Co Construction of Knowledge

The "Greek crisis" was officially inaugurated on May 2010 with the loan the Greek government took from the IMF-European Union-European Central Bank troika, the largest a country had ever taken (€110 bn). Since then, the social implications of this crisis have been dramatic. The form and the scale of social phenomena observed today in Greece and particularly in Athens--e.g., extreme poverty and inequality, profound police violence, organized racist violence--are unprecedented for the country. Nevertheless, a diachronic examination of some socio-spatial aspects of Athens reveals that the social character of the current crisis has been taking shape for some time. This article aims shed light on the social shape of the crisis by outlining three such socio-spatial dimensions as they materialized in the case of Athens during 1990s and 2000s: first, the emergence of new forms of social exclusion and inequality; second, the vast project of urban (re)development and the new spatialities it produced, and third the emergence of novel forms of political and xenophobic violence.

The dialectical relationship between `pedagogy' and `praxis', vis-à-vis the `women's question', has been a matter of great concern for pioneers of Women's Studies (WS). The need to study women's issues in academic institutions and to conduct research based on experiential material and affirmative action was beginning to be discussed among Indian women's studies scholars by the early eighties. 1 The discourse on this subject has proved to be a fruitful exercise for activists, academics, researchers, policy planners and the UN system. This paper tries to examine the following issues: the genesis of interaction between WS and the WM in India; the contribution of WS to mainstream academia-economics, political science, sociology, literature, history, education, psychology; the analytical tools and the theoretical insights provided by WS and the WM in India; the research methodology and agenda of the WS, ongoing debates on the scope and limitations of WS within institutionalised structures, the shift of focus from WS to gender studies; the economics and politics of funding, consultancy and priorities in research.

El propósito del presente artículo es abordar los fundamentos teóricos de las políticas públicas dirigidas a las cooperativas y, más en general, a la economía social. A tal fin, encuentra en la teoría económica de los fallos de mercado e institucionales y de las externalidades unas sólidas justificaciones. Por otro lado, realiza una evaluación y taxonomía de los objetivos y de los instrumentos disponibles. Otro objetivo es analizar y evaluar el despliegue en España de dos grupos de políticas públicas dirigidas a las cooperativas; uno de carácter institucional, la valoración de la participación de las cooperativas en los órganos de elaboración de las políticas y otro, de carácter estructural, el de fomento de la competitividad empresarial.

As communicative macro-function, narration represents a complex task that requires specific linguistic, pragmatic, and socio-cultural competences. Due to the developmental constraints, children at a very early age gradually develop their narrative competence and their narratives are frequently created in the interaction with a more experienced adult. Here we follow an interdisciplinary approach to investigate different aspects of narratives created in the interaction of a child and her mother. For that purpose we combine the sociocultural theory and the concept of scaffolding with the model of Labov and Waletzky about structural components of narratives. The analysis shows that narratives told in Serbian as primary and in Serbian as heritage language are, in fact, a result of a collaborative effort between the child and her mother who guides the creation of coherent narratives. We analyze the types of support provided by the adult that are manifested in the form of interventions directed toward specific components of narratives and we conclude that the crucial type of support is given through the function of marking critical features of the scaffolding model. This explorative research also suggests that the mother’s goals define the quality of narrative act and direct the child’s motivation in the process.

Abstraction is one of the methods for learning knowledge with using mental processes that cannot be obtained
through experiment and observation. RBC model that is based on abstraction in the process of creating
knowledge is directly related to mental processes. In this study, the RBC model is used for the high school
students’ processes of constructing momentum concept that were examined in an appropriate learning
environment. Application was carried out with two volunteer tenth grade high school students. Two problems
enabling the students to use their experiences and prior knowledge were designed and respectively used in the
instruction. Observation, document review, and interviews were used as qualitative data collection methods. As
a result, at the end of the implementation problems, it was observed that the students benefited from their prior
knowledge in constructing new knowledge and they could construct momentum concept.

Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice - 13(3) • 1897-1901
©2013 Educational Consultancy and Research Center

Corporate governance is traditionally one of the major challenges of co-operatives and Social Economy (SE) companies. As democratic member-based organisations, they have specific models of governance, but also specific problems. In recent decades, social pressure and market demands on corporate management and governance structures are increasingly pressing as regards both introducing efficient strategies (economic, financial, negotiating and management) and functioning in an ethically friendly manner (socially responsible business operations). Strategies and structures are closely linked in the upper echelons of governance, particularly in the relationships between top management, boards of directors and key owner groups (as well as stakeholders such as employees and local government). Various factors diminish the efficiency of governance systems, however. Prominent among these are conflicts of interest between owners (shareholders) and controllers/executives (board of directors and managers) (Berle and Means, 1932). This problem highlights the magnitude of certain real failures of corporate governance. The greatest theoretical and business challenge is to conceive and implement optimum institutional models for these corporate governance relationships, in the form of new governance regulations, codes of conduct of good governance and internal institutional changes.

À la lumière du programme de recherche sur les savoirs et les inégalités sociales dans le champ de la santé et des services sociaux que je poursuis dans un centre de recherche montréalais, cet article présente une réflexion critique sur le concept de « co-construction » des savoirs. Il aborde quatre défis épistémologiques et politiques auxquels les universitaires en sciences sociales devraient prêter une attention particulière. Malgré ces défis, la co-construction des connaissances apparait comme une pratique de recherche éminemment subversive vis-à-vis des hiérarchies qui existent entre les savoirs et constitue un horizon nécessaire de ma pratique sociologique.

Malgré une certaine déconsidération de la BD, l'idée d'une bande dessinée « éducative » s'est développée à peu près en même temps que se répandait ce média. Si la pratique est assez répandue, peu d'études scientifiques ont cherché à systématiser ou théoriser cette production qui reste essentiellement empirique. Pourtant, l'inclusion de ces pratiques dans un cadre plus général permettant de définir un « média éducatif » permettrait de donner à la bande dessinée éducative une dimension nouvelle, moins isolée dans les « ghettos » scolaires et parascolaires dans lesquels elle a parfois été confinée. Insérer la bande dessinée dans une réflexion sur les médias éducatifs permettrait entre autres de s'interroger sur ce qui en ferait la spécificité, d'en objectiver les apports et de (re)définir les pratiques en fonction d'objectifs pédagogiques et/ou éducatifs mieux maîtrisés. La bande dessinée éducative existe, mais son étude scientifique reste encore largement à construire.

La présente contribution entend dans un premier temps inventorier différents usages associant la bande dessinée à l'éducation. Dans un second temps, ces usages seront référés à une définition du « média éducatif » en termes d'effets, permettant notamment de dépasser l'opposition entre une bande dessinée spécifiquement éducative et la bande dessinée « normale » de divertissement. Nous nous attarderons en particulier les effets de la narration dans la mesure où celle-ci est sans doute, avec l'image, une des spécificités de ce médium intéressantes pour l'éducation, quoique moins étudiée. Enfin, sera proposé un décloisonnement de la recherche qui faciliterait une meilleure connaissance de la bande dessinée éducative au sein des différents médias dits éducatifs.

This article combines a sociocultural model of classroom talk with a linguistically-oriented model (systemic functional linguistics) to explore what characterizes effective asynchronous online discussion in higher education (HE). While the benefits of discussion are commonly accepted in face-to-face learning, engaging students in effective asynchronous discussion can often be 'hit or miss', due in part to the shift to interacting asynchronously. This hybrid mode of spoken-like/written-like communication demands skills which are rarely made explicit, often with the assumption that students (and lecturers) are proficient. The combined framework presented here enabled macro-and micro-understandings of discussion forums through an array of resources in the SFL model and the talk type descriptors to map linguistic features of knowledge constructing talk in an Australian postgraduate HE context. The notion of 'listening' (or attending to others) is proposed as a crucial condition for whether discussion progresses beyond simply 'posting'. Consequently, this article provides much needed insight into the murky space of asynchronous discussion forums.

Hospital building design is important as it is the place where bacteria and microorganisms concentrate. Poor ventilation system and layout traps disease causing pathogens, threatens the lives of many frontline workers such as doctors, nurses, and health care assistants. While design knowledge sharing by IT ensures a rapid knowledge sharing among designers from all over the world, what are their motivations? Few or no paper has studied this issue. This paper studies this base on 4 traditional motivation theories: Theory X, Theory Y, Reinforcement theory, Two factor theory. Results show that positive reinforcement theory and motivation factors in two factor theory provide better explanation.

