Commercial History

Medievo en Nájera y han sido sometidos a una doble revisión anónima por pares y por el siguiente Comité Reservados todos los derechos. Ni la totalidad ni parte de esta publicación pueden reproducirse, registrarse o transmitirse, por un sistema de recuperación de información, en ninguna forma ni por ningún medio, sea electrónico, mecánico, fotoquímico, magnético o electroóptico, por fotocopia, grabación o cualquier otro, sin permiso previo por escrito de los titulares del copyright. Diplomacia y comercio en la Europa Atlántica medieval / Jesús Ángel Solórzano Telechea, Beatriz Arízaga Bolumburu y Louis Sicking (editores). -Logroño: Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 2015. 323 p.: il.col.; 24 cm. -(Ciencias Históricas; 32).

Braj is the epicentre of the Krishna cult. The physical representation of the scriptural Braj Mandala as we see it today, however, is a medieval construct. During the 15th and 16th centuries, as a part of religious exercises or in the quest for the land of Krishna, the propagators of various sampradayas (sects) reached the region seeking spiritual solace. This process of rediscovering Braj and the settlement of the various sects was followed by a thronging of the region by merchant-followers and, subsequently, by Rajput rulers from the adjoining kingdoms of Rajasthan and Bundelkhand. The pilgrimage to Braj created an environment conducive for traders, especially from Gujarat and Punjab, to establish economic links with the region through a process of endowment and exchange. Hundis (bills of exchange) and wealth in the form of jewelry and gifts from businessmen coming to Braj on a pilgrimage significantly contributed to the development of the region. Of note, however, pilgrimage undertaken by Rajput rajas (kings) was certainly an attempt to assert their authority and raise themselves in the hierarchy vis-à-vis other rulers and nobles. As Braj came to be associated with the Mughals, this pilgrimage also meant allegiance to the courtly culture. This paper establishes that the Braj pilgrimage has served multiple purposes other than quenching one’s spiritual thirst. It served as a medium for legitimising the accumulation of wealth by merchants through their contribution to religious activities. It was also a platform for the formulation of community bonds where monetary help in adverse times could be sought, and safer business travel ensured. Unlike most medieval institutions, which have withered away with the passage of time, pilgrimage to Braj Mandala in the neighbourhood of Vrindavan and Gokul – comprising a circuit of 84 kos (around 252 kilometre) – is still a living tradition.

ÖZET: Bizans ve Sâsânî İmparatorlukları arasında akdedilen barış antlaşmalarındaki iktisâdî hükümlerin değerlendirilmesi, bu savaşların arkasında yatan, ticâret yollarının kontrolünden kaynaklı iktisâdî sebeplerin de anlaşılmasını sağlayacak mahiyettedir. 562 yılında akdedilen Dara Antlaşmasının tam metni günümüze ulaştığından, antlaşma metni temelinde inceleme yapılabilmesi mümkündür. Antlaşmanın başlıca iktisadî hükümleri, devletlerarası ticaretin sadece belirli şehirlerle sınırlandırılması, elçilere ve diplomatik heyetlere verilen ticâret izni, her iki devletin tabiyetindeki Arap tüccarların ve tüm diğer tüccarların da Nisibis ve Dara üzerinden mutabık olunan ticari yolları takip etmeleri ve yeni ticari yollar denememeleridir. Bu hükümler, eski antlaşmalar ve yasal düzenlemeler temelinde tetkik edileceği gibi, Iustinianus döneminde yeni ticâret yolları tesis etme çabası, Bizans İmparatorluğunda ipekli dokuma sektörünün teşekkülü gibi girişimler, Sâsânîlerin İpek Yolu’nun ana ticârî güzergâhlarını kontrolünde tutmasının yarattığı sorunlar göz önüne alınarak tarihsel bağlamda değerlendirilecektir. Bu çalışmada, ticari ilişkilerin eski durumuna geri döndürülerek restore edilmesi çabasının Bizans-Sâsânî savaşlarının bir bir boyutunu teşkil etme ihtimali de tartışılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Bizans-Sâsânî Savaşları, Bizans-Sâsânî İktisâdî ve Ticârî İlişkileri.

