Postmodernism and Cinema

246 Chapter 15 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives: The Reflection of the Concept of Postmodernism in Cinema Berceste Gülçin Özdemir İstanbul University, Turkey ABSTRACT Postmodernism is interpreted with an opposed thought about modernism which affects all of the art fields. Cinema art is affected from the discourse created by postmodernism. As a result of the changes of narrative strategies in film narratives by postmodernism, existing conventions in classical narration cinema have been differentiated. In this chapter, Onur Ünlü’s, who has given artworks in New Era Turkish Cinema, Güneşin Oğlu and Celal Tan ve Ailesinin Aşırı Acıklı Hikayesi films are analyzed according to postmodern narrative strategies with postmodern genre film criticism. Arguments, which are used by Onur Ünlü in the plot of his two films, are discussed together with narrative strategies. How the postmodern narrative strategies such as intertextuality, collage, parody, pastiche, self-reflexivity are used in both of the films are analyzed with plot, characters, time, and space. In collaboration with basic elements of narrative, narrative strategy is mentioned with regard to New Era Turkish Cinema’s progressing. INTRODUCTION Postmodernism is interpreted with an opposed thought about modernism which affects all of the art fields. Cinema art is affected from the discourse created by postmodernism. As a result of the changes of narrative strategies in film narratives by post-modernism, existing conventions in classical narration cinema have been differentiated. Remembering of watching film with an dramatic ways, narrative strategies of plots to provide the spectator to think about them using out of camera angels in the classical narrative cinema, representations of characters out of conventional stereotypes using of intertextuality DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-8491-9.ch015 Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives remain at bay film and spectator and providing alternative watching experience in watching experience. In this study, Onur Ünlü’s, who has given artworks in New Era Turkish Cinema, Güneşin Oğlu (2008) and Celal Tan ve Ailesinin Aşırı Acıklı Hikayesi (2011) films are analyzed according to post-modern narrative strategies with post-modern genre film criticism. Arguments, which are used by Onur Ünlü in the plot of his two films are discussed together with narrative strategies. The contributions of narrative strategies used in films to New Era Turkish Cinema and the experiences of spectators are discussed. How the post-modern narrative strategies such as intertextuality, collage, parody, pastiche, self-reflexivity are used in both of the films are analyzed with plot, characters, time and space. In collaboration with basic elements of narrative and narrative strategy is mentioned with regard to New Era Turkish Cinema’s progressing. The appearance of the experience of spectators’, giving the meaning of the interrogable facts emergent from post-modern narrative strategies by the spectators’, and the contribution of postmodern narratives to traditional cinema conventions were also presented in discussion and conclusion. BACKGROUND The narrative strategies of postmodern cinema produced in such a way as to create contrasts to modernist films offer multiple perspectives to the spectator’s film-watching experiences. In the study, firstly, information about the concept of postmodernism will be given. The semantic transformations that the concept has undergone in the historical process are also ambiguous in terms of clearly defining the concept. In this context, discussions will be made about the concepts that make sense of the postmodern cinema in the relationship of postmodernism with cinema. The fact that spectators experience movie watching that is different from the classical narrative cinema with the strategies used in the postmodern cinema narratives produces questions also with regard to the relationship of postmodernist narrative strategies with spectators. The study examined the movies Güneşin Oğlu (2008) and Celal Tan ve Ailesinin Aşırı Acıklı Hikayesi (2011) of Onur Ünlü, who is one of the directors of the new Turkish Cinema, based on the main elements of the narrative with the narrative strategies that have been used in the postmodern cinema narratives, and also the characters, space, and the subjects regarding time and narrative. Within this direction, the narrative strategies in the Turkish cinema after 1990 and the changes that these narrative strategies create on the spectator’s experience will be discussed. THE REFLECTION OF THE CONCEPT OF POSTMODERNISM IN CINEMA The concept of postmodernism is cited by Gordon Marshall in the field of sociology by the description of Zygmunt Bauman as follows: “Variety, contingency, and ambiguity are a continuous and irreducible pluralism of cultures, communal traditions, ideologies ‘lifestyles’ or ‘language games’” (Marshall, 2005: 593). In