The words of gods: divine discourse in Homer's Iliad

The Words of Gods: Divine Discourse in Homer's Iliad ______________________________________________________________ Abstract: In this paper I examine the speech of the gods of Homer's Iliad from the social perspective of discourse analysis. In investigating how the social alignments of the gods are managed--and disrupted-- through talk I study the speech acts that they use, the discourse options that they select, and the ways in which status, generational distinctions, gender, and divinity itself are reflected in their speech. I demonstrate that Homer attributes to his gods many of the same speech habits that he attributes to his mortals. But the poet reserves some speech acts and some discourse modes for immortals, a way of asserting the difference of gods from men, in much the same way that a small number of novel lexical items reminds us that the gods are a race apart. Elizabeth Minchin is Reader in Classics at the Australian National University. She has published on aspects of memory and, most recently, on exchanges of speech in the Homeric epics (Homeric Voices: Discourse, Memory, Gender [Oxford University Press, 2007]). Homer's gods--the gods, that is, of the oral epic tradition which he inherited--are in so many ways different from Homer's men.1 Always in their prime, ageless and immortal,2 they have powers that mortal men cannot understand: astonishing speed; strength; the capacity for disguise--and for invisibility.3 Gods also sound different.4 Their voices can be louder, more penetrating, than those of men.5 Whereas gods have the power to imitate the voices of mortals, no mortal without divine assistance can speak with the voice of a god: a mortal voice (Homer uses the term from , or is different , a divine voice.6 Gods not only have different and remarkable powers of voice production, they also have (or once had) their own language. Homer tells us that the gods have their own name for the place which we know as Batieia; the river we know as Skamander; the bird that we identify as the kymindis; and for the giant whom they call Briareus, but whom we mortals call Aigaion.7 The Iliad, that is, contains remnants of what is claimed to be a divine language if not completely different from, then at least fuller and richer than, that of men.8 2 Of course, we must recognize that, despite the differences that I have outlined in lexicon and aspects of production, the representation of divine speech in the epics is subject to certain literary conventions: the Olympian gods, for the purposes of epic song, speak the same (epic) dialect as mortals.9 There are, apparently, no linguistic barriers between the two races.10 Homer's mortals can understand what the gods say; and so can we, the members of Homer's audience. But, given that the poet has been so careful to bring to our attention those occasional differences in lexicon that I noted above, I ask whether he carries his sense of difference through into other aspects of divine discourse. In this paper I present, from the social perspective of discourse analysis, an account of how the gods communicate with each other using this language that they share with mortals.11 My aim has been to observe whether--and, if so, how--status, generational distinctions, gender, divinity and majesty are reflected in their speech--and how social alignments are managed (and disrupted) in their talk. I have checked the speech genres of divine discourse against the range of speech genres Homer's mortals use (such as rebukes, supplication, and lament; requests, prayers, and supplication);12 and I have looked for any genres used by gods alone. I have also considered modes of communication, or 'discourse options', that is, the strategic choices that speakers make (or, more accurately, that the poet makes for his speakers) regarding the presentation of what they say: the choice of address terms and other aspects of courteous or respectful talk; the use of aphorisms, or gnomai;13 teasing; sarcasm; lies and deceit; the soliloquy; and, finally, expressive silence (instead of speech). There are several sustained passages of divine discourse in the Iliad (in 1.493-611, 4.1-72, 5.357-430, 733-791, 868-909, 8.1-40, 350-488, 14.153-360; 15.1-235 and 21.328-513); and there are many other brief exchanges.14 I draw on all of these in my 3 discussion; I begin this study, however, with a close examination of a few scenes, as a kind of ethnographical study, so that we can get up close to the gods and observe their talk, as Homer presents it. The episode I have chosen includes both that lively account of the , the deception of Zeus, in Book 14, and its sequel, Zeus' resumption of control, at the beginning of Book 15. Hera and Aphrodite Hera's plan to distract her husband from the battlefield (to allow Poseidon to intervene on behalf of the Achaians) will be realized through a series of verbal exchanges: withAphrodite, with Sleep, and, finally, with Zeus. After having bathed and dressed with care (14.166-86), Hera first approaches Aphrodite, to ask for a particular sash that will endow her with , loveliness and desirability (198).15 As the interactions of the gods in the scenes on Olympos in Iliad 5 have shown us, Aphrodite is relatively low in the hierarchy of the gods. She is the butt of the teasing remarks that Athene addresses to Zeus (5.418-25).16 So it is amusing to observe the remarkable care with which Hera frames this present request. The goddess prefaces her words with courteous preliminaries: a loving, although (we deduce) insincere, address-term ( , dear child, 190) and a prefatory double question (190-92), beginning with the polite optative verb (would you obey, 190). Hera's warm address term and her elaborate preface set a tone of conciliation and apparent goodwill.17 Notice her use of questions here, a clever strategy: Hera calculates that mild Aphrodite would not have the strength of conviction to answer 'yes' to her question (191)--'would you refuse' what I am about to