in both NZW and CAL breeds are significantly affected by nursing week. The average of milk yield was lower in first week and reached its peak in the 3 rd week of nursing period. Moisture/total solids ratio was ranged from 1.76/1 in colostrum to 2.38/1 in 2 nd week of nursing with overall means through the weeks of nursing period of 2.0/1. Milk energy was significantly affected by nursing week and the high values were during the 5 th week due to high fat content. Milk minerals were differing significantly due to weeks of nursing. Milk yield was significantly correlated with milk fat (-0.514), milk lactose (0.746), milk ash (-0.545) and milk energy (-0.506). When comparing milk composition between milk from cows and milk from rabbits, it is interesting to observed that milk total solids in rabbits milk was 32.13% i.e. equal to 3 times of that in milk cows (11%). Rabbit's milk fat was 13.7% i.e. 4 times of the fat percentage in cow's milk. Similarly, the percentage of rabbit's milk protein was 13.93% which equal to 3.5 times of the percentage of protein in milk cows. However, the opposite was true in lactose concentration, since the % of lactose in rabbits milk was 2.03 half that percentage in milk cows.

La enfermedad articular degenerativa (EAD) y los cambios entesiales (CE) fueron estudiados en seis colecciones óseas prehispánicas del noroeste de América del Sur con el objetivo de aportar al debate sobre las relaciones entre estos indicadores y la actividad física, así como al conocimiento sobre las condiciones de vida de los pueblos prehispánicos de la región. Se estudiaron tres series del altiplano central de Colombia (Soacha, Marín y Tunja-UPTC), dos series de Panamá (Panamá Viejo y Sitio Sierra) y una colección de la costa central peruana (Ancón 1). El uso de una metodología estandarizada permitió la comparación directa de frecuencias y perfiles de EAD y de CE. Se observó una importante variedad de perfiles y de frecuencias en las diferentes colecciones óseas, pero también algunas tendencias similares en colecciones de ambientes semejantes. Se observó una falta de correspondencia entre los resultados de la EAD y de los CE que podría indicar que, a pesar de que tienen una etiol...

Entheseal changes (EC), alterations at insertion sites on the bones, may be related to mechanical stress among other causes, and are thus used for decades to reconstruct the activities of human past populations. They can be characterised by focal changes in robusticity and variable pattern of osteolysis and osteoformation observable on dry bone. This preliminary study aims to analyse the microstructural characteristics of the underlying bone to clarify the nature of the changes in bone microarchitecture reflecting the macroscopic changes identifiable on the surface of the enthesis. We studied the right radii of two Saharian adult individuals, dating from Neolithic (Hassi-el-Abiod, Mali, 7 000 years BP). One has a morphologically normal bicipital tuberosity while the second one shows EC. Micro-computed tomodensitometric acquisitions and 3D reconstructions were performed to characterise cancellous and cortical bone microarchitecture of these two entheses. 3D imaging appears relevant for studying microstructure of EC among past populations. Our methodology reveals at this preliminary step clear differences of canal network organisation of cortical bone between the two studied entheses. This work comes preliminary to a broader study on a historically and archaeologically documented population of Hungarian horse archers of the Honfoglalás or Conquest period (X th century).