his book The Condition of Postmodernity (1990), David Harvey asks questions with the concept of postmodernism and provides that the reader internalizes the content: Does postmodernism represent a radical break with modernism, or is it simply a revolt within modernism against a certain form of high modernism? Is postmodernism a style or should we view it strictly as a periodizing concept? Does it have a revolutionary potential by virtue of its opposition to all forms of meta-narratives and its close attention to other worlds and other voices that have for too long 247 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives been silenced? Or is it simply the commercialization and domestication of modernism and a reduction of the latter’s already tarnished aspirations to a “laissez-faire” anything goes market eclective politics? (Harvey, 2006: 57). According to Mike Featherstone, there is ambiguity in the definition of postmodernism but it hosts a structure that consists of “a conceptual confusion such as the loss of a sense of historical past, schizoid culture, excremental culture, the replacement of reality by images and cognitive complexities like unchained signifiers” (Featherstone, 2013: 36). The concept of postmodernism is also used as a current of thought in the field of art, with interpretations that are used in a way that will contradict modernism. Andreas Huyssen notes that postmodernism was first used in the literary field by the literary critics Leslie Fiedler and Ihab Hassan in the 1960s and states that in the mid-1970s, the concept gained validity in the fields of architecture, dance, theater, painting, film and music (Huyssen, 1984: 11). In its relationship with cinema, the concept of postmodernism is a concept that plays a role in breaking the codes of classical narrative cinema, allowing interdisciplinary reading. In his article The Culture of Modernism (1985), Ihab Hassan presents the differences between modernism and postmodernism in a schema, showing what concepts in classical narrative cinema can evolve into postmodern narratives. Contradictions such as purpose-play, hierarchy-anarchy, distance-participation, centering-dispersal, genre/boundarytext/intertext, interpretation/reading-against interpretation/misreading, narrative-anti-narrative, master code-idiolect, type-mutant, paranoia-schizophrenia, God the Father-The Holy Ghost, metaphysics-irony and determinacy-indeterminacy are schematically illustrated by Hassab in the antagonism of modernismpostmodernism (Hassab, 1985: 123-124). In his work Palimpsests (1982), Gerard Genette tries to show the connection of parody with genres like transvestites, pastiche, transpositions, and so on. In this genre that consists of texttop and lower text, the lower text refers to the original text in which the parody is the subject, and the texttop refers to the changes to which the lower text is exposed. The existence of the texttop is stated to be possible when the reader comprehends that he/she reads a parody and agrees with this genre (Cebeci, 2016: 78). According to Linda Hutcheon, while the parody emphasizes the difference from the basic text, the pastiche has been the one that stems from similarity. She also states that pastiche should be thought of as a style imitation rather than an imitation of a particular text (Cebeci, 2016: 79). Hutcheon said “parody is not limited to the style of the relationship between the two texts referred to in the parody. From the point of view of the reader, the parody necessitates to find out another text that is linked to the parody, the intent of the author and the effect he/she is aiming to awaken on the reader. At the same time, parody necessitates the ability to interpret the text to which the parody is linked” (Cebeci, 2016: 80). Norman Denzin states that Carl Reiner’s film Dead Men Do not Wear Plaid (1982) is a parody and he notes that the film is making fun of film noir by stealing from its traditions while respecting and sympathizing it. The film Dead Men Do not Wear Plaid is presented as a comedy film by repeating the images belonging to the noir movie and the narrative codes (Denzin, 1995: 82). In this context, there is no new production in parody and pastiche, but there is the imitation of the old one; while the parody prompts the reader to think more, pastiche is based on imitation and meets the reader or the audience. Pauline Marie Rosenau, on the other hand, notes that pastiche is the composition that is created by putting ideas or views together ideas in a disorganized, random way and by merging the old and new like patchwork (Rosenau, 1998: 16). In this regard, it is thought that the compositions that are created by merging the old and new can reveal debates in cinema. Citing from John Orr, Hayward notes that pastiche cinema is open to readings that contradict and may be potentially dangerous and may have a schizoid aspect (Hayward, 2012: 366). Regarding making such an inference grounding on schizophrenia, it becomes important