ask? And, indeed, Hera, in a semblance of deference, brings into the open the reason why Aphrodite might refuse her: they support opposite sides in the Trojan conflict.18 But Hera knows that if she 4 can persuade Aphrodite to hear her request, she has a chance of succeeding. At this point Aphrodite does not know precisely what she is to be asked. But she is disarmed by Hera's ingratiating approach: her positive response to Hera (she will address her as , honoured goddess, 194) and to her preliminary negotiations ( . . . My heart is urgent to do it . . ., 195) will go some way to committing her to the request, when it comes. The request itself is delivered briskly (198-99: Hera doesn't want Aphrodite to have time to change her mind).19 And it is accompanied, as requests so often are, by a statement of reason or purpose (200-10). In this case Hera's statement of purpose is an invention, a false tale concocted for the moment. Her narrative about her 'parents' (for the purpose of this tale) Tethys and Okeanos persuasively addresses themes appropriate to the concerns of Hera herself-who presides over marriage--and, cunningly, to those of Aphrodite--who attends to the works of love. The story she tells is convincing, too, as the sort of story a woman will tell--about family relationships and a woman's concern to set things right.20 Hera's carefully structured request resembles the cautious preface of a mortal in the Iliad when one hero, for example, wishes to give what he knows will be unwelcome advice to another, such as when Helenos at 7.47-48 approaches Hektor. But the negotiation that we observe on Olympos is more complex: and it is this complexity that contributes to the humour of the scene. What Hera wants is something that only Aphrodite has. And Hera needs it now. So, although her status is higher, as Aphrodite acknowledges, Hera is temporarily at a disadvantage, because of her particular need and because of the pressure of time. Of course, Aphrodite is readily persuaded: she is, sadly, gullible.21 She agrees to give Hera what she needs (212-13): ! " 5 I cannot, and I must not deny this thing that you ask for, you, who lie in the arms of Zeus, since he is our greatest. Hera's bland smile to Aphrodite at 222 ( smile at 223 ( ) expresses her gratitude; her private ) indicates her quiet satisfaction at the success of her strategy. Hera and Zeus After her negotiations with Sleep (which are omitted in this account) Hera is ready to take on Zeus. Now equipped with Aphrodite's sash (and Sleep's promise that he will help when the moment comes) Hera makes her way to the peak of Mount Ida, to Gargaron (292-93), where she finds her husband. When Zeus asks her what she is doing there, she explains, (with false lying purpose, 300), that she is planning to go to the ends of the earth and that before she goes, like a dutiful wife, she is asking his leave to undertake that journey (309-11). Zeus, now preoccupied with desire, does not notice the uncharacteristic pretext (when has Hera ever sought his permission before?). The reason for Hera's alleged mission is contained within the same false tale that she told Aphrodite (301-06, cf. 200-10). On this telling it has particular resonance for Zeus: a story-fragment that has elements of dispute and alienation--but that also promises the pleasures of reconciliation--parallels his own hopes and expectations at this very moment. Zeus' declaration of his urgent passion for Hera is, as Janko observes, a version of Paris' for Helen (at 3.438-46).22 In each case the male speaker dismisses his partner's current preoccupations (Zeus says, 'Hera, you can go and see your parents later': 313, cf. 3.438-40); he invites his partner to bed (314, cf. 3.441); and he spells out the measure of his passion (315-28, cf. 3.442-46). This closing element of Zeus' 6 declaration takes the form of a register of past liaisons--each relationship presented as a fragment of a story; each one a tale of triumph (as Zeus' audit of his offspring testifies).23 I should point out here that Homer usually reserves the performance of lists and catalogues for himself, as narrator. The poet entrusts this list alone to Zeus, for it will be comic only on his lips. And Hera, who would in other circumstances be deeply offended, is at this moment so intent on bedding her husband that she is prepared to hear out the catalogue without rancour. And yet, eager as she is to get him into bed, she responds to Zeus' proposal of lovemaking with--again feigned--indignation ( , 329: cf. 300). To maintain her deception she must put up some resistance.24 I point out that Hera does not actually resist lovemaking itself; instead, she fusses about the location. She expresses a protest, affecting the dismayed reaction of a woman bound by convention, and she says , what sort of thing have you spoken, 330--an exclamation reserved in the Iliad for Hera, always as a preface to her protests to Zeus.25 She sets out the flaws in the proposal, which revolve around the potential for shame on her part should someone come upon them as they make love (331-36); and she makes a counter-proposal (337-40): that they return to Olympos, to the privacy of her own bedchamber.26 Zeus brushes this aside. His response to Hera is brief and his actions are masterful. He promises a dense golden cloud. And he gathers his wife in his arms ( , 346). Grass, clover, crocus and hyacinth cushion them; the promised cloud delivers privacy. And, in time, Sleep does his work (352-53).27 Looking back over this scene, then, we find some parallels and some contrasts with discourse amongst mortals. We observe two different forms of request: the very courteous request that we see only occasionally on earth in the Iliad;28 and the prayer, 7 a form which, ironically enough, even gods use when they are seeking something that will be difficult to procure.29 We find the protest--a speech form disproportionately frequent on Olympos by comparison with mortal speech. I note that of all the 36 protests uttered in the Iliad nearly half (15) are