Archaeology; Looting

International conventions that criminalize wartime abuse of cultural property and bilateral treaties that target trafficking in antiquities reflect evolving consideration for looted art in foreign policy. Since the poignant plunder of Jewish collections by Nazi authorities, restitution of artworks has garnered political clout, and looting of developing nations during the Cold War era compounded the significance of cultural property in international affairs. In parallel, the increasing financial volume of the art market over the past half-century has attracted the attention of transnational organized crime and has implications for funding of terrorist groups. This paper examines how security-intelligence services of World War II and the Cold War controlled the looting and recovery of cultural property. Related activities in the post-Cold War period suggest that applications for foreign intelligence on looted art have expanded from diplomacy to security policy.

The fourth known pre-Columbian Maya codex—the only one discovered in the 20th century—was found by looters in the mid-1960s. First exhibited in New York in 1971, what has come to be known as the Grolier Codex is half of a hybrid-style 20-page, 104-year Mesoamerican divinatory Venus Almanac. With new radiocarbon dates that place it in the 13th century CE, it is likely to be the oldest surviving book on paper from the Americas as well as the only ancient Maya codex now residing in Mexico. Although most Mayanists have accepted it as authentic, based in part on the author’s 40 years of research,* it remains an unacknowledged Mexican national treasure as it has never been officially recognized except in the State of Chiapas. Mesoamerican Venus Almanacs were widely used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica to regulate practices of sacred warfare and ritual sacrifice, the goal of which was to obtain captives whose blood was shed to invoke the personified forces of rain and fertility. The Grolier Codex offers unique images of 10 of the 20 manifestations of Venus (named in the Maya Dresden Codex), greatly enriching our knowledge of these traditions documented in four other pre-Columbian codices as well as numerous archaeological and ethnohistoric sources. This article is a summary of the talk given on November 7, 2014 to the Pre-Columbian Society of Washington DC and includes a brief history of accounts of the discovery of the Grolier Codex and allegedly associated artifacts; photographic history; outlines the author’s comprehensive program of research, including several new scientific discoveries leading to an interpretation of the Codex—based on the Dresden Codex and other sources; and offers a new Latinized name that recognizes that the “Codex Mayano-Mexicanus” is an authentic ancient book deriving from the Maya culture and now properly residing in Mexico.

          *See <http://umd.academia.edu/JohnBCarlson>.

Also utilized as part of the November 7, 2014 talk are TWO 1983 historical STUDY GUIDE documents which can be viewed at the following academia.edu links:

• GROLIER CODEX Page Study Guide: Pages 1-9 and Reconstructed Page 10/11 (1983): 

https://www.academia.edu/7911420/GROLIER_CODEX_Page_Study_Guide_Pages_1-9_and_Reconstructed_Page_10_11

• GROLIER CODEX Comparative Study Guide (1983): Grolier pages 1-9 and reconstructed page 10/11 with Maya Dresden Codex Venus Almanac page numbers 48/1 – 50/2 with Venus Station and Directional Associations; Names (on Dresden Rows 17 & 22) of the associated Venus Impersonators; and Initial (1983) interpretations of the Grolier Codex scenes & iconographic interpretations. Over the three decades since 1983, some of the glyphic and iconographic interpretations have changed, as discussed in the presentation. The details are in press:

https://www.academia.edu/9208071/GROLIER_CODEX_Comparative_Study_Guide_1983_

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This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