ABSTRACT: An evaluation of the economic clauses of the peace treaties that were concluded between Byzantine and Sāssānid Empires, can make us understand the underlying economic factors that was based on controlling the trade routes. Since we have the full text of the treaty of Dara that was concluded between the Byzantine and Sāssānid Empires in 562 AD, it is possible to make a research based on this text. The main economic clauses in the treaty contains the limitation of the interstate commerce by certain cities, the permission to trade of the ambassadors and the diplomatic envoys, and the constraint of the Arabian merchants and all other merchants that are subjects of either state for trying new trade routes and their enforcement to follow the agreed trade routes by Nisibis and Dara. These clauses will be examined on the basis of older treaties and legal regulations,  on the historical context of the effort to establish new trade routes and the attemp to establish the silk weaving industry in Justinian’s times and regarding the problems caused by the Persians' controlling of the main trade routes of the Silk Road. In this work, the possibility of the restoration effort of the commercial relations to its previous state as one of the aspects of the Byzantine-Sāssānid wars, will also be discussed.

Keywords: Byzantine-Sasanian Wars, Byzantine-Sasanian Economic and Commercial Relations.

ABSZTRAKT: A Bizánci és a Sāssānid Birodalom között megkötött békeszerződések gazdasági záradékainak értékelése segíthet megérteni a mögöttes gazdasági tényezőket, amelyek a kereskedelmi útvonalak ellenőrzésén alapultak. Mivel rendelkezésünkre áll a Bizánci és a Sāssānid Birodalom között Kr. u. 562-ben kötött dárai szerződés teljes szövege, lehetőség van arra, hogy a szöveg alapján kutatást végezzünk. A szerződés főbb gazdasági záradékai tartalmazzák az államközi kereskedelem korlátozását bizonyos városok által, a követek és diplomáciai követek kereskedelmének engedélyezését, valamint az arab kereskedők és minden más, bármelyik állam alattvalójának számító kereskedő korlátozását új kereskedelmi útvonalak kipróbálására, és a Nisibis és Dara által megállapított kereskedelmi útvonalak követésére való kényszerítését. Ezeket a záradékokat a régebbi szerződések és jogi szabályozások alapján, az új kereskedelmi útvonalak létrehozására irányuló törekvések és a selyemszövőipar létrehozására tett kísérletek történelmi kontextusában vizsgáljuk meg Jusztiniánusz idejében, valamint a Selyemút fő kereskedelmi útvonalainak perzsák általi ellenőrzése által okozott problémák tekintetében. Ebben a munkában a kereskedelmi kapcsolatok korábbi állapotának helyreállítására irányuló erőfeszítések lehetőségét, mint a bizánci-sāssānid háborúk egyik szempontját is tárgyaljuk.

Kulcsszavak: Bizánci-szaszanida háborúk, bizánci-szaszanida gazdasági és kereskedelmi kapcsolatok.

АБСТРАКТ: Оценка экономических положений мирных договоров, заключенных между Византийской и Сасанидской империями, может помочь нам понять экономические факторы, которые лежали в основе контроля над торговыми путями. Поскольку у нас есть полный текст Дарийского договора, заключенного между Византийской и Сасанидской империями в 562 году н. э., можно провести исследование на основе этого текста. Основные экономические пункты договора содержат ограничение межгосударственной торговли определенными городами, разрешение на торговлю послам и дипломатическим посланникам, а также ограничение арабских купцов и всех других купцов, подданных обоих государств, на новые торговые пути и их принуждение следовать согласованным торговым маршрутам Нисибиса и Дары. Эти положения будут рассмотрены на основе более древних договоров и правовых норм, в историческом контексте попыток установления новых торговых путей и создания шелкоткацкой промышленности во времена Юстиниана, а также в связи с проблемами, вызванными контролем персов над основными торговыми путями Шелкового пути. В этой работе также будет обсуждаться возможность восстановления торговых отношений до прежнего состояния как один из аспектов византийско-сасанидских войн.

Ключевые слова: Византийско-сасанидские войны, византийско-сасанидские экономические и торговые отношения.

This Glossary of technical mercery terms was included as an appendix to my dissertation: The Mercers of Parma; 1585-1739: A Microcosm of the World of Commerce, accepted for the Master of Arts degree at Dalhousie University in 2014. As the Glossary itself could be of interest to people without the time or inclination to wade through almost 200 pages of the main document, I have separated it out and reposted it here. As far as I or my supervisor, Dr. Gregory Hanlon are aware, there is no comparable compilation available anywhere else. The formatting of the Glossary as originally posted was very erratic, due to the pressure of time to complete and submit the dissertation. This version is considerably cleaned up and reorganized. The source materials has been moved to the end and re-formatted. The form of the entries has been made more consistent. As the Italian language was not yet completely standardized at the time of the inventories I was working with, there were dialectical differences in terminology, and spellings had a tendency to be idiosyncratic. In some cases, I suspect that the notaries themselves, unfamiliar with mercery argot, simply transcribed what they heard. As a result, there are often several versions of a particular term. In many cases the terms are not recognizable as modern standard Italian, if there is such a thing. In some lines there are notes about the source of the term, that is, the particular inventory in which I encountered it. These are usually terms I could not find a definition for. There could also be a reference to the source for the definition. The extensive list of sources used for the Glossary was moved to the end and taken out of tabular format, but is still included in case anyone wants to follow up on this effort. One or two terms have been added since the original version. The Glossary remains a work in progress. If anyone can offer any clarifications of any of these terms, I would appreciate hearing from you. Abbreviations: v. = verb. n. = noun. adj. = adjective. = = equal to. exp. = expression. p. n. = place name. poss. = maybe. ?=? esp= especially. eng = english