Lower levels of physical activity are often linked to higher socioeconomic status (SES) in past societies. As an activity marker, changes at muscle attachment sites known as entheseal changes (ECs) have been used with varying efficacy. This study investigates this proposed link between EC as a physical activity marker and SES within one welldefined temporo-geographic context. EC data from 16 entheses in three skeletal collections from the postmedieval town of Aalst, Belgium, were evaluated using the Coimbra method. The skeletal assemblages represent distinct socioeconomic groups, evidenced by historical and dietary isotope data. The Louis D'Haeseleerstraat sample represents lower class individuals (n = 46), the Hopmarkt sample middle-class individuals (n = 110), and the Saint Martin's church (n = 13) higher class individuals. EC data are tested for correlation to status, age, and sex. EC patterns did not differ significantly between the SES groups at any entheses except the musculus (M.) iliopsoas and common extensor, where the higher class showed more EC. Within the populations, at the Hopmarkt, sexual differences were only observed in the Achilles tendon attachment, whereas at the Louis D'Haeseleerstraat, sexual differences were present in the M. triceps brachii, M. brachioradialis, and quadriceps entheses. Only some entheses showed a significant correlation with age, and these were inconsistent between populations. ECs are not a reliable indicator of SES in postmedieval Aalst. This could suggest that the hypothesis that the wealthy were less physically active oversimplifies the lives of people in the past. It could also suggest that EC is not a suitable proxy for physical activity, or that it cannot be used without in-depth knowledge of the types of activities performed by various socioeconomic groups in addition to consideration of all other aetiological factors. This study illustrates the caution necessary when using EC as a proxy for social status in past societies.

Investigation of warfare‐related lifestyle based on the activity‐induced skeletal changes is of great interest for bioarchaeologists. Numerous studies have described various skeletal traces connected to the regular practice of different types of weapons. However, methodological problems, such as the multifactorial aetiology of these presumed activity‐related skeletal changes, make it difficult to evaluate which changes are reliable in the identification and characterisation of a given class of individuals in a population. This paper aims to find significant morphological and metric differences on the humerus between individuals buried with and without weapons. We focused on the Hungarian Conquest period (10th‐century CE) collection of Sárrétudvari‐Hízóföld, characterised by a high number of burials associated with weapons and, especially, archery‐related equipment. Only adult males were selected for this study to decrease the influence of nonmechanical factors, such as age and sex. ...

Entheseal changes (EC), alterations at insertion sites on the bones, may be related to mechanical stress among other causes, and are thus used for decades to reconstruct the activities of human past populations. They can be characterised by focal changes in robusticity and variable pattern of osteolysis and osteoformation observable on dry bone. This preliminary study aims to analyse the microstructural characteristics of the underlying bone to clarify the nature of the changes in bone microarchitecture reflecting the macroscopic changes identifiable on the surface of the enthesis. We studied the right radii of two Saharian adult individuals, dating from Neolithic (Hassi-el-Abiod, Mali, 7 000 years BP). One has a morphologically normal bicipital tuberosity while the second one shows EC. Micro-computed tomodensitometric acquisitions and 3D reconstructions were performed to characterise cancellous and cortical bone microarchitecture of these two entheses. 3D imaging appears relevant for studying microstructure of EC among past populations. Our methodology reveals at this preliminary step clear differences of canal network organisation of cortical bone between the two studied entheses. This work comes preliminary to a broader study on a historically and archaeologically documented population of Hungarian horse archers of the Honfoglalás or Conquest period (X th century).