The fourth known pre-Columbian Maya codex, the only one discovered in the twentieth century, was found by looters in the mid-1960s. First exhibited in New York in 1971, what has come to be known as the  Grolier Codex is half of a 20-page, 104-year divinatory hybrid-style Mesoamerican Venus Almanac, probably the physically oldest surviving pre-Columbian book, and with new radiocarbon dates that place it in the thirteenth century CE. It is likely to be the oldest surviving book on paper from the Americas as well as the only ancient Maya codex now residing in Mexico. Although most Mayanists have accepted it as authentic, based in part on the author’s 40 years of research, it remains an unacknowledged Mexican national treasure, as it has never been officially recognized. Mesoamerican Venus Almanacs were widely used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica to regulate practices of sacred warfare, the goal of which was to obtain captives for sacrifice, their blood shed to invoke the personified forces of rain and fertility. The  Codex offers unique images of 10 of the 20 manifestations of Venus, greatly enriching our knowledge of these traditions. The present study offers a brief history of accounts of the discovery of the Codex and allegedly associated artifacts; presents a documented photographic history; outlines the author’s comprehensive program of research, including several new scientific discoveries; and offers a new Latinized name that recognizes that the Codex Mayano-Mexicanus is an authentic ancient book deriving from the Maya culture and now properly residing in Mexico.


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This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

This master’s project explores how museums work to raise awareness and prevent further looting of cultural patrimony. Topics covered in the literature review include a  brief history of Egypt, introduces the Egyptian antiquities laws and international  conventions that affect the antiquities trade and a brief discussion of the antiquities trade and its practices. Other methodologies included an online survey of museum and anthropological professionals and a case study of the illegal wildlife trade that determines commonalities and differences with the antiquities trade. Recommendations include a common definition of looting and the posting and sharing of looting news by museums.

In 1951, a hoard of six bronzes comprising of a
Nataraja, a Somaskanda, a Ganesha, a
Thirugnanasambandar and two Amman were
found in a field in Sivapuram, Tanjavur, TN.
(Citation: Alessandro Chechi, Anne Laure
Bandle, Marc-André Renold, ‘Case Nataraja Idol
– India and the Norton Simon Foundation,’
Platform ArThemis (http://unige.ch/art-adr), Art-
Law Centre, University of Geneva). All six were
stolen and the Nataraja was famously restituted
by India from the Norton Simon Museum, while
the rest of the bronzes are listed as not found till
date. This paper attempts to establish the
location of still missing bronzes with critical
evidences that could be used to bring closure to
this case and bring home the Gods.

Introduction
1. Some Remarks on the Discovery and a Description of the Mosaic
2. Searching for the original Source of Inspiration
3. Where would the original Scene of the Foundation of Pella/Apameia have been kept?
4. How is the Mosaic Witness to the Culture and Ideology of the first Seleukids?
Conclusion
The author offers new reflections in the field of the origin of the historical mosaic of Apameia (foundation of Pella in 320 BCE and of Apameia in 300 BCE) dating from the 4th CAD, of history (for example concerning the identification of Archippos oikistes, legendary founder of Pella-on-the-Orontes,  as an important historical figure at Athens in 321-320 BCE); of the style history of the mosaic, of the origin of its inspiration, and of the archaeology concerning the Macedonian military settlement Pella.

Two Egyptian stone vessels bearing hieroglyphic inscriptions were discovered in the royal tomb at Tell Mišrife/Qatna (Syria) in the campaign of 2002. The article gives a thorough presentation and examination of the two inscriptions and also aims to shed new light on the debate about the character of the relations between Egypt and the northern Levant in the 2nd millennium BC.

This paper focuses on the impact of the war and subsequent occupation (2003–2011) on Iraq’s heritage, documenting the most significant and devastating instances of heritage damage and destruction that occurred. Moving forward, this chapter continues with a discussion of the grave challenges facing Iraqi heritage beyond the withdrawal of US military forces in the form of various groups - from jihadist networks such as the 'Islamic State' through to various sectarian actors. It also discusses the threat to heritage sites from development, neglect, and inexpert and haphazard excavation, preservation, protection, and restoration. Despite this troubling scenario, this chapter also examines the extent to which the Iraq conflict was a turning point for major Western military operations and the development of CPP programs which aim to better prepare military personnel for protecting cultural property in future conflicts.

