Educational Transfer

El presente estudio histórico investiga la génesis de la formación de docentes secundarios estatales entre 1889 y 1910 en Chile, la cuál está íntimamente ligada a un proceso de transferencia educativa con Alemania propiciado por el Estado. La reconstrucción del Discurso Pedagógico fundacional de docentes secundarios legitimado a través de la creación del Instituto Pedagógico en 1889, permite vincular ambos procesos, pues Discurso Pedagógico implicó la articulación y recontextualización singular de prácticas y corrientes discursivas alemanas, tales como la herbartiana y el modelo de Universidad de Humboldt, que se tradujeron en un modelo original de formación de docentes -una invención-, con énfasis en la formación especializada y disciplinar, centrada en la producción de conocimiento además de su transmisión, así como en el despliegue de prácticas pedagógicas que otorgaría un lugar preponderante a la ciencia. Aquél Discurso Pedagógico, nacido no sin luchas dentro de una hegemonía política y cultural liberal-positivista, formó parte de un proyecto con vistas a la modernidad dentro de una sociedad aún política y económicamente excluyente de las mayorías. Este trabajo histórico, basado primordialmente en la recolección de fuentes secundarias, intenta dar cuenta de un proceso de transferencia educativa a partir de un caso nacional, lo que permite inscribirlo dentro de un prisma comparativo.

This article analyzes how Dewey was received, adapted, and transformed in four different time periods in China: during the Republican era , after the Communist take-over in 1949, after Deng Xiaoping's launch of the 'Four Modernizations' (in the 1980s), and in present-day China. Dewey is generally seen to have exerted an immense influence on Chinese education. The article scrutinizes how this influence unfolded both through Dewey himself and through his mediators, propagators, and critics between the time of his visit in 1919 and today. Particular attention is paid to how certain of his ideas were taken up -and others were ignored or twisted -to fit the intellectuals' agenda of each time period. By tracing the changes that central concepts like 'pragmatism' or 'child-centered pedagogy' underwent over the course of nine decades, the article reveals how the American philosopher and educator John Dewey was successfully transformed into the Chinese 'Duwei' -into a friend of the Chinese people, a fiend of China and Marxism, and a flagship of modernization. the concluding section, I will present a brief overview over the most recent debates on Dewey and education. By focusing on the re-contextualization processes, I will show that Dewey was not simply 'misunderstood', as a scholar in Deweyan thought might intuitively feel when reading, for example, Chinese articles on Dewey in the 1950s. 2 Rather, Dewey -both in person and through his writings -offered a rich repertoire of ideas and ideologies which the Chinese intelligentsia took up eagerly or refuted vehemently to add spice to their arguments about what China should look like in the future. By drawing on either imagined affinities or perceived incompatibilities, Dewey was twisted and turned to Final version published in Rosa Bruno--Jofre and Jürgen Schriewer (eds), The Global Reception of John Dewey's Thought: Multiple Refractions through Time and Space. Routledge International Studies in the Philosophy of Education. London: Routledge, 2011. Pp. 83-115.

As its social, political, and economic situation changed, the educational policy focus of Botswana has shifted from general education to Technical Vocational Education and Training(TVET). The government of Botswana put a great deal of effort into promoting its TVET system during the 1990s by suggesting basic educational policy direction and relevant strategies. This endeavor came to fruition with the Botswana Technical Education Program(BTEP) introduced into technical colleges in Botswana in the early 2000s. The BTEP was the institution-based TVET program transferred from the Scottish Qualification Authority(SQA) based on a bilateral contract.
The BTEP case is notable in terms of studies on educational policy borrowing within the field of comparative education. In comparative education, there has been a growing demand to explore various policy borrowing cases, as the complexity of the phenomenon has increased with globalization. The BTEP, as a borrowed program from the SQA, is expected to facilitate understanding of the micro-mechanism and process of cross-national education policy borrowing. Also, it provides more insight into the motivation to borrow a foreign education system in the face of a transitional moment, because it is a representative case of transitional policy measure organized by the Botswana government.
This research investigates the process of the BTEP introduction from the SQA into Botswana with the conceptual and analytical framework of studies on educational policy borrowing. The four-stages of policy borrowing suggested by Phillips and Ochs(2004) is adopted as a main analytical tool. According to the framework, the BTEP case is described as a policy borrowing process that includes 1) cross-national attraction, 2) decision-making, 3) implementation, and 4) internalization. By identifying the actors and motivations in each of the stages, this study gets close to the full circle of the policy borrowing process of the BTEP. 
The findings of the analysis offer an insight into the future direction of the TVET policy in Botswana. The policy borrowing process of the BTEP proves that the Botswana government was heavily dependent on foreign experiences in reforming its TVET system. This is in part because it did not have the capacity to produce and manage the required knowledge. This weakness triggered a more or less inattentive policy borrowing practice that did not heed the contextual and practical issues. Hence, the Botswana government needs to raise knowledge management capacity for its independent policy development. In addition, this research provides implications for the revision of the conceptual and analytical frameworks of educational policy borrowing studies. The findings indicate that recent policy borrowing practice is getting more complicated than before. Primarily, it is due to a growing ambiguity between borrowers and lenders as borrowers also have their own strategy to lend policies to others. Also, the concept of borrowing and lending is transformed into the market concept of buying and selling. That means that policy-makers recognize internationally renowned systems as marketable goods.