Contemporary scholars justifiably consider the development of a work orientation as a step in the adolescent's transition to adulthood. During this transitional phase, adolescents' relations to society's institutions change, as do their perceptions and understanding of these institutions. This chapter presents a developmental analysis of the changes in adolescents' perceptions and understanding of work as revealed by their concepts of employment and unemployment. Recent investigations in the area of adolescent work orientation have focused either on personality variables associated with work, such as occupational identity and self-concept, or on the influence of working or not working on various developmental and behavioral outcomes, such as adolescent egocentrism, alcohol and drug abuse, or time spent with parents and peers (Hamilton and Crouter, 1980; Steinberg, Greenberger, Jacobi, and Garduque, 1981). Critics of these approaches suggest that much of the work orientation literature consists of an accumulation of research without a, clear developmental perspective (Vondracek and Lerner, 1982). Their claim is that many developmental theories of career and work orientation are stage models that describe changes in work orientation as a function of age but do not adequately describe the process of stage transition within the context of existing developmental theories. In other words, the focus J. H. Lorko (d). H w C h i h muf Addurmu Y w the World oj Work. N w Dirrctim for Child Dmlopmn~, no. 35. Sm Fn

Although it has a rich history, the social economy does not yet have a clear, unanimously supported definition. This makes it difficult to delineate and follow the evolution of the social economy for statistical purposes. Some definitions of the social economy only incorporate the non-market components, and others, only market-based ones. This text proposes a new approach which groups together both the non-market and market components of the social economy. Four qualification criteria are proposed which allow us to situate, along four continuums, the degree to which organizations correspond to these criteria.

While teachers know collaboration has an important pedagogical purpose, their experience of it is mixed, and the differences in the way group work is described makes it difficult to do systematic analysis of evidence-based practice. Learners also have mixed experiences, and this study aims to address issues that students have reported when asked about group work.

What grounds gave birth to December’s revolt and most importantly, what new grounds has the revolt given birth to in return? The political background of the events of those days and their repercussions are dis-cussed extensively in the next part of this book. What we have tried to do here is to take a look at the actual, physical grounds of the uprising and its legacies — to read it, that is, through its inscription in the urban space of the city of Athens. To look at urban struggles in new sites of confrontation that have opened up there since; everyday reminders that December lives.

The focus of the article is on how knowledge is created, who creates knowledge, how knowledge is co-constructed, whose knowledge is excluded and how knowledge is being used to challenge inequalities and strengthen social movement capacity. This article grew from a fascinating conversation that the three of us had in Montreal in September of 2019. We decided to share our stories about knowledge and justice with a wider audience in part as a way for us to reflect further on the meaning of our initial conversation, but also to invite others into the discussion. Baptiste Godrie works in a research centre (CREMIS) affiliated  with Quebec’s health care and social services system, Isabel Heck works with the anti-poverty organization Parole d’excluEs, both affiliated to universities, and Budd Hall works at the University of Victoria and is the Co-Chair of the UNESCO Chair in Community-Based research and social responsibility in higher education.

markdownabstract__Abstract__ This paper looks at how the social and solidarity economy (SSE) discourse has been deployed at a regional level by the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) and Southern American Common Market (MERCOSUR), and the implications of these new policy frameworks for the advancement of SSE practices. Though civil society groups have presented SSE as a new economic paradigm, regional policy frameworks have implemented it as an add-on—or complement—to dominant capitalist economies. This has happened in two key ways: (i) the SSE sector, and cooperatives in particular, are cast as drivers of regional integration and socioeconomic policy, although a limited involvement in major integration projects represents missed opportunities for SSE to be mainstreamed; and (ii) despite SSE policy being portrayed as a sort of intervention that combines social and economic policies, its implementation almost exclusively by ministers of social development means that it is insti...

We need social innovation and development mainly because we have to solve some problems that we created ourselves, namely the depletion of natural resources, increasing social isolation and problems related to the enormous acceleration of ever changing markets. How can we make use of the internet as a tool of such social development? One possible solution we will discuss in this essay: understanding the mechanisms how people can let others take part in the usage of their goods, in the exercise of their talents, in the planning of their leisure activities, etc; in other words: new forms of access to personal resources. While one major strength of the web is to abstract relationships, a major strength of face-to-face communication is to concretize relationships. Combining these two layers are a very promising way to open and flexible and at the same time trustful communities and marketplaces. To describe this phenomenon we use the term of the “web based face-to-face economy”.