spoken by gods to gods; nine of these are addressed to Zeus; and all but one of these nine is spoken by Athene or Hera.30 As for discourse options we find, unusually, the singing of a catalogue, and the telling of lies (to which I return, below). We all know what happens next. Poseidon is able to spur on the Achaians (14.361-62). Hektor is injured (418-20). The Trojans suffer (511-22). And Zeus eventually wakes (15.4-5), still on Gargaron. He sees the Trojans in disarray, Hektor injured, and Poseidon working the battlefield. His reaction is quick and sharp. Instantly he looks at Hera--angrily (13). And he brings his wife to heel, threatening her with harsh reminders of punishments administered in the past (14-33).31 It is the scenes that follow this that are of interest: namely, Zeus' interaction, through Iris, with Hera's accomplice, Poseidon. Hera, on Zeus' instructions, has summoned Apollo and Iris from Olympos to # Zeus' presence on Mount Ida. Zeus gives Iris the usual initial commands ( $% & , . . ., go on your way now, swift Iris . . ., 158). There is no need here for courtesies. Zeus is addressing Iris in her capacity as the messenger: she is by definition 'swift'. 32 This is a matter of urgency: hence the directness of Zeus' instructions to her. Note Zeus' progression from 'announcing' to 'ordering': announce, 159; ' $ , don't be a false messenger, 159; , & , order, 160. Zeus, through Iris, orders Poseidon to quit the fighting and go back either to the company of the gods or into the bright sea. 8 Zeus has referred to his brother at 158 as ( , lord Poseidon: his intentions to this point might be read as polite. But Zeus footnotes his command with a threatening rider (162-66) that makes a claim for higher status. What he says is, if Poseidon appears to dismiss Zeus' instructions, Iris is to remind him that, even though Poseidon denies this, Zeus is both 'much stronger and older than he is' (16566): ) ! $ ! In structuring this closing statement in this way, Zeus, according to Janko, puts less emphasis on his superior strength and highlights the respect due to age--perhaps, as Janko suggests, a more effective argument. But I suggest also that Zeus' insistence on his pre-eminence shows that he is not entirely confident of his position vis-à-vis Poseidon. He is, I suggest, protesting too much. Iris then rockets down to the plain of Troy. Addressing Poseidon she prefaces Zeus' instructions with tactful preliminaries: she uses her own honorific titles for the sea-god ( & & , dark-haired, earth-encircler, 174) and rather than making any reference to Zeus' commands (160) she chooses to highlight the less provocative term 'message' ( , 174). Iris delivers Zeus' instructions in indirect speech (as though she is distancing herself from the message she bears) with some variation at 176-83 of the wording at 160-67. Poseidon, understandably, is irritated. His exclamation of anger ( * , 185) sets the tone for his blustering words. He uses the speech genre that we recognize as a protest (indignation [185-86]; correcting the misapprehension [187-93]; proposal for action [194-99]). Since Poseidon cannot deny that Zeus is first-born he directs his reply, which Iris is to carry back, simply to those parts of Zeus' instructions 9 that carried the threat of force. He accuses Zeus of arrogance (185), of treating him as though he were a weakling (196). He rests his case on their relationship as brothers, sons of Rheia and Kronos (187-88). He speaks of the division amongst himself, Zeus, and Hades (the third of the brothers) of a universe comprising earth, sea, sky and underworld (189-93), but claims that, since earth and Olympos are regions common to all three, he, Poseidon, is not, as he says, 'subject to Zeus' wits' ( , 194). A protest, as we have seen above in Hera's protest to Zeus (14.330-40), is the speech genre of a speaker who is of lower status than his or her addressee. Poseidon will not accept that he is lower in status;33 but he is in these circumstances at a disadvantage--he has been caught doing what he had been told not to do. Poseidon by his protest implicitly admits his wrongdoing. But his fiery words also convey a degree of defiance. It is to this that Iris reacts. Iris responds calmly, soothingly, using the same honorifics with which she had begun. Notice that she conveys to Poseidon her reservations about what he has said, which she describes as " " " (these words, which are strong and steep, 202) not as a statement, but within alternate questions. This she appears to reduce the issue, as Janko notes, to a 'matter of protocol'.34 First, she asks whether that was indeed the reply he would like her to take back to Zeus and, second, she gently slips in the proposal that he might soften his approach a little ( $ ' ; or will you change a little? 203). Clearly, she is in favour of this second strategy.35 Iris' alternate questions, at 201-03, are a form of the question-type that Goody identifies as a deference-question.36 This speech-form appears to function as an information-question (a question that would take a form of 'do you want me to do 10 this?'); but, in fact, it tactfully deals with the problem of how one should give advice, or suggest a course of action, to a person of higher status--without appearing to do so. Iris, as messenger god, will not say to Poseidon, 'Good heavens, don't say that! It's not a good idea at all.' But she can say, deferentially: 'Am I to take this tough message back to Zeus? Or will you soften your words?' Even as she appears to consult Poseidon (asking him to make the decision) she slips in, at 203, a tactful aphorism to support her case ( , the hearts of the great can be changed), along with a reminder about the precedent set by the Erinyes, who 'always favour the elder' (204).37 Poseidon acknowledges her good sense ( , 206). And he then bluntly identifies the purpose that Iris had been so gracefully masking. As he says (207): it is a fine thing when a messenger is conscious of justice. So Poseidon will accept