Eddic Poetry

El artículo presenta un análisis semántico de los nombres propios de Wainamoinen, uno de los personajes principales del epos finlandés Kalevala. El análisis comparativo reveló las siguientes capas de información en los nombres propios de Wainamoinen: una forma interna transparente de los nombres (Väinämäinen / Wainamoinen, Väinö / Waino, Suvantolainen / Suwantolainen, Uvantolaynen, Osmoynen, Kalevainen, Kalevalainen) de origen finlandés, lenguaje y falta de transparencia de los nombres de Wainamoinen en inglés, una connotación adicional formada por las estructuras morfológicas de los nombres y un estatus social, dependiente de la relación del remitente y destinatario.

In Nordic Paganism, contemporary Nordic folk music is emerging as a prominent aspect of the tradition’s body of Lore, the corpus of mythology, historical accounts, archaeological records, folk histories, traditions, and symbolism from which adherents draw to inform their religious subjectivity. Nordic folk bands such as Wardruna and Heilung are creating bodies of work that are being engaged with in a ritualistic fashion by Nordic Pagans in both solitude and in communal settings such as concerts and festivals. The ritualized creative processes of these bands are varied and range from delivering lyrics in Old Norse whilst partly submerged in a rushing river or ritually anointing instruments with the blood of band members. These processes combined with the utilization of traditional Nordic folk musicology and symbolism, allowing receptive listeners to be immersed in a distinctly Nordic Neopagan sonosphere, the experience of which allows for the development and refinement of religious identity.

This paper is the third in a three-part series that develops a model for the background of rhyme in Old Norse dróttkvætt poetry as a formalization of the same form of rhyme found across Old Germanic poetries. The first paper in this series outlined the argument and its background. The second paper explored rhyme in Old Germanic poetries outside of Old Norse. The present paper introduces rhyme in Old Norse eddic poetries in relation to what was found in other Old Germanic traditions. It then turns to dróttkvætt, discussed in relation to the broader poetic ecology in which it emerged and developed, and considers how dróttkvætt impacted that ecology and uses of rhyme in eddic poetry. Although the ultimate origin of dróttkvætt remains obscure, the discussion of rhyme in dróttkvætt requires a discussion of the history of the meter, here situated in relation to other developments in the poetic ecology that point to greater attention to cadence and rhyme under conditions conducive to formalizing a stanzaic structure. However, this exploration of the history of the poetic form highlights that rhyme may have been a secondary development of the basic meter, formalizing what began as an optional added feature that may have had only a marginal metrical role.

This article argues that the medieval Scandinavian valkyrie and shield-maiden, overlapping categories of warrior, are best understood as a third gender, a hybrid of masculine and feminine attributes. Found in a variety of texts, myths, and legends of heroes, for example, these figures are clad in masculine attire, armor, and weapons, and exercise masculine power as they fight and choose who will die in battle. At the same time, linguistic markers, literary devices, and other of their activities mark them as feminine. The article further argues that the shield-maiden who chooses a male spouse subsequently transitions from the third gender to the feminine gender. As a consequence, she loses many of the powerful abilities of a warrior woman, along with her armor and weapons. Furthermore, her subjectivity is altered so that it is founded and dependent on that of her husband. When he dies, she is left with a diminished social network that, given the construction of subjectivity in this medieval context, leaves her personhood diminished as well.

In the rich tapestry of Norse mythology and Viking history, women often played vital and multifaceted roles, not only as caretakers and figures of domestic life but also as warriors and seekers of justice. The sagas are replete with tales of formidable women who sought revenge, driven by honour and retribution. One such example is the story of Gudrun Osvifrsdottir from the Laxdaela Saga, a woman of remarkable cunning and unyielding resolve. She meticulously orchestrates vengeance against her husband’s killers, showcasing a blend of intelligence and determination that is truly admirable. These narratives highlight that Viking women were not merely passive figures but active participants in their society's complex web of loyalty, betrayal, and retribution. Their stories of revenge not only underscore their strength and agency and reflect the broader themes of honor and justice that were integral to Norse culture.