The British Embassy in Istanbul was unique among other diplomatic missions in the long eighteenth century in being financed by a private commercial monopoly, the Levant Company. In this detailed study, Michael Talbot shows how the intimate relation between commercial interest and diplomatic practice played out across the period, from the arrival of an ambassador from the restored British crown in 1661 to the sudden evacuation of his successor and the outbreak of the first British-Ottoman War in 1807. Using a rich variety of sources in English, Ottoman Turkish and Italian, some of them never before examined, including legal documents, financial ledgers and first-hand accounts from participants, he reconstructs the detail of diplomatic practice in rituals of gift-giving and hospitality within the Ottoman court; examines the at times very different meanings that they held for the British and Ottoman participants; and traces the ways in which the declining fortunes of the Levant Company directly affected the ability of the embassy to perform effectively within Ottoman conventions, at a time when rising levels of British violence in and around the Ottoman realm marked the journey towards British imperialism in the region.

El libro que reseñamos está basado en una prolija investigación, realizada en el Perú, durante una beca de investigación en la Universidad Nacional de San Marcos. Para realizarla, el autor estableció contactos y relaciones con una generación de mariateguistas que, alrededor de la familia Mariátegui y Empres Editora Amauta, mantienen en el Perú y en el extranjero el interés por el estudio de la vida y la obra de José Carlos Mariátegui. Su autor, el historiador mexicano Emigdio Aquino, profesor de la Universidad Autónoma de México, no sólo ha contado de esta manera con acceso a importantes fuentes documentales y testimoniales, sino que también estuvo en el Perú en un momento muy importante para los estudios sobre José Carlos Mariátegui: la conmemoración del centenario de su nacimiento, celebrada en 1994. Cabría destacar, dentro de lo señalado al respecto de nuestro autor, que en los úiltimos años el centro de la producción de investigaciones acerca de la vida y obra de José CarlosMariátegui ha girado del Perú hacia Europa y algunos de los más importantes países de América Latina. Este libro se inscribe, pues, al interior de este cambio de centro.

Le rôle des épiciers et des professions apparentées (droguistes, confiseurs, etc.) dans la redistribution des produits issus du commerce colonial au cours de l’époque moderne est un fait désormais bien établi. Dans les grandes villes portuaires, dès lors qu’ils dépassent le simple rôle de boutiquier, il n’est pas rare qu’ils soient armateurs ou interviennent a minima dans l’approvisionnement des navires et reçoivent en retour des cargaisons de produits « exotiques » qu’ils commercialisent ensuite dans l’ensemble du pays. Les marchands détaillistes ont aussi, à leur échelle plus réduite, cette fonction de diffuseurs de produits nouveaux. A ce titre, l’étude de ces métiers à Bordeaux et à Nantes au XVIIIe siècle revêt un intérêt particulier dans la mesure où ces deux ports regroupent alors une part prépondérante du négoce avec l’outre-mer. La composition numérique de ces activités est déjà un premier indice de leur rôle dans les deux cités. Le nombre d’épiciers se développe généralement au cours du siècle, leur activité commerciale prend de l’ampleur. Au travers des sources disponibles (inventaires après décès, bilans de faillite, comptabilités notamment), il est possible d’analyser quelles sont les conditions de l’offre de denrées nouvelles et les spécificités des deux villes dans la diffusion de celles-ci. La gamme de produits s’étoffe, se diversifie, et surtout devient plus accessible au quidam au cours du XVIIIe siècle. La question des canaux d’approvisionnement et surtout de la clientèle des épiciers des deux villes constitue un témoignage des plus éclairants sur la redistribution de ces produits.