Both in China and internationally, educators and policy makers claim that vocational education and training (VET) is essential for the sound economic development of a country and the physical and social well-being of its population. However, China looks back upon a century-long history of rejection when it comes to popularising VET, despite attempts, both in the present and in the past, to invest in its implementation. Much literature attributes this lack of success to the failed, or distorted, transfer of Western educational models or simply to policy drift.

El artículo, que sigue en términos teórico-metodológicos los estudios de transferencia y recepción, tiene por objetivo reconstruir la emergencia, los principios, los ideólogos y la crisis del ideal educativo denominado educación general, introducido durante la reforma alemana (1883-1920). Basado en fuentes históricas, que recogen por sobre todo la voz de los reformadores chilenos, los resultados del trabajo son los siguientes: primero, que este ideal, aún inspirado en modelos alemanes (específicamente herbartianos), constituyó algo nuevo y único. Segundo, que el ideal buscaba esencialmente formar al “ciudadano” entendido como una nueva categoría jurídica inclusiva que debía superar las clases sociales y géneros. Tercero, que a inicios del siglo XX la hegemonía del ideal fue desafiada por la emergencia de otro ideal, el de la eficiencia social; proceso que vino emparejado con la construcción de los EE.UU. como nueva “sociedad de referencia”. El artículo plantea en términos teóricos que los ideales educativos son esencialmente constructos dinámicos, sujetos a contextos específicos y luchas político-ideológicas, por lo que, aun siendo hegemónicos, coexisten con otros ideales educativos.

El artículo analiza la evolución de los usos del nombre e ideas de Dewey, un autor clásico pero ya no de moda, por el establishment pedagógico en el franquismo (1939-1976). Explora las condiciones de posibilidad y razones de una muy restricta recepción determinada por las radicales diferencias entre Dewey y la episteme pedagógica española, marcada por concepciones iusnaturalistas. Estas no permitieron la plena comprensión y adopción de sus propuestas educativas y políticas, por lo que se le usó para justificar posiciones de la episteme contrarias a las de Dewey. Un proceso reforzado por las prácticas académicas de lectura y reproducción del conocimiento, en particular de los manuales. Estas sentencias eran descontextualizadas, simplificadas y adaptadas en manuales subsiguientes hasta transformarlas en lugares comunes que justificaban posiciones contrarias a las de Dewey. A pesar de las recriminaciones por impiedad y al rechazo por provenir de una cultura extranjera, el aggiornamento eclesial y la necesidad de nuevos métodos para adoctrinar en los principios del régimen permitieron, a partir de los 50, una progresiva rehabilitación del activismo para las ciencias sociales y la catequesis escolar. Dewey también fue utilizado como un instrumento de diferenciación funcional en la evolución de la Pedagogía Social. La concepción esencialista y teológico-finalista de la antropología y educación de la academia hizo que esta rechazara la experiencia y democracia deweyana.

Abstract: The article analyses the evolution of the uses of Dewey's name and ideas by the educational establishment of the Franco dictatorship (1939–1975). Although classics, during that period Dewey's works no longer fashionable. Indeed, there were radical differences between Dewey's pedagogical ideas and the Spanish school of educational theory, which was based upon natural law ideas. This prevented the real understanding and acceptance of his way of thinking, and he was even used to bolster arguments contrary to his own. This process was reinforced by the academic reading and commenting practices, which de-contextualized, simplified and adapted his ideas from one manual to the next, until Dewey’s message had been entirely changed. Although his thought was attacked for his impiety, and considered foreign to the Spanish reality, Catholic «renovation » and the need for new
educational methods for indoctrinating pupils into the principles of the regime promoted the rehabilitation of activism for the social sciences and school catechesis. Dewey was also used to further functional differentiation within academia, lending authority to the new field of Social Pedagogy as a research field. Nevertheless, the essentialist anthropology and teleological conception of education in Spanish schooling led it to reject Dewey’s ideas of experience and democracy.