Repensar la herejía, como objeto de estudio, es desandar viejos problemas dentro del campo histórico medieval, ¿Por qué es necesario volver? Porque cuando hablamos de herejía estamos haciendo referencia a formas en las cuales se ejerció el poder y sus diversas implicancias en las dinámicas sociales de una época en particular. Un momento histórico
significativo, la Alta Edad Media, donde se discutieron y se plantearon cuestiones y criterios que se mantendrán en la larga duración de la historia de Occidente, aspectos que posteriormente tendrán gran relevancia. En otras palabras, planteamos que la herencia histórica del período se manifestó en múltiples aristas, visibles en la cristiandad católica, en las construcciones discursivas, incluyendo también a las formas en que las instituciones políticas ejercieron el poder por medio del contraste y la diferenciación, y otros elementos que hacen necesaria una recapitulación del pasado.
En este sentido, la investigación propone indagar la noción de herejía en las obras de Isidoro de Sevilla (S. VI-VII), particularmente en Etimologías y Sentencias. Un estudio que nos invita a considerar nuevas dimensiones ligadas al sentido performativo y la intencionalidad de los discursos, penetrando en el estudio de las fuentes con la finalidad de contribuir y acrecentar los saberes y conocimientos de una época cargada de significados, representaciones y conflictos.

Along with Vǫluspá, Hávamál is probably the most famous Old Norse poem. It is traditionally dated to c. 850-950, but some scholars have argued for a much later date based on its content. Existing content-based dating attempts suffer from a lack of specificity and testing, however, and as such their significance remains unclear. Nonetheless, content-based criteria can at times fulfil these requirements. If good criteria and methods for testing are found, these could provide much-needed avenues for the evaluation of competing hypotheses, since the metre of Hávamál, ljóðaháttr, offers fewer linguistic dating criteria than fornyrðislag. This article identifies and tests four such criteria, all of which point to a time of composition before c. 1000, lending support to formal criteria. No counterindications have been identified, and the spread of criteria across the poem suggests that, even if Hávamál may conceivably have been compiled from more than one poem, this must most likely have happened early, probably in the period c. 900-50.

Статья посвящена тому, как в древнеисландской
словесности используется паремия at mæla fagrt ok hyggja flátt
(«говорить красиво и думать лживо»), а также ее часть — фор-
мула «Х говорит красивыми словами» (mæla með fögrum orðum)
и ее варианты. В центре исследования находится употребле-
ние паремии в «Саге о Бьёрне Богатыре долины реки Хит», где
она используется нестандартным образом, из-за чего ее функ-
ция здесь оказывается неясна: хотя в древнеисландском корпу-
се часто эта паремия сигнализирует о том, что герой, к которому
обращены «красивые речи», будет обманут и скоро погибнет, в
«Саге о Бьёрне» за паремией не следует ни обмана, ни смер-
ти. Для комментария к этому месту привлекается употребление
паремии и ее вариантов в широком корпусе древнеисландских
текстов. Такой подход позволяет не только выделить несколько
нарративных стратегий узуса этой конкретной паремии в древ-
неисландской книжности, но и начать обсуждение того, каким
было отношение к красноречию в Древней Исландии. // The paper analyses the use of the paroemia at mæla
fagrt ok hyggja flátt (to speak fairly and to think falsely) in the Old
Norse-Icelandic literary corpus, focusing both on the paroemia and
its derivative — the representation of the characters’ eloquence
by the formula that they are speaking in “fair words” (mæla með
fögrum orðum). At the heart of the research lies the obscure use
of the paroemia in one of the sagas of Icelanders, Bjarnar saga
hítdælakappa, where the paroemia’s function is difficult to interpret
if it is read only against the general context of the saga. While often
in the Old Norse-Icelandic corpus the paroemia is followed by deceit
and the immediate death of the character who has been spoken to
fairly, in Bjarnar saga the paroemia leads only to an unsuccessfull
winter stay at the main antagonist’s farmhouse. Our commentary
to this part draws upon the analysis of the use of the paroemia and
its variants in the wider corpus of Old Norse-Icelandic texts. This
approach allows one not only to look at the case of non-standard
paroemical usage in sagas and discover several narrative strategies
connected to this particular paroemia in the Old Norse-Icelandic
literature but also to start a discussion about the attitude towards
eloquence in Medieval Iceland.