Impaginazione e stampa: IGV srl, San Giovanni Valdarno, dicembre 2017 ISBN 978 88 906 15 290 lauretta Carbone Il pittore Alessandro Forzori e le «dipinture inhoneste» nel palazzo comunale ClauDio Cherubini Gli ultimi anni del pastificio di Sansepolcro: dalla Buitoni alla Nestlé 7 21 53 91 105 123 137 153 195 6 227 105 alberto luongo NOTE SUI REGISTRI TRECENTESCHI DEI TESTATORI DELL'ARCHIVIO DELLA FRATERNITA DEI LAICI DI AREZZO *

Estimar un índice de precios para 1872-1897, a pesar de las limitaciones de las fuentes, ofirece resultados aceptables, importantes aportaciones para la historia económica de Cuba y algunas respuestas al debate sobre su independencia. Dichos precios experimentaron un proceso de deflación similar al de otros países y muy sincronizado con el de los EE UU (economía a la que ya estaba estrechamente vinculada la insular), pero tras la crisis de 1883 empezaron a decrecer a un ritmo muy inferior a los del azúcar, ocasionando pérdidas que, teniendo en cuenta la importancia de ese producto, pueden ser una buena aproximación a lo que deberían mostrar indicadores como la renta -para la que carecemos de cálculos-. Frente a la historiografía anterior, la investigación tiene un carácter complementario; indica la necesidad de ampliar el espectro en el que se han estudiado problemas como la política arancelaria o la reserva del mercado cubano para los artículos españoles, pues la evidencia prueba que, en última instancia, fue la evolución del sistema económico internacional de finales del siglo XIX la principal causa económica de la independencia.

Η μελέτη κομίζει στοιχεία για την επαγγελματική δράση του Σπ. Αντύπα αλλά και για το ήθος του, με ανέκδοτο αρχειακό υλικό και άγνωστες μαρτυρίες από τον τύπο της εποχής του. Ο Αντύπας ήταν ένας ανθρώπος που ήταν εραστής του Ερμή, τόσο του Κερδώου όσο και του Λογίου, καταφέρνοντας κατά την άποψή μας να παραμείνει άνθρωπος και κυρίως φίλος του ποιητικού λόγου.  Στον τόμο περιλαμβάνονται παλαιότερα δημοσιευμένες εργασίες για τη ζωή και το έργο του καθώς και νέες μελέτες, που φέρνουν στο φως νέα στοιχεία για τη δράση του και το ποιητικό του έργο. Η έρευνα έφερε στο φως άγνωστα ποιήματά του, καθώς και πολύτιμες πληροφορίες για την επιχειρηματική του δραστηριότητα.

This article examines the body of takrirs ¬– written representations – from the British ambassadors in Istanbul to the Ottoman government in the mid- and late eighteenth century, aiming to place these diplomatic representations within the wider Ottoman petitionary framework, and to illustrate the role of the ambassador in providing consular functions. It discusses the form and linguistic style of these documents, before analysing the two main types of cases found. The first concerns the freedom of movement and freedom from harassment requested by British travellers on land and at sea, in accordance with the rules of the Capitulations and custom. The second group of cases dealt with more complex legal disputes between British merchants and Ottoman subjects and officials involving the Capitulations and other sorts of legal practices. Examining these documents permits a view of the practice of diplomacy, and demonstrates how text and custom combined through the fluid interpretation of the Capitulations in order to regulate the rights and freedoms of British merchants through the Ottoman petitionary system.

Bu makale, 18. yüzyılın ortalarında ve sonlarında İngiliz elçisi tarafından Osmanlı hükümetine sunulan takrirleri, bunları Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi çerçevesinde incelemek ve elçinin konsolosluk görevlerine ışık tutmak amacıyla inceleyecektir. Bu belgelerin şekil ve dili değerlendirildikten sonra, iki tip vaka analiz edilecektir. İlk gruptaki vakalar kapitülasyonlar ve diplomatik gelenekler uyarınca İngiliz tüccarlar ve seyyahlar tarafından talep edilen karada ve denizde seyahat özgürlüğü ve mal güvenliğini konu almaktadır. İkinci grup ise kapitülasyonlar ile diğer hukuki uygulamalara konu olan  ve İngiliz ve Osmanlı tabileri arasında gerçekleşen daha karmaşık davaları içermektedir. Bu belgelerin incelenmesi diplomasinin uygulamasını görmemize imkan sağlamanın yanısıra, metin ve geleneğin, kapitulasyonların esnek bir yorumu üzerinden İngiliz tüccarlarının hak ve özgürlüklerini Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi üzerinden nasıl düzenlendiğini göstermektedir.