Beyond the devastation and tragedy of human lives precipitated by the conflict in Syria, priceless representations of ancient culture and history have likewise fallen victim to a seemingly never-ending maelstrom of destruction. Ancient monuments and art have either been destroyed, damaged, or lost as chaos persists in a region that has for thousands of years seen the footprint of a parade of civilizations. (...)
The scenes tell the story of the founding of Pella/Apamea and further development of this city on the Orontes river. Three main groups of scenes can be distinguished: (1) the foundation of Pella-on-the-Orontes by the legendary Archippos, (2) the (re)foundation of the city as Apamea-on-the-Orontes (earlier Pella-on-the-Orontes) by Seleucus I Nikator and the simultaneous financial generosity of his wife, Apama, for the development of the new Seleucid colony in 300 BC, and (3) the raising of the town fortifications around monumental public buildings and an illustration of the daily life of a joyous people living in the rich Apamean agglomeration and hinterland. Features of style date the panels to the 4th century AD.

In his epitome Justin related Pompeius Trogus’ story, who apparently wanted to convince his readers that Attalos III, who was insane, accused his relatives of poisoning Berenike and Stratonike. Before he died he had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Sallust adduced the words of Mithridates VI, who considered Attalos’ testament a Roman forgery. What we know from Justin’s version is the Roman version, which was produced to justify the annexation of a foreign country and the seizure of the Attalids’ immense treasures. Attalos was one of the best educated Hellenistic monarchs, a lover and patron of the arts and sciences, a sculptor and a man of letters. With the slaying of Attalos III and his closest relatives the Roman senators also terminated the last great project of patronage over the Hellenic arts, letters and sciences.

This is an abstract of the report the Ministry of Culture published March 8, 2022. The full report is found here:
https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/report-with-assessment-and-recommendations-concerning-objects-impounded-at-martin-schoyens-residence-august-24-2021/id2903280/

The Antiquities Coalition, Asia Society, and Middle East Institute convened the #CultureUnderThreat Task Force to counter these threats to our world heritage and national security. The Task Force brings together leaders from the heritage, law enforcement, legal, military, and security communities. This is the first time such a diverse group of experts has come together to develop such a comprehensive range of solutions.

Our joint task force report—#CultureUnderThreat: Recommendations for the U.S. Government—details the current situation and puts forward 31 specific

recommendations to address the ongoing crisis. It calls for new policies, practices, and priorities for the United States to implement, both on its own and in conjunction with the international community and private sector. These include steps that can be taken by the Obama Administration, Congress, United Nations, and the art market.

Illegal excavations in archaeological heritage sites (namely "looting") are a global phenomenon. Satellite images are nowadays massively used by archaeologists to systematically document sites affected by looting. In parallel, remote sensing scientists are increasingly developing processing methods with a certain degree of automation to quantify looting using satellite imagery. To capture the state-of-the-art of this growing field of remote sensing, in this work 47 peer-reviewed research publications and grey literature are reviewed, accounting for: (i) the type of satellite data used, i.e., optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR); (ii) properties of looting features utilized as proxies for damage assessment (e.g., shape, morphology, spectral signature); (iii) image processing workflows; and (iv) rationale for validation. Several scholars studied looting even prior to the conflicts recently affecting the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Regardless of the method used for looting feature identification (either visual/manual, or with the aid of image processing), they preferred very high resolution (VHR) optical imagery, mainly black-and-white panchromatic, or pansharpened multispectral, whereas SAR is being used more recently by specialist image analysts only. Yet the full potential of VHR and high resolution (HR) multispectral information in optical imagery is to be exploited, with limited research studies testing spectral indices. To fill this gap, a range of looted sites across the MENA region are presented in this work, i.e., Lisht, Dashur, and Abusir el Malik (Egypt), and Tell Qarqur, Tell Jifar, Sergiopolis, Apamea, Dura Europos, and Tell Hizareen (Syria). The aim is to highlight: (i) the complementarity of HR multispectral data and VHR SAR with VHR optical imagery, (ii) usefulness of spectral profiles in the visible and near-infrared bands, and (iii) applicability of methods for multi-temporal change detection. Satellite data used for the demonstration include: HR multispectral imagery from the Copernicus Sentinel-2 constellation, VHR X-band SAR data from the COSMO-SkyMed mission, VHR panchromatic and multispectral WorldView-2 imagery, and further VHR optical data acquired by GeoEye-1, IKONOS-2, QuickBird-2, and WorldView-3, available through Google Earth. Commonalities between the different image processing methods are examined, alongside a critical discussion about automation in looting assessment, current lack of common practices in image processing, achievements in managing the uncertainty in looting feature interpretation, and current needs for more dissemination and user uptake. Directions toward sharing and harmonization of methodologies are outlined, and some proposals are made with regard to the aspects that the community working with satellite images should consider, in order to define best practices of satellite-based looting assessment.