Iris' recommendation, grudgingly--and conditionally. Although he announces that he will give way (211), he does so only after making the , 209) with his brother.38 But-- and point again that he is equal in station ( this is the condition that salvages his pride--if Zeus spares Troy, then Poseidon will not make a concession such as this again ( + & , there will be no more healing of our anger, 217). In this series of exchanges we observe how important are the linguistic choices that we make to the ongoing health of our relationships with others. Zeus sends orders to Poseidon. He claims he has the power to do so. Poseidon resists. He contests Zeus' supremacy. Iris, whose position in the hierarchy is low, knows how to shape her discourse in order to advocate to Poseidon a change in policy. The gods' responses are no different from those of mortals: Zeus in his insistence on his rights as king of gods 11 and men reminds us in certain ways of Agamemnon (9.158-61); Poseidon might recall Achilleus (9.369-426). We find a parallel for Iris, who has handled Poseidon's uncompromising response to Zeus so delicately, not in the Nestor of Iliad 1 but in one of Homer's forgotten characters, Dolios at Od 24.403-05, who also knows the value of a quiet deference-question, by way of guidance, to his superior. Discussion Do the Homeric gods speak in entirely different ways from Homer's mortals? The answer from the social perspective is no. I shall argue for some small but significant differences, but on the whole the speech of gods is similar to that of mortals. For example, many of the speech genres used by mortals are used also by the gods: threats, rebukes, protests, and courteous requests, for example.39 And there are stories: we have noted today fragments of the kind of story that any woman, goddess or mortal, will tell about family relationships; and we find on the lips of Zeus fragments of the kinds of stories that (on the evidence of the Odyssey) mortal men might tell, about triumphs in love. Gods even use prayer and supplication, as Hera does to Sleep, or Thetis to Zeus.40 On the other hand, some mortal speech genres are not a regular part of the divine repertoire: speeches of consolation or lament, both of which we find rarely on the lips of a god, do not resonate in quite the same way as when used amongst mortals. Dione's speech of consolation in 5.382-415, as the goddess solemnly consoles her daughter for a surface wound inflicted by a mortal, a scratch that will be healed in a moment, allows the poet to underline the inconsequentiality, for an immortal, of trauma and suffering. Likewise, we come across three divine speeches of lament, each expressing genuine sorrow for an outcome that cannot be averted--Zeus 12 lamenting the approaching death of Sarpedon (16.433-38), or that of Hektor (22.16876); or Thetis lamenting the imminent death of Achilleus (18.52-64). Although a divine lament has a certain power (after all, it is a god who is speaks) it lacks the pathos of Hekabe's or Andromache's laments for Hektor, as son or husband, or Briseis' lament for Patroklos.41 As far as discourse options are concerned, certain modes of verbal behaviour typical of mortals are rare or non-existent in divine talk: the poet of the Iliad rarely uses soliloquies in divine speech.42 I suggest that he shrinks from revealing the private thoughts of his gods, even though he is often prepared to do this in the case of his mortal characters. Of all the gods it is only Zeus who expresses his thoughts thus (at 17.201-208 [of Hektor] and 443-55 [of Achilleus' horses]). And it is only when the narrative moves towards its resolution after the death of Patroklos that Zeus puts into words (for no one but the audience) his regret about unfolding events, although he has no desire to change their course. As I noted earlier, Homer also allows Zeus alone, never one of his mortal characters, to perform a catalogue song, one of the poet's own specialities. Secondly, sarcasm is less common amongst gods than it is amongst mortals.43 But we find that Olympian gods are ready to bait one another in ways that mortals never do: Zeus with words of mockery ( , 4.6) teases Hera and Athene at 4.7-19 by drawing attention to Aphrodite's energetic intervention on Paris' behalf (7-12) and offering the prospect that Troy may not be sacked (13-19).44 Athene, at 5.421-25, retaliates: her uncharacteristically hesitant preface and her carefully phrased, courteous request for permission to take the floor (421) are intended ironically. With words of mockery ( , 419) she teases her father, using Aphrodite as her subject material.45 And Homer's gods resort to lies 13 and deceit on many more occasions than do the mortals of the Iliad. The gods' occasional bouts of unscrupulousness throw into contrast the general openness and uprightness of the heroes of the Iliad. The only example of deceit amongst the mortals of the Iliad is the false reassurance that Odysseus gives to Dolon at 10.383. Next, both mortals and immortals--both male and female gods--use gnomai. But, as Lardinois has demonstrated, the wisdom sayings of gods addressing gods are in some ways different from those of mortals to mortals or, indeed, of gods to mortals.46 When mortals use aphorisms in speech, even when they refer to gods, the point of reference is always human activity. So, when Achilleus says 'if any man obeys the gods they listen to him also (1.218) or when Aeneas says 'the wrath of a god is hard to bear' (5.178) these gnomai refer to mortal behaviour. But when the gods use aphorisms of a similar kind, their gnomai reflect on the lives of gods, in some cases producing a change of meaning.47 Furthermore, when gods speak of other gods in their aphorisms, they inevitably sound more personal.48 So, when Hephaistos remarks to Hera at 1.589 that 'the Olympian is hard to resist', he is not talking, as a mortal would, about the father of gods and men remote on Olympos but about the individual just across the room whose character is well-known to both of them. Another