Since 2002, the 15 member states of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) have shifted human resource development reforms from focusing on providing basic, mass primary and secondary education and limited tertiary education toward diverting resources to Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) to accommodate labor mobility. This shift fixated on facilitating the creation of the Caribbean Single Market (CSM) in 2006, which was premised upon the free movement of service, capital, goods, people, and the right to establishment (ability of any CARICOM national to establish a business). The motivation was to create an optimal frontier at the regional level to aid in the development of the ‘ideal Caribbean person.’ This article will examine how CARICOM members relied upon the non-economic policy process of functional cooperation and the policy tool of what I call ‘cooperative educational transfer’ at the regional level to move ideas and practices collaboratively to stimulate national education reform. A summative content analysis shows that the rise of cooperative educational transfer at the regional level was a direct consequence of dialectic, dynamic, and fragmentary effects of globalization, since emerging markets in the small (and micro) states of CARICOM cannot insulate themselves from global economic pressures individually. In an analysis of 13 national CARICOM educational policies, findings show that during the 2002–2010 policy period, decisionmaking was distrait, since national governments incorporated both national mandates and regional aspirations and commitments in their reform agendas.

This paper investigated a policy-making debate in Chile, by examining the construction of the Netherlands as a new “reference society”. It focused on a reform agenda that aimed at a transformation of the neo-liberal school governance model. Based on the analysis of government documents, parliamentary debates, and media materials, the paper concludes that in addition to the consideration of PISA results the identification with the Netherlands served fundamentally as a political compromise solution.

Alexandre Fontaine est un ancien résident de nationalité suisse qui a résidé à la maison du Danemark. Aujourd'hui, maître-assistant à l'université de Genève et membre associé de l'UMR 8547 « Pays germaniques -transferts culturels » à l'ENS-Ulm de Paris, il revient sur son parcours d'ancien résident.

Drawing from historical comparative transfer and reception studies, this contribution discusses the concept of ‘reference societies’ with regard to a historical case study. In the focus of attention is a reform process undertaken in Chile at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century in school and army, which is oriented almost exclusively towards Germany. For this purpose, the article first discusses the processes of semantic selection, interpretation and transformation of German ideas and programs by the Chilean actors, while considering the domestic and foreign policy problems, as well as in particular social-psychological operations such as anticipation, suppression, identification and projection. Based on this case study, the article illustrates the fully constellation- and situation-bound and therefore ephemeral character of reference societies.

European educational knowledge and practices have been deeply impacted by the colonial experience. While hegemonic knowledge was exported to the colonies, practices of teaching and governing colonial subjects were tested in the periphery and then re-imported to the center. This contribution looks at a case of European education outside Europe that did not take place, at least not entirely, in a colonial setting: China. It argues that the (at least potentially) non-colonial encounter with societies that presented possible alternatives to European civilization was as important in refracting and reframing European knowledge, education, and identity as was the colonial encounter. European education outside Europe was not only enacted in settings of hegemony and resistance but also in more subtly nuanced spaces of encounter. 2

Dewey anses allmänt ha utövat ett enormt inflytande på den kinesiska utbildningen. I det här kapitlet behandlas hur Dewey togs emot, anpassades och transformerades under fyra olika tidsperioder i Kina. Jag kommer att granska hur detta inflytande har utvecklats både genom Dewey själv och genom hans förmedlare, förespråkare och kritiker mellan tiden för hans besök i Kina 1919 och i dag. Särskild uppmärksamhet ägnas åt hur vissa av hans idéer anammades – och andra ignorerades eller förvrängdes – för att passa de intellektuellas olika agendor. Genom att följa de ändringar som centrala begrepp som ”pragmatism” och ”barncentrerad pedagogik” genomgick under loppet av nio årtionden, visar jag hur John Dewey framgångsrikt omvandlades till den kinesiske ”Duwei".