In a number of previous works, I have investigated the theme of love and the depiction of emotions in Old Norse literature in its various genres.  One recurring focus has been the dependence of native vs. forign tradition in the depiction love and emotions, and not least combinations of these traditions in Old Norse prose and poetry. In the present study, I focus on an aspect which the previous works have only briefly touched upon: the relationship between passion and harm-bringing witchcraft in Old Norse literature. I analyze the different types of combinations of passion and witchcraft, their origins and their transformations. The study involves cases of passion without witchcraft as well as cases of witchcraft without passion, but the main focus is on cases where passion and witchcraft seem to be inseparable.

Este artigo apresenta as principais divindades relacionadas às intempéries atmosféricas, com destaque para aquelas relacionadas a elementos vinculados à ocorrência de tempo severo. Foram coletadas e agrupadas informações sobre diferentes culturas do passado, dando destaque para aquelas que cultuavam divindades sobre as quais esses povos depositavam a confiança de que elas teriam poder sobre as formações de sistemas atmosféricas relacionados a ocorrência de ventos fortes, tempestades e/ou outros fenômenos climático meteorológicos.

Guðrúnarkviða I is an Eddic poem preserved in Codex Regius nr. 2365 4to (c. 1270), where it is placed between the longer prose section titled Frá dauða Sigurðar (following Brot af Sigurðarkviðo) and Sigurðarkviða in skamma. The poem is composed in fornyrðislag, divided into 27 stanzas of considerable irregularity regarding the number of lines (Bugge 1867). The length of the stanzas varies between 6 to 12 lines in Sophus Bugge's edition (Bugge 1867); this irregularity is even more marked in the current standard edition (Neckel-Kuhn), where also the division of stanzas differs from Bugge. The standard name of the poem is taken from its heading in the manuscript, Guðrúnar kviða, without number. Nothing of the poem is preserved in other manuscripts, and it is not used in any of the prose works dealing with the Sigurðr legend. The presence of a stef (þeygi Guðrún gráta mátti three times) constitutes a rare feature in the heroic cycle of the Edda.

This study aims to give a contribution to the history of passion as a motif in Old Norse literature. It will be done by an examination of a distinct and clearly defined phenomenon: love-sickness. The material will primarily be a distinct literary type: the Old Norse poetry. A specific formula type, her called 'the woman causes the man grief', which has so far not been thoroughly investigated, will be in focus. The main purpose is to map the motif in the material and to examine its characteristics. The study will also try to establish its origin and its relation to courtly European tradition.

Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att granska hur genus och genusrelationer uttrycks i svenska, medeltida ballader. Genom att förstå balladkaraktärernas handlingar som performativa, ämnar uppsatsen undersöka hur maskulinitet och femininitet etableras och omförhandlas. Av betydelse är att belysa hur karaktärernas handlingsmöjligheter påverkas av faktorer såsom kön, social status och familjerelationer, men även jämföra hur genusmönster i balladen reflekterar eller utmanar normer och ideal i det senmedeltida samhället. Som teoretiska begrepp används kulturell och personlig framgång respektive kulturellt och personligt misslyckande, vilket syftar till att åskådliggöra hur män och kvinnor har möjlighet att utöva och förhandla om makt på olika sätt. Genom detta kan man röra sig bort från uppfattningen om passivitet och maktlöshet som analogt med femininitet, och aktivitet och makt som synonymt med maskulinitet. Resultaten uppvisar en problematisering och nyansering av genusuttryck i medeltida ballader som saknas i tidigare forskning, och framhäver fördelarna att bedriva ett mer inkluderande synsätt gentemot den här typen av källmaterial inom historievetenskapen.