discourse option is silence.49 In the course of conversation gods lapse into silence or are shocked into silence far less frequently than mortals.50 The outcome is that we, the audience, take more notice of those occasions on which the poet chooses divine silence as a mode of communication. At 8.28-29 all the gods remain silent, stunned by the severity of Zeus' words, as he threatens to suspend from the horn of Olympos any god who goes down to assist either Trojans or Achaians on the battlefield. The silence of the other gods marks this as a significant declaration and an important moment in the progress of the narrative. At 4.22 Athene, vexed by Zeus' 14 teasing words, and at 8.459, angered by the prohibitions that Zeus has imposed on her and Hera, bites her tongue. Her desire to keep her anger in check is not, however, entirely successful: a daughterly scowl testifies to her resentment.51 Athene's silence is clearly an effort of will and self-control--and this tells us something about her strength of character. By contrast, Hera, who is equally angry, cannot master her tongue. On each occasion she speaks out in bitter protest (4.25-29; 8.462-68), in her characteristically impetuous way. And, at 1.511-12 (the most expressive silence of all), Zeus remains silent after Thetis has begged him to turn the tide of battle against the Achaians in order to force Agamemnon to do honour to Achilleus. Zeus' long , silence ( , 512) is a measure of his anxiety both about what would be a major shift in divine policy and about domestic harmony. As he says (1.518-23), he is anxious about how he will present this new agreement, should he make it, to his wife, Hera (who is both anti-Trojan and anti-Thetis). This is what he says at 518-19: $ - & !# ! " This is a disastrous matter when you set me in conflict with Hera, and she troubles me with recriminations. The poet uses silence here to suggest the import of what Thetis asks; and yet he allows Zeus' subsequent words--hinting at marital disharmony--to undercut its solemnity. I turn now to generational difference, gender, and status, to see whether they are recognized amongst immortals in the same way that they are amongst mortals. I begin with status and generational difference. Zeus, we observe, is addressed with respect (as , father Zeus) both by lesser gods, such as Thetis (1.503), and by gods who are closer to him, such as Athene and Hera (at, for example, 5.421). More 15 respectful terms are used in special circumstances: by Thetis, for example, at 1.508, or Hera at 16.440. 52 Hera, we notice, can be sharp, and less than respectful, when speaking with her husband (as wives can);53 but Zeus in turn will remind his wife of his status and she in fear respects that (1.560-70). Hera is of higher status than most other gods. So it is not surprising that, on being angered, she addresses Artemis harshly ( , shameless bitch, 21.481) and boxes her ears (21.489-92). In Homer's Iliad gods will be even more respectful, as are mortals, if they are making a request of someone higher in the social hierarchy; or if they see that such a strategy will in some way be to their advantage. Thus Thetis' request to Zeus is, as I have noted, properly deferential: she recognizes the great difference between herself, a sea nymph, and the king of gods and men--and, of course, she very much wants her request on her son's behalf to succeed.54 And when Hera, a senior goddess, negotiates with Aphrodite and Sleep in Iliad 14, she is amiability itself, addressing her social inferiors, as we have seen, with terms of respect and affection as she blandly tells the lies she must tell if she is to achieve her ends. As to 'age', although the immortals are said to be ageless, they are not all of the one age. Some gods are seen to be 'younger' than others. This generational difference, especially in the case of divine parents and their children, is reflected in address terms that indicate parental affection--or parental anger: Dione speaks gently to her daughter Aphrodite at 5.373-74; Zeus chides his daughter Artemis affectionately (21.509-10), but speaks harshly to Ares, his son (5.889-98). Indeed, Ares regularly attracts address terms that mark either his inferior status or his immaturity: Athene's scornful (you baby!), at 21.410, does both. And now to gender and power. The squabbles that we observe throughout the Iliad between Zeus and Hera illustrate very neatly for us the gender-based tensions 16 that arise when male desire for autonomy runs up against female desire for involvement.55 Homer, with a good nose for comic potential, has extended the natural tensions of many real world mortal relationships to the divine couple who rule on Olympos. Hera's unreasonable accusations, her sulky silences, her protests, and her deceit characterize a woman frustrated at being kept out of the loop by her husband. Three speech genres--rebukes, threats, and protests--mark distinctions of gender and power most clearly. Zeus' relationship with Hera--and with Athene, his daughter, the most active pro-Achaian gods--is punctuated by a series of exchanges throughout the poem in which Zeus issues rebukes and utters threats and the goddesses register protests at his injunctions. The poet's attribution of threats and rebukes to Zeus marks his ascendancy; the goddesses' protests register and realize their lack of power--at least vis-à-vis the king of gods and men.56 In fact, in other contexts Athene is dominant: to her alone amongst the gods does Homer attribute that speech genre that we associate so firmly with mortal men, the heroes of the Iliad--the speech of triumph, or the boast.57 At 21.410-14 and 428-33 Athene exults over, first, Ares, and, second, Ares and Aphrodite. Here, towards the end of the epic, Homer confirms what we have long suspected: that Athene has much more battle-lust within her than does the god of war himself. In this family on Olympos gender stereotypes are both confirmed and challenged--a phenomenon that we recognize in the world around us. I conclude