Ancient Egyptian Queenship

In Interpreting Ancient Egyptian Narratives, Martin Pehal applies structural analysis to four New Kingdom narrative compositions. The study explains the strong configurational character of ancient Egyptian (mythological) thought which has the ability to connect various ontological levels of human experience with the surrounding world into complex synchronic structures. These symbolical systems are shown to be mediating between the various cultural paradoxes which were inherent to ancient Egyptian society. Axial role in this process is attributed to the institution of positional kingship represented by the Pharaoh. Its transformative function is also put into relation to the special status of female characters who are shown to play the part of the “powerful powerless ones” further personifying the aspects of the mediating function of myth. Gradually, the study outlines a genuinely Egyptian “structural net” of basic mythemes and explains in what way it was possible for such a system to change and incorporate foreign mythological motifs especially from the Near East.

ABSTRACT: This lecture provides a broader background for the New Kingdom regarding Egyptian society --particularly in the New Kingdom. It starts with an overview of the hierarchical, "pyramidal" structure of Ancient Egyptian society (including gender roles), and proceeds with an examination of the elite through lower classes: The king, chief queen, secondary queens, princes, princesses, upper officials, mid-range officials, lower officials, crafts persons, peasant farmers, and others (including POWs and slaves), plus administration, control, organization and payment of labour.  The lecture incorporates a wide range of approaches and aspects, including iconography, symbolism, costumes, titulary, education and training (e.g., tutors), and other components within many of the above categories --especially for kings, queens, princes, and princesses in Ancient Egypt UPDATED: Feb., 6, 2021: Some editing, formatting, new images, and text.

O senso comum cria uma imagem sobre o Egito Antigo que nem sempre corresponde àquele povo. Tendemos a imaginar o faraó como um governante supremo, quase mitológico, sem suas características humanas. Este artigo, assim, visa desmistificara imagem do faraó, apontando a influência das rainhas mãe e esposa no governo egípcio do Período de Amarna.

ABSTRACT
The common sense creates an image of ancient Egypt that does not always correspond to that people. We tend to imagine the pharaoh as a supreme ruler, almost mythological, without his human characteristics. This article therefore aims to demystify Pharaoh’s image, by pointing the influence of queens, mother and wife, in the Egyptian Amarna Period.

The article analyses one of the hexametric poems copied on a second century AD papyrus, possibly from Hermupolis, P.Lit.Goodspeed 2: a Hellenistic hymn to Aphrodite celebrated as a patroness of the sea and of wedded love. This portrayal of the goddess perfectly fits with Ptolemaic royal propaganda in III BC. The address to a "Ptolemai[c] Arsinoe" (II 5) reveals that here the goddess is worshipped as a divine image of a queen Arsinoe, most probably Arsinoe II Philadelphos, who had strong links with key-figures of the Ptolemaic navy. The hymn is compared with contemporary Alexandrian poetry, like the epigrams of the Milan papyrus P.Mil.Vogl. VIII 309. Some hypotheses are also presented about the context for the composition and the performance of the hymn (a Cypriot cult of Arsinoe Philadelphos?).

Quando pensamos no Egito Antigo, comumente o imaginamos como uma região governada por homens, que recebem o título de faraó e exercem o poder sem questionamentos. É verdade que, para aquela sociedade, um dos deveres dos homens era o ato de conduzir, o que inclui o de governar; contudo, muitas mulheres tiveram papéis importantes no governo egípcio. Este trabalho visa mostrar as funções e a influência feminina aristocrática na religião e na política do Egito durante a XVIII dinastia, a partir do exemplo de algumas rainhas. Com isso, espera-se que o leitor supere a noção de que as mulheres foram passivas nesse período.

Benkowski, Rachel Rae. M.A. The University of Memphis. August 2011. The Sun Queen’s Trademark: A Study of the Tall Blue Crown of Queen Nefertiti. Major Professor: Patricia Podzorski, PhD.