"Die Institutionalisierung der Gymnasiallehrerbildung in Chile" als hybrides Organisationsmodell wird von Cristina Alarcón als Resultat zahlreicher Hin- und Rückübersetzungen sowie Umdeutungen und Justierungen behandelt. Eine wichtige Rolle spielte dabei (die offenbar nicht immer freiwillige) berufliche Mobilität verschiedener Protagonisten und wie diese deutsche Modelle der Lehrerbildung selektiv aufgegriffen und neue Nachbarschaften gestiftet haben: die Humboldt`sche Idee der Universität ging einher mit Herbarts Formalstufenlehre, dem Konzept der Jenaer Übungsschule, psychotechnischer sowie schulhygienischer Innovation und völkerpsychologischer Studien. Die Autorin weist darauf hin, das die Zirkulation des Wissens hier insgesamt nicht nur einer Nord-Süd-, sondern auch einer Süd-Süd-Bewegung folgte.

Este artículo analiza cómo se recibió, adaptó y transformó a Dewey en China, en cuatro períodos de tiempo diferentes: durante la era republicana , después de la entrada en el poder del comunismo en 1949, después de que de Deng Xiaoping anunciase las « Cuatro Modernizaciones » (en la década de 1980), y en la China actual. Generalmente, se considera que ha ejercido una tremenda influencia en la educación china. El artículo examina cómo se desarrolló esta influencia tanto a través del propio Dewey como a través de sus mediadores, sus propagadores y sus críticos, entre su visita al país de 1919 y hoy en día. Se presta especial atención a cómo algunas de sus ideas fueron recogidas -y cómo otras fueron ignoradas o tergiversadas-para adaptarse a la agenda de los intelectuales de cada unos de los períodos. Al rastrear los cambios que conceptos centrales como los de « pragmatismo » o « pedagogía centrada en el niño » sufrieron a lo largo de nueve décadas, el artículo revela cómo el filósofo y educador John Dewey fue transformado con éxito en China como 'Duwei' -en amigo del pueblo chino, en demonio de China y el marxismo, y en buque insignia de la modernización. Descriptores: John Dewey; transferencia educative; procesos de recepción; historia de la educación china.

This article combines the perspective of transnational transfer with contributions from social theory and historical sociology – specifically the Luhmannian concept of social ‘inclusion’. In doing so, this article reconstructs a historical case regarding the conflicting implementation of universal conscription and compulsory schooling in Chile in the context of a reform process that took place at the turn of the twentieth century and was oriented towards the German Reich. The article aims to trace both the structural correspondence between compulsory schooling and universal conscription and the statutory implementation of both versions of ‘inclusion’ by analysing the lines of argument set forth by the warring liberal and conservative groups of actors and, in particular, their discursive references to the German Reich and Prussia. The main arguments are, firstly, that the German Reich was extremely attractive to broad and even opposing coalitions because of its ambiguity. Secondly, a contradictory conception of citizenship prevailed. Thirdly, a social mobilisation process led by professionalised teachers and officers finally made the introduction of compulsory schooling possible. The article ultimately confirms the fundamental role of ‘reference societies’ in the context of nation-building and modernisation processes in Chile.

This paper analyzes the activities, members, and effects of an inter-American expert network for the diffusion of psychometric knowledge, specifically of standardized aptitude testing for university admission in Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s. Within the framework of educational transfer studies, the role of international, nongovernmental, and philanthropic organizations is examined. It is argued that circulation of psychometric knowledge and technologies led to a new governing regime for learning and learners. The paper discusses the effect of convergence and Americanization, in the context of US-promoted “Alliance for Progress,” but also of divergence and resistance.

Zu den Kriegen, die im gegenwärtigen Bewusstsein Westeuropas kaum noch präsent sind, gehört auch der sogenannte «Salpeter»-Krieg (1879-1883), in dessen Verlauf Chile sein Staatsgebiet auf Kosten von Peru und Bolivien um die ressourcenreiche Atacama-Wüste stark nach Norden erweitern konnte. Motiviert durch Befürchtungen einer Revanche seitens des im Krieg durch Frankreich unterstützten Peru, nahmen die führenden positivistisch-liberal gesinnten Politiker Chiles tiefgreifende Reformen ihres noch post-kolonial geprägten Landes in Angriff. Dabei konstruierten sie ihrerseits Preußen bzw. Deutschland zur – wie selektiv auch immer wahrgenommenen – maßgeblichen «Referenzgesellschaft». Gestützt auf detaillierte Forschungen in deutschen und chilenischen Archiven untersucht die Autorin in durchgängig befolgter Parallelführung zwei zentrale Reformprozesse: die Neugestaltung des Bildungswesens und die Reorganisation des Heereswesens. Beide werden in ihren Verfassungsrechtlichen, (aus)bildungstheoretisch-didaktischen und professionspolitischen Dimensionen analysiert und als Katalysatoren der chilenischen Nationalstaatsbildung interpretiert.