by drawing a distinction between majesty and divinity. The majesty of the gods--their dignity and their authority--is conveyed through demonstration of the great powers that I noted above: the gods' ability to take on all forms of disguise, their speed; their strength; their ability to cry out, or speak, at a louder volume than any man. The poet also conveys majesty through aspects of non-verbal communication (Zeus' great nod of assent to Thetis at 1.528-30 is a powerful 17 expression of authority). And, of course, we must remember the great respect and reverence felt by mortals for their gods in their rare encounters with them and in their prayers and their offerings.58 Their attitude, their responses, and their actions are a sure measure of divine majesty. But the only forms of speech used by the gods between themselves that recognize dignity and authority are their formal address terms: 'Hera, honoured goddess and daughter of mighty Kronos' (14.194, 243) , 'Zeus of the counsels, lord of Olympos' (1.508). In all other respects (except perhaps the poet's restrained use of soliloquies) there is nothing majestic in the speech of the gods. On the other hand, their speech suggests divinity (quite simply, being a god). The wisdom sayings of the gods, their speeches of lament, and consolation, reveal their different, divine, perspective on the world. The poet's decision to reveal them to us as occasionally petty and bad-tempered, rebellious and defiant, needing to be coaxed into politeness and good behaviour, and his readiness to let them lie and deceive and tease their fellow-gods without compunction reveal the gods as a race that often, and surprisingly to our Judaeo-Christian perceptions, lacks majesty. This deficiency can be best explained if we accept that the gods behave in this way simply because they can. The gods need not fear the consequences of their actions, as mortals must. Their carefree existence, in fact, identifies them as gods as well as throwing into relief the lot of mankind, for whom life is a struggle--and always ends in death.59 The gods' lack of majesty is, in part, a neat solution to a literary problem: how to underscore the general seriousness of the heroes of the Iliad, their sense of duty, and responsibility, and their nobility.60 So it is through the poet's choice of speech genres and discourse options, and through the intensity with which he deploys some and avoids others, that the contradictory qualities of his gods are evoked. The discourse of the gods will not 18 leave us with a lasting impression of their grandeur, but it will, paradoxically, remind us of just who they are, as divinities. 1 For useful discussion of the pantheon on Olympos and its representation in the epic tradition, see Kirk (1990) 1-14. I thank the three organisers for the work that they put into making this conference so successful and the participants for their very helpful comments on my paper. 2 The gods live easily ( ) 24.99); and immortal ( . , 6.138); they are blessed ( , 1.406; , 5.342). Except where otherwise indicated, all references in this paper are to the Iliad. On the nature of the gods, see Clay (1981-82); Griffin (1980) 189-90. 3 On their speed, 24.77-99 (Iris); their strength, 15.361-64 (Apollo); disguise, 13.43- 45 (Poseidon); invisibility, 22.276-77 (Athene). For discussion, see Griffin (1980) 188-89. 4 Heath (2005) 52. 5 E.g., Hera disguises herself as Stentor, whose voice is equivalent to that of 50 men (5.784-86); Ares can shout as loudly as 9,000 or 10, 000 men (5.859-61). 6 On 94). For and , see Heath (2005) 56: is used only of Zeus' voice (2.93- , a divine voice, see 2.41; 20.129; Od.3.215. For examples of gods imitating the voices of mortals, see 20.81; 13.216; and 22.227. For an exceptional 19 instance of a mortal being able to speak with the voice of a god, see Od.5.333-35 on Ino, or Leukothea, the daughter of Kadmos (she was in former times a mortal, who spoke as a mortal [ 7 ], but now holds rank as a god). Clay (1972) 127: for references to dionumia see 2.813-14 (Batieia/Myrine); 20.74 (Skamander/Xanthos); 14.291 (kymindis/chalkis); and 1.403-04 (Aigaion/Briareus). 8 See Clay (1972) 131; Heath (2005) 56-7; and, for further discussion, see Gera (2003) 51-4; Ross 2005) 310. 9 See de Jong (2005) 12-14. 10 See Gera (2003) 3-4. 11 There is an argument for discussing also the ways in which the gods speak (and the ways in which they choose to speak--through messengers and dreams) to mortals. But I have chosen to separate this cross-cultural question (which warrants a separate paper) from speech amongst the divinities themselves. 12 I use the term 'speech genre' following Bakhtin (1986). Most of the speech genres I list here will be illustrated in the episode selected for study, below. 13 On gnomai as used by both mortals and gods, see Lardinois (2000); Edwards (1987) 98-101. Lardinois (2000) 642 describes a gnome as a 'general expression applied to particular case', in the manner of a proverb. 14 There are just 1107 lines of divine speech in soliloquy or addressed to another divinity: 15% of all direct speech in the Iliad. 15 Translations, unless otherwise noted, are taken from Lattimore (1951). 16 And, indeed, Zeus cannot help but smile in response (426). 17 On mitigated directives, see Minchin (2007) 203-07. Hera really wants this sash; so she is prepared to declare affection that she does not feel and to use the elaborated, courteous, form of the verb ( ) to help her achieve her goal. 20 18 Goody (1978) 37 notes that people of higher status use a deferential mode (as we observe here) to 'allow the subordinate to approach close enough to interact effectively'. 19 As the bT scholia note, (everything is business-like). As Janko comments (1992) 248-49, the directness of Hera's request falsely suggests that her explanation is equally direct. 20 On the themes that women tend to choose for their stories, see Minchin (2007) 248- 49. 21 Aphrodite demonstrates in this scene that she lacks the worldly virtues of tough- mindedness and scepticism that Athene and Hera share: she cannot always read other people's motives. 