The study of entheseal changes (ECs), that is, osseous changes that occur at muscle attachment sites, has increased in recent years because they have been considered one of the most promising markers of activity in the human skeleton. Their aetiology is highly questioned because several factors unrelated to mechanical stress may be involved in their occurrence. Here, we test the validity of some methods created on different bases for the study of ECs to try to make an approach towards the most beneficial aspects of each method. Seven upper limbs' fibrocartilaginous entheses from a sample of 60 adult medieval individuals have been analysed employing three methods: Villotte (2006), Santana (2011) and the so-called New Coimbra method (Henderson et al., 2016; Henderson, Mariotti, et al., 2013). These three methods have been applied on the same skeletons. The results show that the three methods seem to indicate the same general trends but with different intensity and some nuances. Santana's method always provides the most frequencies of presence and the highest scores of ECs. In turn, the Coimbra method finds the fewest scores and frequencies of ECs probably because its criteria are the most specific of the three methods. Villotte's method seems to be the one that determines the general tendencies of ECs in the clearest way. This is also evidenced by the calculated Kappa coefficients: the highest agreement is detected between Villotte's lowest scores and Santana's highest ones (k = 0.743); the moderate agreement (k = 0.596; k = 0.544) recorded between Villotte's highest scores and Coimbra's lowest indicates that the latest one registers the lowest scores of ECs between the analysed three methods. All this points to a methodological consensus that should be based on current anatomical knowledge, criteria that are intuitive and flexible, and the use of many scores of osseous expression to avoid excessive sample fragmentation.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), musculoskeletal disorders are the most common disability induced or aggravated by occupation and its performance1,2. This relationship has been repeatedly challenged in the study of past populations and more recently in identified collections3,4,5,6,7. One aspect that contributes to clarify the association between activity-related osseous changes and activity is the use of Identified Skeletal Collections for which the individual's occupation is known. Different studies have shown both negative and positive associations8,9. For instance, these changes have shown to be mostly age-related when examined for relationships with activity10. Positive associations tend to be more linked with occupational groups than specific activities. These dissonances reflect not only biological factors (either morphological or geometrical osseous changes), but also the manner in which occupations were grouped, and the methods considered in their interpretation. The need to decrypt, make explicit and standardize the concept of occupation, in its multiple expressions, has been dealt with by the working group created at the workshop "Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): limitations and achievements in the reconstruction of past activity patterns"

Studies on identified skeletal collections yield discordant results about the association between osseous changes and activity. These dissonances can be ascribed to several factors: the variability of the osseous changes selected for observation, the inconsistency of their interpretative criteria and the inhomogeneous classification of occupation, here used as synonym of profession, within each study. The need to standardize the concept of occupation in its biomechanical and socio-cultural expression is currently addressed by the authors, as members of a working group created after the workshop "Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): limitations and achievements in the reconstruction of past activity patterns" (Coimbra University, 2009). Within this framework, the authors reviewed the literature dedicated to entheseal changes and functional adaptation of long bones, focusing their research on studies based on European identified skeletal collections and on the criteria used in each study to classify occupations. The aim of this research was to (a) assess agreements and disagreements between authors with regard to the criteria used to categorize occupation, and (b) highlight the steps needed to build a classification system permitting future comparisons between collections of different chronological and geographical contexts. Data from the literature was exported to a table including the assessment criteria used to classify the occupation for each profession and the assignment of specific occupations to occupational categories. Overall, our results revealed two main issues: an ambiguous historical interpretation of occupation, and a marked influence of the researcher's perspective on the criteria used to classify occupations. Therefore, although the table allows basic comparisons between collections, further research is needed in order to obtain shared classifications based on each profession's specifics.

In total 110 skeletons recovered from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1100/900e760/500 cal. BC) cemetery Liushui, Autonomous Region Xinjiang, China (36 14 0 41.9 00 N, 81 43 0 23 00 E, ca. 2850 m a.s.l.) were suitable for observation of entheseal changes (EC presence which does not involve inferring soft tissue changes) and stress fractures. Four fibrocartilaginous entheses (lateral and medial epicondyles, the attachment sites of the quadriceps muscle at the patella and the patellar ligament, and the Achilles' tendon at the calcaneus) and one fibrous enthesis (plantar aponeurosis at the calcaneus) were scored in skeletons with respective anatomical structures preserved. Some variations in EC percentage values in relation to sex and age are documented, though the relatively small sample size limits robustness of statistical interpretation. Our results do not fully support age-related EC increase. Only medial epicondylosis and lower calcaneal spur show the most frequent occurrence in the 56e70 years age group, with substantially higher scores compared to the other age groups. Both tendinitis patellae and dorsal calcaneal spur have their highest scores in the 15e23 years age group. Dorsal spur, tendinitis patellae and lateral epicondylosis are substantially higher among the female individuals than in the male skeletal remains from Liushui. Being compared with European prehistoric and industrial populations and with Californian historic hunteregatherers, the EC prevalence of the Liushui population indicates high physical activity levels with serious injury hazard. Grave goods and absolute chronology identify the Liushui population as mobile pastoralists at an early stage of the emergence of complex mounted pastoralism as a new economic and social system in Central Asia. The chronic nature of EC in the Liushui population, particularly noticeable in the female skeletons, may suggest an insufficient time for adaptation to permanent mechanical stress unavoidable in the prevalent mountainous environments. Relatively small sample size and the multifactorial etiology of EC require cautious evaluation of the obtained results. However, given the scarcity of palaeopathological records from the study region, our reconstructions and interpretations from the high-mountain Liushui site can be offered as a frame for further testing.