to read the feeling that pastiche arouses in spectators or the feeling that it creates 248 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives in the perception of the spectators. According to Lacan, schizophrenia is defined as “break of the chain of markers, that is to say, a break in the interconnected syntagmatic chain of markers that constitute an expression or meaning. When the relationship between the markers is ended and when the rings of the marker chain is broken, we are confronted with schizophrenia as a bundle of discrete and unrelated markers”. It is the expression that Jameson describes as the marker here, and Jameson indicates that the meaning or content of expression will grow out of the relationships between expressions. Relating the schizophrenic soul to the linguistic disorder, Jameson associates the unbundling of the past, present, and future tenses in the sentence to the unbundling of the past, present, and future tenses in our own biographical and spiritual experience (Jameson, 1994: 86). Steve Best and Douglas Kellner, on the other hand, defined schizophrenia as: From the point of view of schizophrenia patients, words come into the body as the live, corporal fragments of nonsense and leave the body as sound waves without articulation. In a parallel style, schizophrenia patients experience the body as a coincidental confusion of fragmentary parts, as well as a solidified, indivisible volume that Deleuz borrowed from Antonin Artaud and called body without organs (Best & Kellner, 2016: 127). With the use of pastiche in cinema as well as the company of other narration techniques to film narrative and parallel to the interpretations of theorists about the schizophrenic soul, the possibility of multiple readings that the narratives created in the perception of the spectators will increase. Prefabrication, intertextuality, bricolage, and self-reflexivity are among the narrative strategies that confront the spectators in postmodern film narratives. The concepts of prefabrication, intertextuality, and bricolage are concepts that move and overlap between the concepts of pastiche and parody. Prefabrication consists of fully pre-produced images for a film (Hayward, 2012: 363). As a concept coinciding with prefabrication, intertextuality refers to the relationship between two or more texts. Bricolage, which is called creation from existing material, is described as bringing different styles, texts and genres together (Hayward, 2012: 364-365). While reflexivity is defined as a person’s ability to self-attribute, the concept of selfreflexivity is also based on the concept of reflexivity (Edgar & Sedgwick, 2007: 311). Self-reflexivity points to self-attribution in cinema. According to Gilles Deleuze, the concept of self-reflexivity is also used as the concept of metacinema; Deleuze describes metacinema as cinema about the cinema itself (Deleuze, 2014: 86). Harvey sees the postmodern style as a text that can be compared to another text that has its own idiolect and rhetoric (Harvey, 2006: 57). Harvey indicates that the authors who are creative in writing texts create by looking at the texts they have encountered before and intertextuality has its own life. Harvey states that it is difficult to dominate a text and argues that “the uncontrolled joint touching of meanings are beyond our control”. Harvey also claims that the incentive of disruptiveness contains the acknowledgment of this state and also contains looking for someone else in a text or creating a text in someone else. Harvey predicates the reason of Derrida seeing collage-assembly as the primary form of postmodern discourse on these foundations. The producer of culture has created the raw materials (pieces) and by doing so, has enabled the consumers to combine these pieces as they wish (Harvey, 2006: 67). Having described the collage-assembly technique as a simultaneous effect by superimposing the effects from different times and places, Harvey criticized the modernists who have used this technique by saying that they also approve the conditions to which they react (Harvey, 2006: 35). Contrary to Hayward, Harvey mentions that while postmodernism is often against mysterious art and avant-garde, it takes its chance on the media and in open areas (Harvey, 2006: 77). While listing 249 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives the features of postmodernism in the context of arts in Consumer Culture and Postmodernism (1991), Mike Featherstone specified the collapse of the border between art and daily life, the collapse of the hierarchical differentiation between high culture and mass culture, the stylistic hybrid that supports the blending of eclecticism and codes, the greetings of superficial lack of depth of the parody, pastiche, irony, acting and culture, the losing favor of the originality of art producer and the assumption that art can only consist of iteration (Featherstone, 2013: 30). The features of the postmodern cinema allow multiple readings and