22 See Janko (1992) 201. 23 Zeus claims that his desire for Hera at this moment is stronger than desire he has felt for any other woman. For discussion of this list qua list see Minchin (2001) 73-99. 24 In this Hera, goddess and queen, is unlike Helen at 3.438-46, who is held captive by Aphrodite. Helen submits in resentful silence to her husband's proposal; she cannot resist. 25 See also 1.552; 4.25; 8.462; 16.440; 18.361. The bT scholiast notes that at this point Hera 'reproves' her husband ! ! (just like a woman). In my view Hera's words are not a reproof but a protest--she admits (for strategic purposes) her lesser status; and although she does not expect to change the proposal itself, she pretends that she wishes to effect some small change to the plan. On protests as a speech genre associated with lower relative status (and particularly women), see Minchin (2007) 155-63, 173-74. 21 26 For the tripartite formulation of a protest, see Minchin (2007) 149: reaction of dismay or indignation; correcting misapprehension (or highlighting flaws in proposal); proposal for action. For a comparable mortal protest, see 24.201-16 (Hekabe)--the only protest in the Iliad uttered by a woman to a man. 27 Although it was not explicitly part of his brief, he alerts Poseidon to Zeus' slumber (357-60): Sleep understands the way that Hera's mind works (see, for example, 25256). 28 E.g., at 7.47-53 (Helenos); we see courteous requests more frequently in the Odyssey, where young people address their elders: Od. 3.92-93; 4.317; 15.195-96 (Telemachos); and 6.57-58 (Nausikaa). 29 Just as Thetis supplicates Zeus (1.498-510), so Hera expresses her request to Sleep as a prayer (14.233-41). On this see Janko (1992) 188, who sees Hera's words as a parody of prayer: her initial offer, of a throne and footstool (238-41), echoes the promises made in the prayers of mortals (cf. Diomedes' prayer to Athene at 10.18494). On Hera's lips, however, the gift-offer, according to Janko, comes closer to bribery. Cf. Crotty (1994) 94-95. 30 See Minchin (2007) 155-58. 31 For comparable threats see 3.414-17 (Aphrodite to Helen); 1.26-28 (Agamemnon to Chryses); 24.568-70 (Achilleus to Priam). 32 On this messenger-role, see Janko (1992: 245), who notes (after the T scholia) that Homer has Iris take the message to Poseidon; the poet avoids bringing Poseidon to confront Zeus in person. 33 Poseidon has, however, made such a concession earlier. At 8.209-11 he had protested to Hera, when she had rebuked him, at 201-7, for not playing a more active 22 role in the defence of the Achaians that Zeus was the greater god. But it is clear that the question of pre-eminence always rankles with him. 34 Janko (1992) 248. 35 The second of alternative questions in Homer (as in everyday talk in our own world) is usually the one that is to be followed up, in accordance with conversational preferences for contiguity and agreement. On this see Minchin (2007) 112-13. On Iris' value on Olympos, for her ability to soothe angry gods and soften their responses, see also Erbse (1986) 55-56. 36 On deference questions, see Goody (1978) 32-5; Minchin (2007) 119-24. Janko (1992) 248-49, observes that is usual in rhetorical questions in which the speaker casts doubt on the previous speaker's words. 37 For a comparable use of gnome asa tool of persuasion, see 1.274 (Nestor). 38 For a comparable concession amongst mortals, see Diomedes' conditional agreement at 8.146-50. 39 These forms, and others, are, as I have argued elsewhere, stylized versions of everyday talk in the real world of Homer and his audience: on this see Martin (1989) 45 and 225; Minchin (2007) 282-83, 287. 40 On the format of a prayer, see Pulleyn (1997) 132; on supplication, see Crotty (1994) 94-95; on Thetis's prayer, see Tsagalis (2001). Prayers will include always an invocation and a request; the argumentum (that part of the prayer in which the petitioner gives reasons for his or her request) may be omitted. For comparable prayers of mortals: Chryses to Apollo at 1.37-42; Nestor to Zeus, Apollo, and Athene at 7.132-35; the Achaians to Zeus at 7.202-5; Odysseus, succinctly, to Athene at 23.770; Priam to Zeus at 24.308-13. 23 41 See, e.g., 22.478-514; 24.725-45 (Andromache); 24.748-59 (Hekabe); 19.287-300 (Briseis). The gods do indeed suffer at these moments (Zeus weeps tears of blood on the death of Sarpedon: 16.459-61); but his tears (extraordinary as they are) do not move us in the way that the tears of mortals do. On the other hand, the lament of a god serves to heighten the emotional significance' of the event: Griffin (1980) 196. 42 Soliloquies are not uncommon in the speech of mortals: see, for example, 11.404- 10 (Odysseus); 17.91-105 (Hektor); 18.6-14 (Antilochos); 20.344-352 (Achilleus); 21.54-63 (Achilleus), 553-70 (Antenor); 22.98-130 (Hektor), 22.297-305 (Hektor). 43 Gods tease one another (see below) or speak dismissively (21.410-11), but do not appear to be sarcastic. By contrast, we find many instances of sarcasm amongst mortals (7.96-98; 14.454-57; 21.583-85); or on the lips of gods addressing mortals (2.173-78; 20.83-85). 44 Zeus cannot help himself: he will indulge in further teasing of Athene and Hera (who rise to his bait so readily) at 8.447-56. For their reactions at 4.20-29 and 8.45768, see below. 45 Athene proposes, teasingly, that Aphrodite's wound was suffered in the bedchamber not on the battlefield (422-25). By aiming a barb at Aphrodite, Athene hopes to provoke Zeus. For teasing amongst mortals, see only 10.164-67 (Diomedes to Nestor). 46 Lardinois (2000) 656-59. 47 Lardinois (2000) 656-57. When Hektor says to Andromache at 6.492 'war is the concern of men', he means 'men' as opposed to women. When Poseidon uses the same aphorism at 20.137 he uses in the sense of 'human beings' as opposed to the gods (that is, he and Hera should stay clear of the fighting and 'let war be the concern of mankind'). 24 48 Lardinois (2000) 657. 