Heel spurs are the bony protrusion seen especially on the dorsal and plantar face of the calcaneus bone at the attachment site of the muscles. It was aimed herein to obtain data about the life styles, daily lives, and especially the socioeconomic structures of modern and ancient Anatolian populations by evaluating the prevalence, location, age, and gender differences of heel spurs on the calcaneus and comparing these findings between the populations. Herein, the 251 calcaneus bones of 137 skeletons, which had been previously analyzed paleodemographically and dated to the Middle Ages, and 68 calcaneus bones belonging to a modern population, whose gender was unknown but lived in Anatolia, were examined in terms of heel spurs. In the current study, the presence of dorsal, plantar, or both dorsal/plantar heel spurs on these in 251 calcaneus bones was 43.9 %, 11.1 %, and 10.3 %, respectively. The presence of dorsal, plantar, or both dorsal/plantar heel spurs was determined as 22 %, 3 %, and 1.5 %, respectively, among the 68 calcaneus bones belonging to the modern population. When a comparison was made of the current study with studies in the literature on modern and prehistoric populations, a higher prevalence of heel spurs was found in prehistoric samples than in modern populations. It is our belief that this situation may have derived from the heavy labor force, environmental, or sociocultural differences in ancient Anatolian populations, insufficiency of vital materials due to inadequate industrial conditions, and the solution of anatomical disruption. In addition, the findings determined herein will guide the development of future and industrial studies on the foot and foot structure.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between entheseal changes and sexual division of labor in the pre-Hispanic population of Gran Canaria Island (Spain). Ethnohistorical records from the period of contact between Europeans and the Canarian indigenous population provide rich information about the different activities performed by men and women. For this purpose, entheseal changes in a sample of 138 individuals (82 males and 56 females) buried in ten pre-Hispanic cemeteries (11th and 15th centuries cal. CE) were analyzed. Forty-one entheses located in the clavicle, humerus, ulna and radius were analyzed (fibrous and fibro-cartilaginous attachment sites). Entheses were graded using a visual and descriptive standard which summarized the entheseal changes. This method interprets the changes as a sign of robustness on a scale from low to high development and includes enthesopathies. The intra- and inter-observer error of this method was minimal. Sex differences in the...

The first objective of this study is to reconstruct levels and types of physical activity and associated sexual and social differences using human skeletal remains from the predominately 19th century Dutch cemetery of Middenbeemster. For most individuals, life in the Beemster centred around dairy farming and was heavily based on manual labor, with a purported higher class of wealthier individuals performing less manual labor. Two skeletal markers of activity are examined in the upper limb of late young adult and middle-aged adults of both sexes (26-49 years, n = 69): osteoarthritis (OA) and entheseal changes (EC). Results support the hypothesis that the majority of the population engaged in high levels of physical activity; however, a group with a clearly lower or different pattern of activity, possibly representing a higher, less active class, was not discernible. This may be due to a low number of less active individuals in the analysed sample and/or the heterogeneity of occupations and activities. A gendered division of labour was evident in the EC data with males having more pronounced muscle attachments in almost all sites, especially the biceps brachii, used primarily in lifting. Females had more pronounced triceps brachii, which may be due to activities that required pushing or pulling with the elbow in a flexed position. The prevalence and severity of OA did not differ between the sexes. While this could be interpreted to indicate men and women engaged in a similar level of strenuous activity, hormonal and anatomical differences limit the strength of the comparison. The second objective of this study is to evaluate the concordance of OA and EC as activity markers. The correlation between OA and EC is very low, illustrating their variable and complex etiologies. Etiological factors need further research for OA and EC to become more reliable activity markers.