How do brand and product development processes interact? How do brands and branding strategies influence product development? Moreover, does a branding strategy facilitate or impede the development process? So far, research on product development has focused on the development of new products and services, whereas research on marketing and especially branding has emphasized what types of line extensions to create rather than on how to integrate brands and product development processes. The present models of the product development process mostly distinguish between the process of innovation and that which follows, and also distinguish between the company as a sender and the user as a receiver of the communicated values. In the present study we suggest an alternative understanding of the innovation process: A network process perspective (NPP) as derived from the actor network theory (ANT), is used to explore the co-created relationship between the new product development process and ...

The financing of public goods through public policies, private donations or sales is a debate that currently strongly affects the social economy. Empirical studies are tempered regarding the relation between these different types of resources (crowding in or crowding out effect). Using a multivariate model selection (also called “generalized Heckman”) that meets econometric hallenges, we show, with data from an original survey on the social economy of Montreal, that one dollar of public subsidy (or 1% increase) results in an increase of 10 cents of sales (0.15% increase).

There are no official statistics about social economy in Québec (nor in Canada). Existing data is partial, comprising only one or the other component of social economy (cooperatives, mutuals or non-profit organizations), or covering only one region. This report presents a conceptual framework to guide the data collection and the production of statistics which are coherent and comparable regarding Québec’s social economy. The objective is also to contribute to the development of analytical research on social economy by identifying relevant indicators to quantitatively describe it. The Definition of Social Economy adopted in Québec in 1996, like other definitions used elsewhere in the world, underlines the primacy of social purpose over economic activity. Starting from this definition, the resulting conceptual framework establishes the type of entities, the legal status, sectors of activity and a cluster of qualification criteria of social economy organizations. It also establishes a typology of organizations. The conceptual framework also allows assessing the peripheral components in this field and forecasting its own progress. The conceptual framework must be quite general to establish the fact that the social economy is part of an international movement and at the same time specific enough to properly reflect its Québec originality.

O aumento da disponibilização de resíduos gerados pelas indústrias madeireiras gera um problema para a cadeia produtiva, pois, muitas vezes, estes resíduos são depositados em locais inadequados ou são reutilizados de modo errado. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo a concepção de pequenos objetos de madeira com o enfoque de reaproveitar resíduos lignocelulósicos, provenientes de processos industriais. Os objetos produzidos foram um cesto, uma migalheira e um suporte para computadores pessoais portáteis. A proposta de uso de resíduos de madeira procurou agregar valor aos mesmos, sustentabilidade no processo de produção do produto, além do aspecto ambiental, que buscou minimizar à disposição dos resíduos no meio ambiente de forma indiscriminada. A confecção destes produtos é simples e requer baixa qualificação de mão-de-obra, fator que promove a geração de trabalho e de renda para artesãos de pequenos empreendimentos econômicos solidários, como é o caso da parceria estabelecida com a marcenaria de mulheres, localizada no assentamento rural de Pirituba.

Las prácticas pedagógicas vienen siendo objeto de múltiples estudios, y a veces fuertes críticas y presiones, dada su relación con los aprendizajes alcanzados por los estudiantes, los procesos de desarrollo profesional de los profesores, e incluso, por su papel en la implementación de nuevas políticas curriculares, entre otras incidencias. Este artículo, como un aporte al estudio sobre las prácticas pedagógicas, expone los argumentos de algunas perspectivas teóricas para explicar el aprendizaje, con fuerte o débil relación con la escuela y el aula de clase en particular. Para conseguirlo, se trazará un mapa entre cuatro perspectivas: como transmisión de saberes, como un procesamiento de la información, como una construcción social, cultural e históricamente situada y desde una perspectiva sociopolítica. Pero, ¿cuál es la importancia de reconocer diferentes perspectivas para explicar el aprendizaje en el estudio de las prácticas pedagógicas? Inicialmente se proponen dos razones: en p...

This paper aims to address the theoretical basis of public policies related to cooperatives and to social economy in general. To this end, strong justifications are found in the economic theory of market and institutional failures and externalities. On the other hand, it assesses and classifies the objects and instruments available. This paper also seeks to analyse and assess the deployment in Spain of two groups of public policies aimed at cooperatives: the first is of an institutional nature for evaluating the participation of cooperatives on the policy-making organs and the second, of structural nature, is aimed at boosting business competitiveness.