Using various Old Norse sources, this chapter analyses the description of the state that obtained before the creation of the world in pre-Christian Nordic mythology by focusing on Ginnungagap and its relation to the concept of abyss. The philological and source-critical approach of the study leads to the conclusion that the famous description of the pre-creation state and of the creation in Snorri Sturluson's Edda is a late construction which never existed in pre-Christian times, and that the descriptions in the Eddic poems Völuspá and Vafþrúðnismál, although both genuinely pre-Christian, express completely different myths of both the creation and the pre-creation state. The study further demonstrates how many previous scholars have made erroneous interpretations based on harmonisation of the sources, while an examination of each source separately gives an entirely different picture. Snorri's interpretation of Ginnungagap is shown to become the later medieval standard, and the original idea of an empty void is abandoned. Finally, the study argues that the myth told in Völuspá is influenced by the biblical creation story although this influence took place in the pre-Christian times.

In the present study we intend to reconstruct the attitudes of Romanian peasants towards the vestiges of prehistoric material culture. They have been in contact with a diversity of prehistoric artefacts: polished and perforated stone axes, silex arrow tips, chisels, scrapers, spindle whorls, jewellery, etc. We try to find answers to the following questions: What people thought about the origin of prehistoric artefacts? What meanings were associated with such artefacts? What was their place in the collective imaginary? Which were the uses of these objects?

Skírnismál is an Eddic poem consisting of 42 stanzas in ljóðaháttr, preceded by a prose introduction. All the stanzas are in direct speech. The whole poem is preserved in the manuscript Codex Regius nr. 2365 4to (c.1270) and the first 27 stanzas also in A 748 Ia 4to (c. 1300). The former manuscript uses the name Fǫr Skírnis [Skírnir's journey], while the latter uses the name Skírnismál. Snorri Sturluson quotes st. 42 in his Edda (Gylfaginning, ch. 23) after a short summary of the poem. In Codex Regius, Skírnismál is placed between Grímnismál and Hárbarðsljóð, as the only Freyr poem in the collection. Skírnismál tells the story of how Freyr, assisted by his servant Skírnir, wins the giantess Gerðr as his wife or mistress. The poem itself is preceded by a prose introduction, telling that Njǫrðr's son Freyr once sat in Hliðskjálf and looked out over the world; in Jǫtunheimr, 'the Giant land', he saw a beautiful woman, which made him depressed. His father asks Freyr's friend and servant Skírnir to find out the cause. The poem proper starts thereafter. The first stanzas consist of a dialogue between Skírnir and Skaði and between Skírnir and Freyr. The stanzas describe Freyr's depressed behaviour, his passivity, and his isolation from other people, and Freyr reveals that his sadness is caused by his sight of a beautiful woman. He longs for her. She turns out to be Gerðr, daughter of the giant Gymir. Skírnir agrees to ride to Jǫtunheimr and bring her to Freyr. He is first stopped by a shepherd, but then he meets Gerðr and performs Freyr's request. She responds negatively. The following part of the poem is occupied by a scene where Skírnir uses various arguments and means to persuade Gerðr to give herself to Freyr. At first, Skírnir tries to convince her with precious gifts, which she rejects, then with threats of killing her and her father, and, most extensively, with a magic staff and a long curse that will strike her if she does not accept Freyr. She will suffer many pains, among them an unbearable, unfulfilled desire. This breaks down Gerðr's resistance, and she finally declares her willingness to give herself to Freyr. They will meet in the grove Barri after nine nights. Skírnir returns to Freyr and informs him about the agreement. In the last stanza, Freyr complains of his yearning which makes the wait seem too long.

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The first edition of this book was published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford in hardback 1982. It was reissued in paperback by the Viking Society in 1988, and again, with minor corrections and a lengthy list of corrections, in 2000. This second edition has been fully corrected, revised and reset, and I am very grateful for the care with which proofs have been read by David Ashurst, who has drawn my attention to many inconsistencies, some surviving from the original edition, some introduced in my revision, as well as pointing out a number of errors that crept in during the resetting. It is hoped that the book is now more accurately printed and more reliable than before.

Guðrúnarkviða II is an eddic poem in fornyrðislag metre, preserved in the Codex Regius, GKS no. 2365 4to (c. 1270) where it is placed between the prose chapter Dráp Niflunga [The Killing of the Niflungs] and the poem Guðrúnarkviða III. Since Sophus Bugge's edition (1867), it has usually been divided into 44 stanzas of irregular length. The name Guðrúnar kviða [without number] is found in the heading of the poem in the manuscript. There is a reference to the poem (concerning different versions of the killing of Sigurðr) in a prose section after Brot af Sigurðsarkviðo, where it is called Guðrúnarkviða in forna. This section is also used in Norna-Gests þáttr, where the poem is called Guðrúnarroeða [Guðrún's speech]. Much of the poem are retold in prose in Vǫlsunga saga (ch. 34-35), where three stanzas from the poem are also quoted (st. 19, 22, and 23 in Guðrúnarkviða II).