recommend that the spectator performs a complicated watching experience within this patchwork mechanism. However, the mood experienced in this confusion can bring along a set of schizoid illusions. As Steve O’Connor said, the postmodern cinema found its expression after many writers extended and approved Jameson’s analysis as characterizing pastiche or multiple styles in various forms (Connor, 1997: 199). In the films of Ünlü examined in the article, narration techniques such as pastiche, parody, self-reflexivity, and intertextuality regarding the postmodern cinema’s narrative strategies were presented to the reading of the spectator. However, in addition to the multiple readings provided by postmodernism, the narrative techniques used by the postmodern cinema and its eclectic point of view that it creates in the film-watching experience of the spectator also allowed the discussion of high culture and popular culture concepts. While the concepts of high culture and popular culture and the form of the relationship between these concepts were discussed in the 20th century, interpreters of this age described 20th century as non-stylistic according to Featherstone. While Simmel used the term non-stylistic, Malraux described this culture as a museum without walls, and it was indicated that the collapse of the pastiche, the retro and symbolic hierarchies and the recording and iteration of cultures were actualized by postmodernism (Featherstone, 2013: 60). The new period of the Turkish cinema has been a concept that began to be discussed in the mid1990s. This period, which started with the film Tabutta Rövaşata (Derviş Zaim, 1996), characterizes a period that is still debated today. As the new period of the Turkish cinema, which gained momentum in the mid-1990s, was influenced by the political life of the period, the topics of the stories became more politicized than in the past years and opened the way to more questioning stories. Directors such as Zeki Demirkubuz, Yeşim Ustaoğlu, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yavuz Turgul, Reha Erdem, and Serdar Akar are mentioned as the directors of this era who released important films. In the new era of the Turkish cinema, a different narrative language began to be used and it is known as a period in which educated directors also emerged. The directors who released films in this period began to use different narrative strategies from the mainstream narrative structure in terms of cinematography. The films in which the modern narrative structure was presented were appreciated with awards in national and international film festivals. The focus of the stories became more individualized, the characters became more diversified, the straight line of the plot became inclined, camera angles were presented as angles used by contemporary narrative conventions, bypasses were used in mounting, non-diegetic sounds were utilized in sound design, and uncertainties at the beginning of films were represented by different strategies at the end of films. Developments in all these narrative strategies overlap with the narrative strategies used in postmodern cinema from time to time. Also in postmodern cinema, the directors deconstruct the conventions of the mainstream cinema. The film narrative turns into a narrative that has to be questioned for the spectator. The making sense of the indicators presented by the director becomes important as well. Postmodern cinema includes both high cultural elements and benefits from popular cultural elements. For this reason, postmodern cinema allows multiple film-reading analyses. This is sometimes criticized by film theorists. Postmodern cinema, which can melt popular culture and high culture elements in the same film narrative, increases the curiosity of the spectator and at the same time exposes the spectator 250 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives to the questioning narrative language of the contemporary narrative structure. The narrative language of postmodern cinema sways between mainstream cinema and contemporary cinema and has a positive effect on the narrative strategies of Turkish cinema. Many narrative strategies that are used in film narratives such as prefabrication, intertextuality, bricolage pastiche, parody, intertextuality, and self-reflexivity make it possible for the spectator to make sense of the story from a different perspective. These narrative strategies related to postmodern cinema are strategies that reveal how Turkish cinema will be fed from different cultural elements. In this context, Turkish Cinema takes its place as a cinema which is discussed and spoken in international world cinema platforms. Both films of Ünlü which are examined in the study provide concrete examples of how postmodern cinema will be represented. For this reason, the postmodern narrative strategies in the films have been told and explained together with the events. The Examination of Onur Ünlü Films by Postmodern Type Film Criticism Within the