The iconic tall blue crown favored by queen Nefertiti, wife of the pharaoh Akhenaten, is unique. I believe it was strongly influenced by a crown seen in depictions of queen Tiye as a sphinx from Sedinga, Nubia and the king’s xprS crown. The choice of Nefertiti’s unique crown was dictated by the need of the Atenist theology for a visual signifier of the link between the queen, the goddess Tefnut in her various forms, and the rwty lions. The connection between Shu and Tefnet and the solar guardian lions points directly to the notion that Akhenaten and Nefertiti, as personifications of the primeval twins, were both guardians, and offspring, of their unique solar deity, the Aten. To understand how Nefertiti’s crown helped define her status and roles during the Amarna period, this thesis examines the crown’s possible origins and divine associations, context of use, and Nefertiti’s titles and epithets that appear beside it.

Two architectural elements from Akhenaten's early buildings at Karnak temple, a gateway and a set of pillars, are decorated with scenes of Nefertiti worshipping the Aten alone with only her daughters in attendance. Assumed to be examples of Nefertiti acting independently in the Aten cult, these monuments are sometimes hailed as precursors to the Sunshade of Re/sun temple structures so popular at Tell el-Amarna, most of which are associated with Akhenaten's female family members. In this article these monuments are studied in the context of scenes reconstructed from Kom el-Nana, a Sunshade of Re at Tell el-Amarna, and other examples of women shown as the sole ritualist before a deity. It is proposed that images of Nefertiti acting alone are an indication of her lower status in the early part of Akhenaten's reign, and that her status was elevated after the erection of the gateway and pillars. Nefertiti did not yet have enough status to act along side Akhenaten before year 6, and the gateway and pillars from Karnak cannot be considered precursors of Sunshade of Re temples, or as evidence for her independence in the Aten cult. In conclusion it is suggested that conversations about ancient women in religious hierarchies should be shifted from discussions about agency and power to discussions about importance, as a means to avoid the anachronistic application of western feminist thought to ancient evidence.

For Queen Nodjmet two funeral papyri are known. In this article it is argued that both should be ascribed to the mother of Herihor (Nodjmet A) rather than to his wife (Nodjmet B). This would make Nodjmet A the wife of HPA Piankh, and her mother, Hrere, the wife of HPA Amenhotep. Hrere, who is attested with the title “king’s mother”, is here interpreted as the mother of king Khakheperre Pinuzem and as the grandmother of both Nodjmet B and HPA Masaharta. This model is discussed in the light of the Late Ramesside Letters, the Oracle of Herihor, the Banishment Stele, the Procession scene from the Temple of Khonsu and several other sources.

This study deals with a unique crown that was created for Queen Arsinoë II. The aim is to identify and understand the symbolism that is embedded in each pictorial detail that together form the crown and how this reflects the wearer’s socio-political and religious positions. The study focuses on the crown and its details, while also including all contextual aspects of the relief scenes in order to understand the general meaning. This crown was later developed and usurped by other female figures; the material includes 158 Egyptian relief scenes dating from Arsinoë’s lifetime to Emperor Trajan, c. 400 years. In order to show the development of the crown’s symbolism, this work includes a large number of later scenes depicting the Egyptian goddess Hathor wearing a crown almost identical to Arsinoë’s.

The results of this study suggest that the crown of Arsinoë was created for the living queen and reflected three main cultural positions: her royal position as King of Lower Egypt, her cultic role as high priestess, and her religious aspect as thea Philadelphos. It indicates that she was proclaimed female pharaoh during her lifetime, and that she was regarded the female founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The results of the study of the later material suggest that the later Hathoric crown was created in a time of political instability, when Ptolemy IV needed to emphasise his ancestry – underlining his lineage from Arsinoë II and Ptolemy II. The comprehensive study of the contextual pictorial setting indicates that this is a plausible explanation: the crown of Arsinoë became a symbol of authority worthy of continuation.

Queen Ahhotep took three daggers, four axes, and nine miniature axes with her to the grave. Two of the weapons in this otherworldly arsenal-an axe and a dagger-were stunning and bear testament to a robust artistic interconnection that linked the early Eighteenth Dynasty court to the high culture of the Minoan and Mycenaean world. Because of their beauty, these objects are often written about in isolation. This chapter places these two ceremonial weapons in dialogue with the entire assemblage of the queen's weapons, with other elements of her grave goods, with gender politics, and with the mortuary culture of Egypt and Nubia in the Second Intermediate Period and early Eighteenth Dynasty. When taken together, the weapons provide strong evidence that the queen had been married to Kamose, that her court was well acquainted with Pan-Grave military culture, and that in ancient Egypt (as in so many other contexts) times of war offered women unprecedented opportunities to exercise typically masculine authority as they kept the home fires burning.