El presente ensayo relata la experiencia de vinculación ciencia-política-participación ciudadana en el marco de la Ley 3076/17 que declara el ​ Alerta Hídrico-Ambiental en los 2 cursos y cuerpos de agua, y acuíferos existentes en la Provincia del Neuquén, Patagonia-Argentina​. Cuya particularidad consiste en que la misma surge como resultado de demandas ciudadanas en relación a situaciones de contaminación en los cursos de agua asociados a las mayores urbes de la región patagónica. En el marco de la implementación dicha ley se conforma un comité multisectorial, denominado ​ Comité de Alerta Hídrico Ambiental ​ (CAHA) conformado con representatividad oficial tanto de organismos gubernamentales asociados al uso, manejo y gestión del agua a nivel provincial e interprovincial; como por representantes de organizaciones de la sociedad civil. Las experiencias aquí compartidas responden a la colaboración científico-metodológica que se está realizando desde este año en la elaboración de un ​ Plan Estratégico Hídrico-Ambiental Provincial ​ (PEHA) para el uso y aprovechamiento del agua en la provincia con un enfoque de manejo y gestión integral de cuencas. El rol asumido en este caso como coordinadores metodológicos, surge de una necesidad concreta por parte del citado Comité, de realizar una convocatoria de asistencia técnica externa, para desarrollar fundamentalmente los aspectos metodológicos y de ordenamiento del Plan Estratégico que debe formular el CAHA. Aunque la convocatoria apuntaba a la 3 asistencia y colaboración de un consultor o grupo interdisciplinario de profesionales incumbentes externos, que asistiera metodológicamente al mismo en la tarea de organizar y estructurar la información producida y recopilada en el seno del Comité con el objeto de 4 concretar el mencionado PEHA. Desde un primer momento, el rol del equipo se asume como mediador de dos componentes claramente diferenciados en sus objetivos y miradas: los organismos gubernamentales oficiales y las organizaciones de la sociedad civil. Lo central a rescatar en este caso no sería la transferencia de conocimiento en sí misma, sino los procesos de "co-producción" del conocimiento a través del aprendizaje colaborativo.

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop a content analysis framework and from that derive a process model of knowledge construction in the context of virtual product user communities, organization sponsored online forums where product users collaboratively construct knowledge to solve their technical problems.

Design/methodology/approach – The study is based on a deductive and qualitative content analysis of discussion threads about solving technical problems selected from a series of virtual product user
communities. Data are complemented with thematic analysis of interviews with forum members.

Findings – The research develops a content analysis framework for knowledge construction. It is based on a combination of existing codes derived from frameworks developed for computer-supported collaborative learning and new categories identified from the data. Analysis using this framework allows the authors to propose a knowledge construction process model showing how these elements are organized around a typical “trial and error” knowledge construction strategy.

Practical implications – The research makes suggestions about organizations’ management of knowledge activities in virtual product user communities, including moderators’ roles in facilitation.

Originality/value – The paper outlines a new framework for analysing knowledge activities where there is a low level of critical thinking and a model of knowledge construction by trial and error. The new framework
and model can be applied in other similar contexts.
Keywords Communities, Knowledge processes, Virtual communities, Problem solving,
Knowledge construction, User knowledge construction

In this paper we argue that research on learning in education is not a disparate set of unrelated theories and models, but rather there is an underlying unifying understanding of what learning is, based on a conception of epistemology, which can be distinguished from work done in experimental or cognitive psychology. Our argument centers on the idea that how researchers conceptualize epistemology (how one knows) determines to a large extent how they conceptualize learning and therefore teaching. We argue that many of the models and approaches in Learning Sciences are ultimately based on a Hegelian conceptualization of epistemology, whereas in experimental (and cognitive) psychology conceptualizations of epistemology are derived largely from empirical philosophies, especially those of the British Associationists. This basic difference in how the two fields conceptualize 'knowing' leads to essential differences in how we think about learning, ask questions, build models and do research.