La Tregua dei dodici anni con la Spagna concesse alla Repubblica delle Sette Province Unite un periodo di ripresa economica e di intensa espansione commerciale. Nonostante le loro navi da carico già navigassero praticamente dall'Australia ai Caraibi sotto l'egida delle Compagnie delle Indie, fu solamente durante il XVII secolo che giunsero a solcare anche i mari italiani. I motivi per cui anche gli olandesi, come già gli inglesi, predilessero approdare a Livorno anziché in altri porti, ancorché collegati con grandi capitali, sono da ricercare nell'accorta politica commerciale, finanziaria e liberale dei Medici, i quali avevano fatto della piccola città sia un emporio che un centro finanziario internazionale. Seppe approfittare di questa straordinaria congiuntura Eberhard Brassart, ricco commerciante di Colonia. A Livorno già dal 1665, aveva acquistato nei primi anni del Settecento un grande lotto di terreno nella nuovissima espansione urbana della Venezia Nuova, dove edificò un imponente palazzo, sopravvissuto al tempo e tuttora esistente, dalla storiografia erroneamente attribuito ad altri.

The twelve-year truce with Spain granted the Republic of the Seven United Provinces a period of economic recovery and intense commercial expansion. Although their cargoes already sailed from Australia to the Caribbean under the aegis of the Indian Companies, it was only during the 17th century that they also reached the Italian seas. The reasons why Livorno was preferred to other capitals, are to be found in the shrewd commercial, financial and liberal policy of the Medici, who had made the small city both an emporium and an international financial centre. The wealthy merchant from Cologne Eberhard Brassart was able to take advantage of this extraordinary situation. In Livorno as early as 1665 he bought a large plot of land in the new urban expansion of Venezia Nuova, where he built an imposing palace; it survived the time and still exists, erroneously attributed by historiography to others.

Présents en nombre relativement important dans tout l'ouest de la France au XVIIIe siècle, leurs effectifs connaissant une forte croissance dans les ports atlantiques tels Nantes ou Bordeaux, les épiciers apparaissent comme massivement engagés dans le commerce de denrées issues du commerce colonial à cette époque. Disposant de stocks très variés de marchandises, ils sont également au cœur de vastes réseaux commerciaux.

The Generale Keijzerlijcke Indische Compagnie, known as the Ostend Company or GIC, was a short-lived but very successful chartered company based in the Southern Netherlands between 1722 and 1727. Despite the high profits from the Chinese tea trade, the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI was forced to retract its charter in 1727 under Dutch and English pressure. This article analyses the strategies of the directors of the GIC to continue trading after its charter had been retracted. Partly by circumventing prohibitions, for instance via Cádiz, and partly by investing in new companies such as the Swedish East India Company, the GIC threatened the role of the established Dutch and English monopolistic companies. These initiatives have never before been analysed in a coherent way that connects the activities of the Ostenders in Europe, India and China. This article shows the endurance of the business model of the GIC during the eighteenth century.

This thesis analyses the appointments, activities, and loyalties of three Dutch consuls in the Spanish port city of Cádiz during the first half of the eighteenth century. It reveals that merchants played an influential role in the appointment of consuls, how consuls participated in commerce, and subsequently explains how this affected their loyalties as part of the Dutch merchant community of Cádiz. This research adds to the increasing body of historiography on new diplomatic history and consular history in particular, which proposes a new manner of researching diplomatic history and therein attributes significant importance to consuls.

L'argument identitaire dans les discours des partis populistes nordiques NATHALIE BLANC-NOËL (BoRdEAux, CMRP) La construction de l'identité populiste finlandaise : de la crise du monde rural à une crise de l'identité nationale MARIE CAZES (CAEn, ERLIS)

Reseñas de los métis [mestizos] en 1885); varios libros sobre el origen de los métis (p.ej., TheNew Peoples, que explora el proceso de colonización y la creación de una nueva identidad cultural para los mestizos), y Elmito del salvaje (un análisis de la variedad de respuestas de Europa frente a las culturas amerindias, especialmente en lo referente a las políticas europeas de centralización y el auge del capitalismo), etcétera.

Cet article est la version finale d'un texte relu et corrigé par Anne FILLON (1931-2012), professeur émérite des Universités, mon directeur de recherches, à qui je dédie ce travail. 2 Ils participent notamment à la procession de la Fête-Dieu, « révélatrice des structures sociales » et « véritable leçon d'instruction civique permettant à chacun (…) d'apercevoir les notables, cf. Frédérique PITOU, « La théorie des métiers : la procession de la Fête-Dieu à Laval au XVIII e siècle »,