The book Following the Formula in Beowulf, Örvar-Odds saga, and Tolkien by Prof. Michael Fox is a comparative study which attempts at offering a new glance at the old question of oral-formulaity of the Old English epic in conjunction with Örvar-Odds saga and Tolkien's works Sellic Spell and The Hobbit. This journey is divided into six chapters, each one of them addressing a very specific aspect of this question. Namely, Fox's main idea is that formula understood in a more encompassing way than the initial Parry-Lord definition can be seen as the matrix based on which this traditional epic was formed, but that it also served quite well as the blueprint to J. R. R. Tolkien in his creation of the fairy tale and the book which seem to be perhaps the closest resemblances of Beowulf in literary fiction. Having given an overview of the oral-formulaic thought in folkloristic scholarship, Fox continues his first chapter entitled "Beowulf and Formula" by addressing the specific instances of oral-formulaic theory which can be detected in Beowulf: action-pattern, type-scenes, themes, motifs (with an overview of the problem of their overlapping and resistance to strict classification), structural repetition (the instances of "envelope pattern" and ring pattern proposed by John D. Niles and Ward Parks which could be found in the epic), and finally, the story-pattern as defined by Lord who discovered two basic patterns of story with the roots in the Indo-European tradition, one of them being "The Bear's Son Tale" which is precisely the fairy-tale foundation of Beowulf (as confirmed by Andy Orchard and Christine Rauer). Fox goes on to conclude it is the patchwork that is Beowulf that rests on the original which shines through the pieces laid on top of it. Referring to a very rich critical thought in the field of half-line formulas in Beowulf, Fox continues his journey by analyzing the weox under wolcnum (8a) formula (below the heavens/clouds). This formula, or system as some

After a discussion of earlier interpretations of l. 51f., an argument is made for the emendation not only of chludun to chlubun, "they clove" (incontestable), but also of stoptū to a non-OHG stopun, "they stepped" (better than a saxonised *staptun with the same meaning), as already proposed by Lachmann (1833). In addition, staim is no longer interpreted as the first part of a compound-not as *stein with the meaning "colour", only attested in ON, nor as *steim, "noise", only attested once in MHG, nor as *sturm, "storm", never attested in OHG, OS, OE and ON as first member of a compound with the meaning "battle"-but as an instrumentalis, signifying the swords, and therefore to be corrected to sta(h)lim, "with steels", another non-OHG word-form. All this is seen, together with the use of bort for "shield", as further evidence that the lay was influenced by OE and OS poetry.

Nach einem Abriss der verschiedenen, seit 1729 gegebenen Erklärungen von luttila werden die Voraussetzungen und Konsequenzen der Deutung Holtzmanns (1854 und 1864) eingehend kritisiert. Die dann vorgestellte Erklärung beruht auf dem vorausgehenden filu. Und es wird dafür plädiert, die prut In bure ernstzunehmen: hinsichtlich der Abhängigkeit des Hl. von altenglischer Dichtung und hinsichtlich ihrer Bedeutung für Hiltibrant.

Die altenglischen Parallelen zu sunufatarungo legen nahe, dass damit das traditionelle Thema der ‚germanischen' Heldensagen signalisiert wird: Mord und Totschlag zwischen Verwandten. Dieses Thema dürfte aber nicht erneut durchgeführt, sondern christlich gewendet worden sein. Die verschiedenen Rechtfertigungen des Dogmas der Sohnestötung: die Verwandtschaft mit außergermanischen Sagen, ‚Hildebrands Sterbelied' in einer dänischen Sage und die "eiserne Geschlossenheit" (Höfler) des ‚germanischen' Heldenlieds erweisen sich bei näherer Betrachtung als nicht haltbar. Den Hintergrund des Liedes dürfte die Verbindung Dietrichs mit Ermenrich bilden, nicht eine hypothetische Vorstufe der Exilsage, in der Otacher der Vertreiber war. Diese Sage selbst war im 9. Jh. noch nicht literaturfähig, weil das gänzlich negative Bild des historischen Theoderich dem noch im Wege stand. So wurde die Vaterfigur von Dietrichs "liebstem Degen" zum Gegenbild Ermenrichs und Gegenstand eines Lieds gemacht, das in einen Bibel-Kodex eingetragen werden konnte.