The April 21, 1971 New York Times article by George Gent covering the opening of the Grolier Club exhibition, "Ancient Mayan Calligraphy" with interview quotes by Yale anthropologist Michael D. Coe. The article focuses on the significant importance of the Grolier Codex and features the first published photographs of four of the Codex pages by a NYT photographer.

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Grolier Codex.

Illegal archaeological excavations, generally denoted as looting, is one of the most important damage factors to cultural heritage, as it upsets the human occupation stratigraphy of sites of archaeological interest. Looting identification and monitoring are not an easy task. A consolidated
instrument used for the detection of archaeological features in general, and more specifically for the study of looting is remote sensing. Nevertheless, passive optical remote sensing is quite ineffective
in dense vegetated areas. For these type of areas, in recent decades, LiDAR data and its derivatives have become an essential tool as they provide fundamental information that can be critical not only for the identification of unknown archaeological remains, but also for monitoring issues. Actually, LiDAR can suitably reveal grave robber devastation, even if, surprisingly, up today LiDAR has been generally unused for the identification of looting phenomenon. Consequently, this paper deals with
an approach devised ad hoc for LiDAR data to detect looting. With this aim, some spatial visualization techniques and the geomorphon automatic landform extraction were exploited to enhance and extract
features linked to the grave robber devastation. For this paper, the Etruscan site of San Giovenale (Northern Lazio, Italy) was selected as a test area as it is densely vegetated and was deeply plundered
throughout the 20th century. Exploiting the LiDAR penetration capability, the prediction ability of the devised approach is highly satisfactory with a high rate of success, varying from 85–95%.

Among the objects found within Tomb VII discovered in 2009 at Tell Mišrife/Qatna, one Egyptian stone vessel with a hieroglyphic inscription was recovered. The inscription on the stone vessel references an Egyptian princess with the name of Itakayet, a name apparently attested for several princesses of the 12 th Dynasty (Middle Kingdom). The present article concerns the hieroglyphic inscription of the vessel, the princess' identity and the chronological implications pertaining to the vessel's possible dispatch to the northern Levant and ultimately Qatna. Additionally, Egyptian finds from the site of Qatna, especially the famous " Sphinx of Ita " found by Robert Comte Du Mesnil du Buisson within the debris of the Bronze Age palace in 1927, as well as Egyptian objects from other northern Levantine sites will be briefly discussed in order to shed more light on the function of these imports within the cultural sphere of the northern Levant during the 2nd millennium BC.

In 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tablets, a move that at the time was interpreted as being in response to public anger over the looting of Iraqi museums and archaeological sites, and the associated restrictions placed on trade by UNSCR 1483. Ten years on from those events, these original conclusions do not appear so secure, though they cannot be discounted. Th is article will look at fi ve analyses to examine those conclusions, and demonstrate that there is a relationship between auction sales and their wider material and commercial contexts, but it is not a straightforward one.

Despite several international charters/conventions and agreements that were adopted in order to fight the illicit import or export of antiquities, this problem has never ceased to exist. Conventions as the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property or the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, as well as ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums 1986 and bilateral agreements in order to stop the export and import of cultural property, as well as to facilitate the return of stolen antiquities as for example the bilateral agreement between United States and Italy signed on January 19 2001 (Park 2002, 948) are meant to decrease the illicit trade. As we can observe, the conventions and other treaties deal only with the import or export of antiquities, but how can looting be stopped if the trade of antiquities happens only inside of the country? This kind of practice is popular all around the world, and Romania does not represent an exception. But Romania represents a particular case, where looting has turned into a hobby that is seen as having the potential to create income for amateur archaeologists. Since 2012 this metal detecting has become more and more popular to the point where in the country, besides the individual “performers” of this hobby, there are also well organized NGOs of amateur archaeologists, with their own databases.