In Egypt, during the last ten years, rabbits play crucial role in animal production sector. But, they facing many obstacles including heat stress, diet quality, management skills and recent techniqulaties. In Egypt, rabbits are reared purposely to achieve family needs of protein and save some family cash income. Unfortunately, this led to a reduction in rabbit's economic value, because more than 80% of rabbit production are in the hand of small-scale producers and some of them may not well qualified to breed rabbits. The current situation (increasing population census with increasing animal protein demand), is calling for expanding rabbit production efficiency and shifting it to large or industrial scale. This lofty step will require those small breeders to shift and expand their objectives of rabbit farming. So, this review will evaluate the current situation of rabbit production in Egypt, with references to the obstacles facing rabbit production. The role of researchers in guiding and training smallholders on rabbit farming and what are those breeders need to be well qualified in rabbit production. Trying to maximize rabbit production and lifting it up into industrial level.

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RESUMEN: Uno de los diversos aspectos analizados por la bioarqueología es el estudio de los patrones de actividad física en restos humanos, en particular a través del análisis de patologías degenerativas articulares y variables morfológicas óseas. La comprensión de estos patrones en cazadores-recolectores se encuentra en general restringida a poblaciones de Europa y Norteamérica, y por lo tanto es necesario generar una mayor cantidad de información para comprender la variabilidad de adaptaciones relacionadas con estrategias económicas terrestres, marítimas y mixtas. El objetivo de esta tesis es evaluar la existencia de patrones de actividad física y uso del cuerpo asociados a los modos de vida de las sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras del Holoceno tardío en Patagonia Austral mediante el análisis de variables morfológicas (i.e., cambios entésicos, asimetría bilateral de longitud de huesos largos) y patologías articulares (i.e., osteocondritis disecante) presentes en restos humanos arqueológicos. La muestra está conformada por 62 individuos adultos de ambos sexos y los resultados se evaluaron de acuerdo al sexo, la edad, el tamaño corporal, la dieta, la cronología y la procedencia geográfica de los individuos. Los resultados logrados muestran que las actividades de individuos con estrategias marítimas requirieron mayores cargas mecánicas en los miembros superiores, generadas por acciones de flexión y extensión de la mano. En contraste, los individuos con estrategias terrestres y mixtas estuvieron más expuestos a microtraumatismos articulares por estrés en el hombro y codo. Los femeninos experimentaron elevadas cargas asociadas a la flexión y extensión de la muñeca y mano en ambas extremidades, mientras que los masculinos estuvieron expuestos a cargas intensas en el hombro y codo del lado derecho. Las variaciones en la dinámica social producidas durante el periodo de contacto con los europeos afectaron la distribución de cargas en miembros superiores, posiblemente por una reducción de niveles de actividad física y/o la introducción de nuevas actividades. ABSTRACT: The study of physical activity patterns in human remains is one of the many topics covered by bioarchaeology, particularly when analyzing morphological bone characteristics and degenerative joint diseases. Since research on hunter-gatherer populations outside of Europe and North America has mostly been limited, additional data must be produced in order to fully understand the diversity of adaptations relating to terrestrial, maritime, and mixed economic strategies. This thesis evaluates morphological variables (i.e., entheseal changes, upper limb length asymmetry) and joint pathologies (i.e., osteochondritis dissecans) in archaeological human remains in order to assess the existence of patterns of physical activity and body use associated with the lifestyles of Late Holocene hunter-gatherer societies in Southern Patagonia. The sample consists of 62 adult individuals of both sexes, and the results were evaluated according to sex, age, body size, diet, chronology, and geographic origin of the individuals. The results show that individuals with maritime strategies required higher mechanical loads on their upper limbs, generated by hand flexion and extension actions. In contrast, individuals with terrestrial and mixed strategies were more exposed to joint microtraumas due to stress on the shoulder and elbow. Females experienced elevated loads associated with wrist and hand flexion and extension in both extremities, while males were exposed to intense loads on the right shoulder and elbow. Females experienced elevated loads associated with wrist and hand flexion and extension in both extremities, while males were exposed to intense loads on the right shoulder and elbow. The distribution of loads on the upper limbs was modified by changes in social dynamics throughout the period of contact with Europeans, presumably as a result of a decline in levels of physical activity and/or the introduction of new activities.