Pepy I’ necropolis delivered many fragments of decrees, which are the subject of this article. The corpus discovered by the MafS includes fragments of widely varying size and interest. If some of them contain only a few signs, others are almost complete. As a whole, they reflect the significance of such documents in the organization of funerary cults. Issued by Pepy II for the queens, they refer to the moving of statues from one complex to another. Very close to other documents already known, these new decrees also specify some provisions regarding personnel and institutions in charge of worship. Particular attention is paid to ȝḥt-fields and jzn-territory.

This article deals with the last decade of the reign of Psusennes I in the light of the short chronology set out in earlier articles by the same author. It is argued that the burials of Psusennes I, HPA Menkheperre, HPA Nesubanebded, Khakheperre Pinuzem, the Devotee of Hathor Henttawy and Queen Nodjmet all took place within a very short period of time, called in P. Brooklyn 16.205 “the Bad Times”. Elements of the funeral equipment of these individuals are discussed and several severe problems with the traditional views on these burials are highlighted. The author further discusses the Report of Wenamun and presents an alternative identification for its Nesubanebded.

In 1859 some Egyptian workmen digging in the northern sector of the Theban necropolis on behalf of Auguste Mariette brought to light the coffin of a queen called Ahhotep (Second Intermediate Period), which contained rare and unparalleled items, forming the largest "treasure" of the goldsmith's art then known from Egypt. The discovery of the burial equipment quickly received international attention, triggering the need for more definite and appropriate contours of its story. Nonetheless, the accounts produced have wrongly been interpreted as archaeological reports, generating an inaccurate understanding of the events and assumptions handed down in the Western Egyptological tradition. The article aims at deconstructing and then reconstructing the history of this discovery through archival research, in order to: a) retrace the most important events in the timeline; b) determine the roles played by the people involved; c) provide the approximate spatial coordinates for location of the burial; d) shed light on the type of burial in which the coffin was found; e) determine the total number and type of recorded objects; f) analyse the consistency of the assemblage. The final objective is to define more realistic contours for the discovery, moving away from the narrative which Egyptological tradition contributed to build.

The role and significance of queenship during the New Kingdom is arguably the most prominent throughout ancient Egyptian history, exemplified particularly by the queens of the 18 th dynasty. This essay will focus on the iconographic representations of two queens of the 18 th dynastyqueens Tiye and Nefertitiportraying traditionally masculine iconography (and more importantly, the symbolism behind the iconography) to the female form. 1 The main focus of study for the masculine iconographic representation of Tiye are the sphinx depictions of the queen, as can be seen in Sedeinga and most prominently in the symbolic form of trampling the enemy, found on Tiye's throne in the reliefs of the tomb of Kheruef (TT192). The focus of Nefertiti's masculine iconography will be the scenes of 'smiting the enemy' (MFA Boston 63.260), a topos of ancient Egyptian kingship. These representations, and the symbolism they hold, will be analysed in order to better understand the role of the queen during this period. Queen Tiye is arguably one of the most influential characters of the 18 th dynasty, especially regarding queenship. Of the royal women of the 18 th dynasty, Tiye was the first queen to be depicted as a female sphinx, trampling the enemies of Egypt. 2 Before the depictions of Tiye in the form of a sphinx, Hatshepsut is portrayed in a similar fashion. Hatshepsut, however, is not depicted as female sphinx, but during her reign as pharaoh, 1 Queens Tiye and Nefertiti are not the only examples of queens depicted with masculine iconography during the 18th dynasty. For example, Hatshepsut depicted herself in the masculine form during her reign as pharaoh, a title that was solely male, no matter the gender of the occupant. See: Roehrig, C. H. (Ed.). (2005). Hatshepsut: From queen to pharaoh; Smilgin, A. (2012). Sandstone sphinxes of Queen Hatshepsut from Deir el-Bahari: preliminary remarks.