This paper is the second in a three-part series on the distinctive type of rhyme in the Old Norse dróttkvaett meter, argued to have emerged through the metricalization of uses of rhyme within a short line found across Old Germanic poetries. Whereas the first paper outlined the argument and its background, this paper explores uses of rhyme in Old Germanic poetries other than Old Norse. Rhyme involving the stressed syllable or word stem irrespective of subsequent syllables is shown to be a device of these poetic systems. Especially in Old English, such rhyme is used to support and reinforce the basic meter and may even fill a metrical function in the place of additional alliteration. The type of rhyme is argued to be an inherited feature of the poetic system, an argument also supported by the metricalized use of rhyme in Old Norse dróttkvaett poetry. Because some theories of the Old Germanic poetic form require viewing rhyme as competing and interfering with its rhythm, the rhymecompatible model used here is outlined.

The topic of this article is the medieval source material for A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. We discuss the dictionary's approach to the text sources and how different types of text make up the body of citations and what information about the source material is registered. Furthermore we account for the distribution of citations between different text genres as well as time periods and geographical provenance.

Index 301 This volume is the outcome of the Fourth Workshop of the Ecocritical Network for Scandinavian Studies (ENSCAN) held in November 2020. Organized by Reinhard Hennig and Michael Schulte on behalf of the University of Agder, Norway, and Emily Lethbridge on behalf of the Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Iceland, this workshop had originally been planned as a physical event but had to move completely online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We thank all our contributors for their willingness to experiment with (then) new digital forms during the workshop, and for their commitment during the subsequent work on the volume. We owe special thanks to Rosie Bonté, our publishing manager at Brepols, for her enthusiasm and kind support of this project from the outset. We would also like to thank an anonymous reviewer for valuable feedback, Maria Tryfinopoulou from Brepols for her work on the cover design, and Tim Barnwell for professional copyediting. The open access publication of the volume has been made possible through generous financial support by the Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy for Swedish Folk Culture, Letterstedtska föreningen, the Faculty of Humanities and Education at the University of Agder,

The skaldic kenning is frequently described as ‘riddling’ or ‘riddle-like’. Valuable work has been done (e. g. Lindow1975) in establishing the structural, linguistic, and cognitive similarities between kennings and riddles, but this has usually been done in terms of the broad modern English sense(s) of the word ‘riddle’ or ‘riddling’. This paper, more specifically, explores the comparison by examining Old Norse riddles, namely items described as gátur in their textual setting, and Old Norse kennings, in the context of each other. In doing so it highlights Old Norse poetic techniques of play and of cognition, how ‘riddling’ strategies work in context, and how both riddles and kennings provide fresh ways of perceiving and understanding the world.

Laust eftir miðjan sjotta aratug 18. aldar mun Jon Olafsson hafa fengið þa hugmynd að flest orð hefðu i fyrndinni verið miklir langhundar, samsettir ur tveimur eða fleiri orðum eða orðhlutum, en siðar dregist harla mikið saman. Þetta var um margt afdrifarik hugmynd þvi með tilliti til hennar tok Jon a naestu arum að endurskoða ýmislegt i orðabok sinni, sem hann hafði unnið að fra 1734 eða fyrr, svo og i oðrum ritum og skrifaði að auki tvo storverk sem byggðust a þessari hugmynd, Contractismus, sem her verður fjallað um, og Polychrestis. Dr. Jon Helgason gat ser til i riti sinu um Jon Olafsson (1926:311) að upphaf þessa maetti rekja til þess er Jon Olafsson tok að semja skýringar við Eddukvaeði 1756; hann hafi þa farið að brjota heilann um uppruna ýmissa fornyrða og flogið þessi kenning i hug. Nokkur ar liðu þo aður en Jon for að beita kenningu sinni markvisst við orðskýringar þott finna megi daemi um hana i ritum fra arunum fyrir 1760. I hugleiðingum sinum um sott og dauða islenskun...