This paper considers the role of reflexivity in the dissemination of research findings and in the context of the pressure to evidence the (immediate) impact of social scientific research (whether economic, social, cultural or political). The importance and value of reflexivity is now largely accepted in social research (see Alvesson and Sköldberg, 2011; Brewer, 2000; Lumsden 2009, 2013; Lumsden and Winter, 2014; May and Perry, 2011). As Finlay (2002) has pointed out: the question is no longer whether to ‘be’ reflexive, but how do we go about ‘doing’ or practicing reflexivity?
The discussion is situated within the wider academic and disciplinary debates on 'public sociology' (Burawoy, 2005) and the need for research findings to reach into multiple publics, beyond the traditional academic and user outputs. It argues that reflexivity and its practice must extend beyond the analysis and writing-up stage, in order to ensure that our engagement and activities with various societal groups in the name of ‘impact’ are conducted in a critical, reflexive and tempered manner. The paper also demonstrates how reflexive moments during dissemination can provide insights into how we related to research participants, how we constructed and represented their stories and social worlds, and the consequences of making our work public. The use of online and social media (such as blogs, Twitter and Facebook) Is one further avenue for engaging with wider publics, and hence the discussion also considers the related creation of ‘celebrity academics’ and how sociologists’ identities are being (re)shaped in this highly mediatized environment.

Project work is becoming an important part of university education aiming at preparing students for team-based activities in a workplace. However, cooperation problems are common in the learning process. The major purpose of the study presented in this paper is to address these challenges by designing a Cooperation Technology course and studying its outcomes. We applied social constructivist and reflective learning approaches and used various cooperation technologies in the course as platforms for project work. The practical tasks were designed to let the students experience different types of collaboration in different technological settings. The students were actively creating their knowledge constructing shared artifacts and constantly reflecting on their experience. Based on study data, we analyze collaborative workflows in and between student groups, use of technological ecologies, and the outcomes of their work. As a result, we provide a set of implications for combining social constructivist and reflective learning approaches in course design.

"This paper looks at how the Social Solidarity Economy (SSE) discourse has been deployed at the regional level by UNASUR and MERCOSUR and the implications of these new policy frameworks for the advancement of SSE practices. Though
civil society groups have presented SSE as a new economic paradigm, regional policy frameworks implement it as an add-on or compliment to dominant capitalist economies. This happens in two key ways: 1.) The SSE sector and cooperatives in particular are cast as drivers of regional integration and socioeconomic
policy, however limited involvement in major integration projects
represent missed opportunities for SSE to be mainstreamed; and 2.) Though SSE policy is portrayed as a kind of intervention that combines social and economic policies, implementation almost exclusively by ministers of social development means that SSE is institutionally limited to the realm of poverty eradication not
restructuring of the dominant economy. SSE is also fiscally dependent on those dominant industries, which ultimately does not reverse or challenge the ongoing process of economic centralization in key sectors."

This article reviews the role of third sector organizations in the field of "proximity services" from a francophone perspective. We analyze how the new wave of initiatives inside the third sector in France and francophone Belgium can be seen as providing institutional responses to state and market failures that arise from trustdependent and quasi-collective attributes of these services. These initiatives are often called "solidarity based third sector organizations," a concept defined in this paper. A central assumption of this analysis is that the political context in which these services are delivered is especially important, particularly as reflected in the changing regulatory role of the state. This analysis takes, therefore, an economic sociology perspective.

Social economy , the ground between free market private benefit institutions , the State regulation and society , needs to be positively identified. The existing , traditional , monitoring and evaluation concepts , methods and tools are prooven to ineffectively identify and describe the social conjunctions , adherent to the social mediation of the economic sphere. Coherent , scientifically valid , approaches need to be formulated. Up to date methods and tools , capable of reaching and describing the social economy phenomenon , emerge as a useful contribution , as long as they refrain from the traditional economistic and administrative context. The creation of a positive , new grammar for the identification of social economy forms the core of our interest. Local governance structures tend to lean upon such trends as they require partnership organizations to meet successfully local priorities essential to combat exclusion, poverty, acculturation, community growth and employability. Recent trends in the evaluation of this strategic field will be provided.

In this paper we argue that research on learning in education is not a disparate set of unrelated theories and models, but rather there is an underlying unifying understanding of what learning is, based on a conception of epistemology, which can be distinguished from work done in experimental or cognitive psychology. Our argument centers on the idea that how researchers conceptualize epistemology (how one knows) determines to a large extent how they conceptualize learning and therefore teaching. We argue that many of the models and approaches in Learning Sciences are ultimately based on a Hegelian conceptualization of epistemology, whereas in experimental (and cognitive) psychology conceptualizations of epistemology are derived largely from empirical philosophies, especially those of the British Associationists. This basic difference in how the two fields conceptualize 'knowing' leads to essential differences in how we think about learning, ask questions, build models and do...