The decline of the powerful Fourth Dynasty and the rise of
a new royal line, the Fifth Dynasty, have for a long time
been shrouded in mystery and have become the stuff of
legends. These events are referred to in the tale of the
miraculous rise of the first three kings of the Fifth Dynasty,
recorded on the Papyrus Westcar. However, relevant
historical sources relating to the ascension of the new
dynasty have for a long time been only few and ambiguous.
The mystery surrounding the ascension of the Fifth
Dynasty has now been altered fundamentally by new
archaeological discoveries, in particular in the course of the
research of the pyramid field in Abusir. These discoveries
and the role played by three royal mothers named Khentkaus
in the events at the end of the Fourth and the beginning of
the Fifth Dynasty, are discussed in the cited article.

This article places the Sunshade of Re at Kom el-Nana within the context of inscriptions relating to other Sunshades of Re, in particular those relating to the Sunshade of Re of Hatshepsut. While the Sunshade of Re at Kom el-Nana served the solar cult of the Aten, over seen by the regenerative aspects of royal Amarna women, it also served as a locus for the mortuary cults of the non-royal or noble courtiers at Tell el-Amarna. It is also proposed that Kom el-Nana could have been understood as a type of mortuary locale, with the added possibility that all Aten temples at Amarna may have had a similar function.

The date of Arsinoe II Philadelphus’ death, though long held secure, has become a matter of scholarly dispute two decades ago. For many figures of ancient history, not in the least Hellenistic queens, the date of death is often unknown – and is in many cases not particularly important. In the case of Arsinoe II, I contend, it does matter whether she passed away in 270 or 268 BCE, and circumstantial evidence supports the latter date. The article focuses especially on passages from the Mendes and Pithom stelae. Additionally, I examine the date of the foundation of Arsinoe’s official cult. For, it has commonly been assumed that this cult was posthumous – i.e., that it was established to commemorate Arsinoe’s earthly passing – but I aim to prove that she was officially worshipped individually (viz., independent of her brother and husband) within her lifetime. The last part explores the possibility that, shortly before her death, Arsinoe convinced her brother and husband Ptolemy II to appoint her son, also called Ptolemy, as joint ruler, and to join the Chremonidean alliance against Antigonus II Gonatas in an effort to support her son’s claim to the Macedonian throne.

T he start of the 19th Dynasty (circa 1292 BC) not only marked the beginning of a new ruling line, the Ramessides, but it was also a time of remarkable innovation that developed, in part, as a complex reaction to the dramatic cultural and religious changes brought about by Akhenaten during the Amarna period and as a means of politically legitimizing a new dynasty with non-royal origins. This early Ramesside creative spirit impacted the spheres of religion, art, as well as the ideology of Egyptian kingship and queenship, and the funerary realm was one of the chief settings for this upsurge of new ideas. Seti I, the second king of Dynasty 19, effectively redesigned the architectural and decorative template of pharaohs' tombs, a model that was largely followed, though with variations, SCRIBE SPRING AMERICAN RESEARCH CENTER IN EGYPT

Since its discovery by Battiscombe Gunn, it is believed that Saqqara's Ostrakon is able to improve our understanding of how Egyptians designed curved elements, but the geometric significance of the hieratic values is still uncertain. Indeed, in order to obtain an indisputable result, the distance between the vertical ordinates is required, and this distance is not explicitly indicated on the limestone artefact.
But since there were no algebraic formulas at the time of the Pharaohs, a simple grid-based procedure was developed such as those used by the Egyptians to reproduce the scale drawings, to try to decipher the geometric meaning of the curve drawn on the find.
To conclude, this simple process permits to understand that the five hieratic values of the Saqqara Ostrakon describe a segmental arch whose span and rise correspond to the architectural proportions of several Egyptian tombs and arches, and that the numerical sequence of the artefact could be considered the most "ancient" mathematical formula of the circle.

A short form monograph for ARC Humanities Press' Past Imperfect Series which looks at queenship in a global, longue durée light. By drawing together the experience of women across different eras, continents and cultures a new perspective on the role of royal women can be seen. The wide lens, comparative focus of this book demonstrates both continuity and change over time and between difference monarchical frameworks and traditions.

Currently in press with ARC Humanities Press, forthcoming 2021.