El siguiente trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de resaltar la labor de los hermanos Francisco Antonio y José Sotero Figueroa Veliz quienes, además de ser patriotas participantes en la guerra independentista de los Diez Años, fueron profesionales de la salud, que como tantos otros han puesto en alto el nombre de Colón por su entrega y dedicación a la labor revolucionaria y a la labor médica.

Hon satt på golvet" av Fedor Tjutčev Om diktens och kärlekens gränser PER-ARNE BODIN Она сидела на полу И груду писем разбирала-И, как остывшую золу, Брала их в руки и бросала-Брала знакомые листы И чудно так на них глядела-Как души смотрят с высоты На ими брошенное тело... И сколько жизни было тут, Невозвратимо пережитой-И сколько горестных минут, Любви и радости убитой... Стоял я, молча, в стороне И пасть готов был на колени,-И страшно-грустно стало мне, Как от присущей милой тени...

Each sheriff had a summoner (stefnuvottur) for assistance. The highest ecclesiastical office was, and still is, that of bishop. The provost was the next in rank, followed by the vicar and the assistant pastors; a deacon (djákn) was not fully ordained. The agricultural sector can be divided into landowners , farmers, sub-tenants and cottars. A household manager (ráðsmaður) can probably be put on the same level as a farmer; below them were sub-tenants. Farmhands were on the lowest level, together with the cottars. At the beginning of the 19 th century, most of the farmers did not own their farms but had to pay rent for them and sometimes even for the cattle, if these were provided by the landlord. 10 Within the retail trade, there were shop owners or merchants (kaupmenn), shop managers (faktorar) and shop assistants (verslunarmenn). Within crafts, the standard division was between master craftsmen and apprentices. Of the 152 subscribers, 39 (one quarter) held offices within the Church: the bishop, seven provosts, 30 pastors and assistant pastors, and one dean. 21 (one seventh) had an administrative profession: these include one sub-governor and one president of the high court, one secretary, five sheriffs, ten administrative officers, one summoner, one admin istrator and one conciliator (forlíkunarmaður). 55 (one third) had an agricultural profession: four were land owners, 42 farmers, one a household manager and eight farmhands. 13 (one tenth) were in business: six merchants, six shop managers and one shop assistant. The remain ing subscribers were two doctors, a pharmacist, three teachers, five students, a cooper and an apprentice to a cooper, a bookbinder, a printer, a silver smith, and six teenagers (unglingar, literally "young people"). Two subscribers did not specify their profession, and one is simply stated to be a breadwinner (fyrirvinna). This list shows that people from all social strata subscribed to Rafn's For naldar sögur nordrlanda, some holding the highest offices, many from the middle social sphere, and even some from the lowest, e.g. the cooper's apprentice and the farmhands. 11 It should also be noted that people of all ages were involved, ranging from teenagers, such as Eiríkur Árnason, a farmhand and probably 19

The Kalevala (1849), the Finnish folk epic, has inspired all types of artists throughout the years. It could be argued that it was only a matter of time before Finnish metal musicians started adapting material from the epic in their music and lyrics. This article presents two case studies of two lyrics. The first is ‘Lemminkäisen laulu’ (‘Lemminkäinen’s Song’) by Kotiteollisuus. This song is about one of the epic’s main heroes, Lemminkäinen, and his unfortunate marriage to Kyllikki. It draws on poems 11–13 from the Kalevala and on the book Seitsemän veljestä (‘The Seven Brothers’) (1870) by novelist Aleksis Kivi. The second song discussed is ‘Rautaa rinnoista’ (‘Iron from the Breasts’) by Mokoma. The lyrics for this song are inspired by the painting Raudan synty (‘The Origins of Iron’) (1917) by Joseph Alanen. This painting is based on the birth of iron poem from the Kalevala. The interpretation of the lyrics of both songs will show that artists in the same genre have a larger gener...