In anthropological sciences, muscle attachments are typically utilized for reconstructing the physical activities of past human populations. This approach relies on the concept that entheseal bone morphology is influenced by cumulative biomechanical stress. A fundamental criterion for assessing the stage of entheseal change involves the proportion of elevated bone area. However, it is not yet clear if bone elevation is associated with biomechanical forces exerted during physical activity, while the histology of the entheses of the human hand, the least-bodyweightbearing anatomical area, is not fully investigated. Multiple previous studies on entheses have concluded that the concentration of calcified fibrocartilage reflects the level of applied forces. On this basis, if hand entheseal surface elevation was associated with the level of biomechanical stress, then a greater amount of calcified fibrocartilage would be expected in entheses" central and more projecting bone areas. More importantly, individual entheses with a greater proportion of elevated bone areas would present a higher total concentration of calcified fibrocartilage. To test these hypotheses, this pilot study conducted a histological quantitative analysis on two thumb entheses of four fully-documented body donors. Across individuals, all central entheseal regions presented greater calcified fibrocartilage, while the entheses showing additional bone elevation in their marginal areas comprised substantially higher total values. The observations of this small-scale pilot study support the concept that interindividual differences in entheseal bone morphology are related to varying levels of biomechanical loading. Furthermore, they encourage future research to compile larger sample sizes, for comparing individuals with distinct lifelong activities.

Entheseal changes (EC), alterations at insertion sites on the bones, may be related to mechanical stress among other causes, and are thus used for decades to reconstruct the activities of human past populations. They can be characterised by focal changes in robusticity and variable pattern of osteolysis and osteoformation observable on dry bone. This preliminary study aims to analyse the microstructural characteristics of the underlying bone to clarify the nature of the changes in bone microarchitecture reflecting the macroscopic changes identifiable on the surface of the enthesis. We studied the right radii of two Saharian adult individuals, dating from Neolithic (Hassi-el-Abiod, Mali, 7 000 years BP). One has a morphologically normal bicipital tuberosity while the second one shows EC. Micro-computed tomodensitometric acquisitions and 3D reconstructions were performed to characterise cancellous and cortical bone microarchitecture of these two entheses. 3D imaging appears relevant for studying microstructure of EC among past populations. Our methodology reveals at this preliminary step clear differences of canal network organisation of cortical bone between the two studied entheses. This work comes preliminary to a broader study on a historically and archaeologically documented population of Hungarian horse archers of the Honfoglalás or Conquest period (X th century).