The Ptolemaic period witnessed an enormous increase in the number of hieroglyphic signs and iconographic elements (composite crowns, scepters, and cult objects). The ancient scribes exploited this complexity when composing the reliefs used in temple decoration, selecting particular words, hieroglyphic signs, and iconographic elements in order to create interconnected multiple layers of meaning, forming a tapestry of sound and sight. The Theology of Hathor of Dendera examines these techniques on both micro- and macro-levels, from their smallest details to their broadest thematic connections, foregrounding individual techniques to determine the words and phrases singled out for emphasis. By synthesizing their use in the three-dimensional space of the most important cult chamber in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera, this new method of analysis not only reveals the most essential characteristics of the local theology, but also shows how the ancient scribes envisioned the universe and the place of humankind within it.

Non un sesso sull'altro ha vinto, deformata visione di una società individualista, anzi limitata all'individualismo, ma il principio stolto della soggezione all'essere eccezionale da parte delle moltitudini prone e ubriache.
Questo tempo di ruffiani e di leccapiedi non troverà fine, se non sorgerà contro di lui un movimento universale e potente, inesorabilmente anonimo, che non annunzierà nomi di capi, che compirà un auto-da-fé feroce dei protocolli cerimoniali.

The metaphorical/symbolic mind is poetic and immensely sophisticated, disrupting our ideas of 'primitive' art and iconography, ‘fertility’ religions and ‘cults.’ This paper explores the idea that all thrones, the idea of the 'throne' itself, descended from the icon of the birthing chair of the Mother Goddess, principally earliest Cybel or Gaia prototypes from prehistoric Anatolian permanent settlements like Catal Huyuk and the earliest agrarian societies. In prehistoric visual art, the throne/birthing chair was the land, and the Child borne was the grain or vine, flowers or seasonal renewal. Icons signified not merely one idea but a range of connected ideas, all equally, simultaneously 'true.'

Since its discovery by Battiscombe Gunn, it is believed that Saqqara's Ostrakon is able to improve our understanding of how Egyptians designed curved elements, but the geometric significance of the hieratic values is still uncertain. Indeed, in order to obtain an indisputable result, the distance between the vertical ordinates is required, and this distance is not explicitly indicated on the limestone artefact.
But since there were no algebraic formulas at the time of the Pharaohs, a simple grid-based procedure was developed such as those used by the Egyptians to reproduce the scale drawings, to try to decipher the geometric meaning of the curve drawn on the find.
To conclude, this simple process permits to understand that the five hieratic values of the Saqqara Ostrakon describe a segmental arch whose span and rise correspond to the architectural proportions of several Egyptian tombs and arches, and that the numerical sequence of the artefact could be considered the most "ancient" mathematical formula of the circle.

Depuis 50 ans, la Mission archéologique française de Saqqâra fouille inlassablement les sables du désert égyptien. Conçue en 1963 par ses deux éminents fondateurs, Jean Leclant et Jean-Philippe Lauer, elle s’est consacrée longuement à l’étude des Textes des Pyramides, enrichissant par ses découvertes régulières les travaux des premiers philologues.

Le dégagement continu de la nécropole de Pépy Ier a permis également d’élargir notre vision du monde funéraire tel que le concevaient les anciens Égyptiens. La multitude des monuments, des textes, des bas-reliefs ou des objets révèle des femmes et des hommes qui nous racontent un fragment de leur espérance d’éternité.

Les contributions de cet ouvrage rassemblent autour d’un même projet les acteurs passés et présents de la MafS. Leur richesse et leur variété témoignent de l’envergure et du dynamisme dont la mission a su faire preuve tout au long de son histoire.

For 50 years, the French Archaeological Mission in Saqqara tirelessly excavates the sands of the Egyptian desert. Started in 1963 under the impulse of its two eminent founders, Jean Leclant and Jean-Philippe Lauer, the mission goal was long devoted to the study of the Pyramid Texts, thus largely improving the work of the firts philologists.

The continuous clearing of the necropolis of Pepy I also widely allowed to broaden our understanding of the funerary world as conceived by the ancient Egyptians. The multitude of monuments, texts, reliefs or objects richness women and men who are sharing with us a fragment of their hope of eternity.