49 On silence's potential for eloquence, see Scarpi (1987) 23. 50 For the most obvious examples of mortal silence, consider the occurrences of the phrase ) ! (all of them stayed stricken to silence): 3 95; 7.92, 398; 9.29, 430, 693; 10.218, 313; 23 676. On such silence, see Foley (1995); Minchin (forthcoming). 51 I assume that the use of . (4.23; 8.460) indicates some physical manifestation of anger or displeasure. 52 On formal and informal address terms and the measure of social distance see Holmes (1995) 10, 15-19. Negative politeness (using a formal address term) expresses distance and emphasizes social distance; the use of an informal address term, such as a nickname, reflects a closer relationship between the participants. Hera's formality at 16.440 may indicate a temporary increase in social distance (a mark of her disapproval). Even so, the address term itself is a mark of Zeus' status. 53 See, for example, 1.540 ( , treacherous one). Likewise, in the television series West Wing, the President's wife is the only person who can call her husband a jackass. In the Iliad, Hera, like Dr Bartlet, speaks with stinging words ( 539). The use of , (540) reflects a close (but not necessarily happy) relationship between speaker and addressee: it is not a friendly insult. 54 Contrast Thetis' request of Zeus with her request of Hephaistos at 18.429-61. We do not see the same elaborate address terms in her request of Hephaistos; she omits an argumentum; and her request, unlike the request of a prayer, is indirectly phrased. Why do we find such differences? First, her request to Hephaistos is not as momentous in its implications as is her request to Zeus; and second, although 25 Hephaistos is an Olympian, and although he, like Zeus, is in her debt (18.394-405), he is not of the same high status as Zeus (as the laughter of the gods at 1.599-600 shows). Thetis acknowledges Hephaistos' special psychological needs in her use of a less direct form of request. For further commentary see Minchin (2007) 205. 55 On men's and women's talk in the everyday anglophone world, see Holmes (1995) 7; Minchin (2007) 145-47. 56 Goody (1978) 38-39 argues from her ethnographic perspective that status and social roles constrain the ways in which we speak to each other. But in more recent sociolinguistic work we find the interesting claim that utterances are acts that not only reflect status but also construct differences of status amongst speakers: see, e.g., Troemel-Ploetz (1998) 449. Certainly, in the mimesis of communication, such as we observe here, differences of status are constructed by the nature of the talk. 57 See Martin (1989) 228 on the boast as the 'warrior's rhetoric of heroism'. 58 Cf. Chryses' address terms at 1.37-39; the Trojans' at 6.305; Achilleus' at 16.233- 35. The reaction of Achilleus to Athene, and his words, at 1.197-218, indicate reverence, as do Hektor's words to Hekabe at 6.264-85. For discussion, see Griffin (1980) 148-56. 59 These thoughts are well-expressed at 24.525-35; and in Griffin (1980) 191. 60 And, indeed, Redfield (1975) 76 dismisses the gods as 'literary gods' and the religion of the Iliad as a 'literary religion'. But see Dietrich (1986) 179-83; Kirk (1990) 1-14. Certainly, the gods of the Iliad transcend the roles and functions assigned to them by what we know of cult worship, but it is clear that the epic tradition has drawn on older beliefs and elaborated on them to serve its own purposes. 26 Bakhtin, M. 1986. The Problem of Speech Genres. In M Bakhtin: Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, ed. C. Emerson and M. Holquist., trans. V. McGee: 60102. Austin. Clay, J. 1972. The Planktai and Moly: Divine Naming and Knowing in Homer. Hermes 100: 127-31. Clay, J. Strauss. 1981-82. Immortal and Ageless Forever. CJ 77: 112-17. Crotty, K. 1994. The Poetics of Supplication. Ithaca. de Jong, I. 2005. Convention versus Realism in the Homeric Epics. Mnemosyne 58: 122. Dietrich, B. 1986. Tradition in Greek Religion. Berlin and New York. Edwards, M. 1987. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore and London. Erbse, H. 1986. Untersuchungen zur Funktion der Götter im homerischen Epos. Berlin. Foley, J.M. 1995. Sixteen Moments of Silence in Homer. QUCC 79: 7-26. Gera, D. 2003. Ancient Greek Ideas on Speech, Language and Civilization. Oxford. Goody, E. 1978. Towards a Theory of Questions. In Questions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction, ed. E. Goody: 17-43. Cambridge. Griffin, J. 1980. Homer on Life and Death. Oxford. 27 Heath, J. 2005. The Talking Greeks: Speech, Animals, and the Other in Homer, Aeschylus, and Plato. Cambridge. Holmes, J. 1995. Women, Men and Politeness. London and New York. Janko, R. 1992. The Iliad: A Commentary, Vol. 4. Cambridge. Kirk, G. 1990. The Iliad: A Commentary, Vol. 2. Cambridge. Lardinois, A. 2000. Characterization through Gnomai in Homer's Iliad. Mnemosyne 53: 641-61. Lattimore, R. 1951. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago. Martin, R. 1989. The Language of Heroes: Speech and Performance in the Iliad. Ithaca and London. Minchin, E. 2001. Homer and the Resources of Memory: Some Applications of Cognitive Theory to the Iliad and the Odyssey. Oxford. Minchin, E. 2007. Homeric Voices: Discourse, Memory, Gender. Oxford. Minchin, E. (forthcoming) Communication without Words: Body Language, 'Pictureability', and Memorability in the Iliad. Ordia Prima. Pulleyn, S. 1997. Prayer in Greek Religion. Oxford. Redfield, J. 1975. Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector. Chicago. Ross, S. 2005. Barbarophonos: Language and Panhellenism in the Iliad. CPh 100: 299-316. Scarpi, P. 1987. The Eloquence of Silence: Aspects of a Power without Words. In The Regions of Silence: Studies on the Difficulty of Communicating, ed. M. Ciani: 19-39. Amsterdam. Troemel-Ploetz, S. 1998. Selling the Apolitical. In Language and Gender:A Reader, ed. J. Coates: 446-58. Oxford. 28 Tsagalis, C. 2001. Style and Construction, Sound and Rhythm: Thetis' Supplication to Zeus (Iliad 1.493-516). Arethusa 34: 1-29.