A new research way of palaeopathology has recently opened : it concerns the study of the impact of the human activities on the skeleton and the reconstitution of these activities. Being interested essentially in the activity-induced skeletal markers, we carried out this study on 354 human skeletal remains. The Hungarian series represents a larger sample (263 skeletons from the 10th century; collections of the Department of Anthropology, J6zsef Attila University, Szeged, Hungary). We considered also as comparison series a collection of 91 skeletons dating from the Late Antiquity (4th century A.D.) from Provence (France), stored in the collections of the Centre Arch6ologique du Vat (Toulon, France). The present work is based on the results of a general palaeopathological analysis with a particular attention to the possible activity-linked microtraumatic lesions. Articular and periarticular markers of activity were detected as secondary degenerative joint diseases and mechanical enthesopathies. In spite of the high rate of non-specific cases, the alterations reveal several possible activities, historically and archaeologically well documented as riding on horse-back in the Hungarian series. The sexual inegality in the distribution of the macrotraumatic lesions (male predominance of the fractures and sprains in the Hungarian series) reveals also some information about the activities of the ancient Hungarians.

Enthesopathies-that is, ''musculo-skeletal stress markers''-are frequently used to reconstruct past lifestyles and activity patterns. Relatively little attention has been paid in physical anthropology to methodological gaps implicit in this approach: almost all methods previously employed neglect current medical insights into enthesopathies and the distinction between healthy and pathological aspects has been arbitrary. This study presents a new visual method of studying fibrocartilaginous enthesopathies of the upper limb (modified from Villotte: Bull Mém Soc Anthropol Paris n.s. 18 (2006) 65-85), and application of this method to 367 males who died between the 18th and 20th centuries, from four European identified skeletal collections: the Christ Church Spitalfields Collection, the identified skeletal collection of the anthropological museum of the University of Coimbra, and the Sassari and Bologna collections of the mu-Grant sponsors: Maison des Sciences de l'Homme d'Aquitaine; Ministère de la culture, France (Projet Aires Culturelles) Synthesys Project.

Data deposition: Candidatus Evansia muelleri Xc1 genome has been deposited at the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) under the accession PRJEB4944. Xenophyes cascus OF mitochondrion has been deposited at the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) under the accession LK054492.

Objectives: To highlight conditions that may cause early-onset degenerative joint disease, and to assess the possible impact of such diseases upon everyday life. Material: Four adults aged under 50 years from a medieval skeletal collection of Prague (Czechia). Methods: Visual, osteometric, X-ray, and histological examinations, stable isotope analysis of bone collagen. Results: All four individuals showed multiple symmetrical degenerative changes, affecting the majority of joints of the postcranial skeleton. Associated dysplastic deformities were observed in all individuals, including bilateral hip dysplasia (n=1), flattening of the femoral condyles (n=3), and substantial deformation of the elbows (n=3). The diet of the affected individuals differed from the contemporary population sample. Conclusions: We propose the diagnosis of a mild form of skeletal dysplasia in these four individuals, with multiple epiphyseal dysplasia or type-II collagenopathy linked to premature osteoarthritis as the most probable causes. Significance: Combining the skeletal findings with information from the medical literature, this paper defines several characteristic traits which may assist with the diagnosis of skeletal dysplasia in the archaeological record. Limitations: As no genetic analysis was performed to confirm the possible kinship of the individuals, it is not possible to definitively assess whether the individuals suffered from the same hereditary condition or from different forms of skeletal dysplasia. Suggestions for Further Research: Further studies on premature osteoarthritis in archaeological skeletal series are needed to correct the underrepresentation of these mild forms of dysplasia in past populations.

Differential diagnosis is a fundamental step in every palaeopathological study. It is a challenging exercise since many intrinsic and extrinsic factors may negatively impact the accurate interpretation of bone changes in human skeletal remains. Among these, the completeness and preservation of skeletal elements plays a significant role. This study aims to explore the limits of differential diagnosis in the analysis of disarticulated, fragmented bones. The sample consists of twelve adult bone fragments with noticeable changes. The remains were identified in a dis-articulated skeletal assemblage from the former necropolis of Juncal (Porto de Mós, Portugal), which probably closed in the late 19th century/early 20th century. They were analysed visually and with X-radiography, and the changes carefully described prior to differential diagnosis. Six bones presented signs of healed bone trauma and one showed features compatible with leg amputation. Periosteal reactions were observed in sev...