Contributions to this work gather past and present members of the FAMS around a common project. Their richness and variety testify of the scope and dynamism the mission has demonstrated throughout its history.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the humble dung beetle was a manifestation of the rising sun’s power of self-regeneration. The height of scarab production was during the 18th-Dynasty reign of Amenhotep III (ca. 1370 B.C.), and a brief examination of the inscriptions on their reverses reveals a shared royal space between the king and his queen, Tiye.
These scarabs represent more than the sacred beetles that the ancient artisans manipulated into form. They uncover characteristics of familial lineage, diplomatic exchange, colossal construction, and the king’s hunting prowess—all the while connecting royal power to the continuous renewal of the sun.
These commemorative scarabs uncover Egypt’s position of power through a royal presence that balances the roles and duties of king and queen.
For full article: https://www.nilemagazine.com.au/free-samples-pages

"The main point is that when one takes into account what we know about ancient Egyptian mathematics (based primarily on the Rhind Papyrus) and what we know about the system of measuring lengths in terms of "cubits," "palms," and "fingers" , everything involves  the number 7 and its multiple.

Hatschepsut, Pharao der 18. Dynastie, wurde von den meisten Ägyptologen über viele Jahre hinweg mit wenig schmeichelhaften Worten betitelt: Der König gilt als "skrupellos", "eitel" und "hinterhältig" oder bestenfalls als "passiv" oder "stark von Anderen beeinflusst". Bemerkenswert ist dabei, dass sich diese Adjektive allein auf die Person Hatschepsut beziehen und kaum ihre – oft als gesetzwidrige Machtergreifung aufgefasste - Regierung beschreiben. Erst in den 80er und 90er Jahren wurde das akademische Narrativ um diesen Pharao ausgeglichener, und seit dem vergangenen Jahrzehnt erwägt man eine revidierte Beurteilung über ihr königliches Wirken. Der Hauptgrund dieser undifferenzierten Debatte um Hatschepsut liegt wohl einzig darin, dass sie eine Frau war.
Welches Bild von Hatschepsuts Herrschaft würde sich ungeachtet dieser Tatsache ergeben? Um ihre Leistung als König von Ägypten fair beurteilen zu können, sollen hier Belege nach den Maßstäben ihrer Zeit aufgeführt werden : einerseits nach Aspekten des göttlichen Königtums und anderseits nach einem Vergleich mit königlichen Vorgängern.

The successors of Alexander the Great engaged in shaping their image of Basileis. Hellenistic rulers and statesmen became increasingly aware of the relevance of self-representation to convey political and social messages for their audience. Unique among them is the case of the Basilissa Amastris of Herakleia, currently the first woman, at least in the history of the Greek Mediterranean and Near East, publicly identified through agency and appearance as the political, economic, and administrative royal authority.
 
Comparing the local tradition from Memnon of Heraklea with the numismatic evidence from the area, the paper shows that Amastris not only crafted her own Basileia but she also shaped her own fame. The peculiarity of her background and the metamorphic historical context allowed her to move between cultures and manipulate the social conventions to create a new political profile. To grant support and confer legitimacy on the new Hellenistic institutions, she made herself and her Basileia vessels of innovations that reflected the interests not only of the conqueror but also those of the native cultures, which had to accept them.

"Résumé
L’article propose une discussion générale sur certains problèmes posés par les sources anciennes lorsqu’on aborde le sujet du rôle et du statut publics des reines de tradition macédonienne au début de l’époque hellénistique. Il s’agit notamment de partir de la représentation des femmes royales dans les récits stéréotypés sur la dégénérescence morale des cours hellénistiques, pour réfléchir sur les faces cachées politiques, idéologiques et socio-économiques que ces récits n’ont pas mises en évidence. A ce propos, divers cas d’études sont explorés pour encourager aussi une réflexion sur les relations entre les types de sources dont on dispose et les différents regards qu’elles permettent : ceux-ci peuvent concerner la dimension factuelle des individus et des événements, ou la catégorie plus générale de la fonction, affectée par les développements concernant les traditions de légitimation et de « délégitimation » du pouvoir féminin.

Abstract
This paper provides a general discussion of some problems raised by ancient sources when one approaches the public role and status of queens of Macedonian tradition in the early Hellenistic period. The aim is to start with the representation of royal women in stereotypical tales on the moral degeneration of Hellenistic courts in order to investigate the hidden political, ideological, and socio-economic aspects, which these tales have not emphasized. To this end, some case studies are explored in order to promote a reevaluation of the relationship between available source types and the different insights that they allow: these may refer to the factual level of individual persons and events or to the more general category of function, which is influenced by the evolutions in the traditions of legitimizing / delegitimizing female power.
"