A presentation of the results of the 2013 field season of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University Expedition to Abydos, which focused on the systematic investigation, documentation, and assessment of damage caused by looters during the Egyptian revolution in early 2011.  This work also produced significant archaeological results, serving as a broad testing program across the Abydos North Cemetery.

Introduction
1. A Slice of Material History
1.1. The religious act of the foundation of Pella-on-the-Orontes
1.2. The (re)foundation of Apamea – the royal generosity of Seleucus and Apama
1.3. Apamea: prosperity and joy of suburban life
2. The mosaic as a new historical source for the history of Apamea
Conclusions
Beyond the devastation and tragedy of human lives precipitated by the conflict in Syria, priceless representations of ancient culture and history have likewise fallen victim to a seemingly never-ending maelstrom of destruction. Ancient monuments and art have either been destroyed, damaged, or lost as chaos persists in a region that has for thousands of years seen the footprint of a parade of civilizations. (...)
The scenes tell the story of the founding of Pella/Apamea and further development of this city on the Orontes river. Three main groups of scenes can be distinguished: (1) the foundation of Pella-on-the-Orontes by the legendary Archippos, (2) the (re)foundation of the city as Apamea-on-the-Orontes (earlier Pella-on-the-Orontes) by Seleucus I Nikator and the simultaneous financial generosity of his wife, Apama, for the development of the new Seleucid colony in 300 BC, and (3) the raising of the town fortifications around monumental public buildings and an illustration of the daily life of a joyous people living in the rich Apamean agglomeration and hinterland. Features of style date the panels to the 4th century AD.

Oι στόχοι των διεθνών εκθέσεων και του έργου προβολής των αρχαιολογικών θησαυρών της Ελλάδας στο εξωτερικό είναι πολλαπλής φύσης και σκοπιμότητας. Υπάρχουν όμως πτυχές των περιοδικών εκθέσεων μάλλον όχι τόσο γνωστές και ευνόητες: οι τρόποι με τους οποίους οι εκθέσεις μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την επιστροφή στην Ελλάδα παρανόμως διακινηθέντων πολιτιστικών αγαθών ελληνικής προέλευσης, που βρίσκονται στο εξωτερικό.

The May 1983 Science 83 news article covering the authentication of the Maya Grolier Codex by University of Maryland professor John B. Carlson, Ph.D., Director of the Center for Archaeoastronomy.  Carlson's findings indicate that no fabricator (at the time the Codex was found) could have known the existence of the Venus evening star figure Carlson discovered when he realized that Grolier Codex pages 10 and 11 were both parts of page "10". The manuscript is of special importance as it is the only pre-Columbian Mayan manuscript that remains in Mexican hands.

(Carlson presented his research findings both at the 44th International Congress of Americanists, Manchester, England in 1982 and the American Astronomical Society in Boston, January 1983 in the research manuscript "The Grolier Codex: A Preliminary Report on the Content and Authenticity of a Thirteenth-Century Maya Venus Almanac".)

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Grolier Codex.

Even as cultural property faces immediate peril today in conflict zones like Syria and Mali, there is anecdotal evidence that some nations are awakening to the diplomatic and foreign policy benefits that can flow from the repatriation of cultural patrimony.

Satellite technologies are increasingly used to track looting in remote and inaccessible archaeological sites and assess damage to heritage. Evidence gathered in our study proves a growing user uptake of these technologies, beyond the specialist remote sensing community, but also that a more synergistic use of optical and radar data is required. The advantages of such an approach to satellite monitoring are demonstrated on Apamea, Syria. Current limitations and future perspectives are outlined, as an entry point to a comprehensive review published by the authors in the referenced journal article, that the readers are encouraged to refer to for a more in-depth and specialist discussion.