Frame of Postmodern Cinema Narrative Strategies The plotlines of the two films are explained together and therefore how the postmodern narrative strategies are presented is tried to be explained in a concrete way. THE MOVIE “SON OF THE SUN” The film tells the lucky character retired teacher Mr. Fikri, who was one of the 17 people born during the solar eclipse in the 1950s and who was considered the son of the sun, and his questioning of the concepts of miracle and reality. The Examination of Film by Postmodern Type Film Criticism Within the Frame of Postmodern Cinema Narrative Strategies As an irony with the bourgeois appearance of the character Alper and his artistic style, his phone rings with the Turkish 10th Year Anthem melody, he learns that he will be taken to a construction and goes to the place with a taxi that he does not know where it comes from. Şule is waiting for Alper in the red dress like the femme-fatale female characters in the film noir movies. The site of construction is not finished yet and it is a big, gloomy and dark structure. The blind in one eye character Kurban Murat is in a suit, he is a hired killer who kills people for money, he has suddenly beamed to Şule and Alper and starts talking to Şule about how the murder should be, but Alper listens in surprise because he is not informed about the subject. While the appearance of Kurban Murat, Alper’s bourgeois suit, beard, the dollars he sometimes takes out of his pocket, the femme-fatale dress and manners of Şule, and the gloomy and dark place where they meet reminds us of the places and characters in detective movies and film noir movies, the film refers to these genres with the murkiness and the abandoned state of the place that is given by high-angle shot and the idea of how the murder spoken will be handled. When Alper goes up on the construction terrace to rebel against what is happening, he shouts with an absurd poem and the camera displays Alper with a subjective camera movement. While the music used and the lyrics of the poem provides the audience with the use of absurdity in the film narrative, with the effect of the plotline that increases causal motivation, the film narrative succeeds in keeping the sense of wonder 251 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives of the spectators. After this sequence, a fast pass takes the spectators to the scene in which the waiter Burak, who lives in the same neighborhood as Fikri, is unconscious under a car. While all these events take place, Burak rushes to his house and wants to talk to his roommate Serkan about the anomaly of events. The Torso (1973), Marilyn Monroe, and the Godfather (1972) posters are seen on the wall of Burak’s house. The Torso is an Italian film and is about sex murders. Marilyn Monroe is a femme-fatale woman of her time whom men regard as the object of desire as a sexy star. The film the Godfather is a cult film that is shown among the best films of the century telling the story of an Italian mafia family. With the posters on the wall, the director refers to the murder-related films, mafia films and femme-fatale women who are objects of desire by using intertextuality. The owner of the café threatens Burak with a gun as Burak comes from his home with a gun and does not act like a waiter. In the film, many characters have weapons in hand, and the use of the weapon is used in the film in an exaggerative way. The use of the weapon in an exaggerated way and the fact that everybody can kill whomever they want instantly can also be described as a pastiche made for these genres, together with the reference made to the detective and film noir genres. In the film narration, it is not possible for the spectator to easily reach catharsis because the complicated chain of events continues. The professor says that the 17 souls who were born on the day of the solar eclipse are free and have left their bodies, stating that the two persons who are immortal are the character Fikri and the professor himself. He also indicates that they are immortal like Turkey’s “Sun of Art Zeki Müren” and Zeki Müren’s image is shown among the sequences using the collage-assembly technique. Fikri draws the attention to the excessiveness of the concepts used in the film narrative by saying “I was saying to myself ‘what is missing in this story? It is the f…ing ancient Egyptians”, and with this strategy, the director makes fun of his own film through the characters. Thus the spectator does not forget that he watches a film and sees the self-reflective narrative strategy in the film narrative. The dialogues also encourage the spectator to think by using concepts like arrogance, separation of the soul from the body, lie, self, etc. While Fikri is beamed to learn about events, he talks about the value of the truth and also about miracle from the taxi addressing the spectator, and by using the effect of alienation, the character is provided to establish a dialogue with the spectator, thus praising the truth while making the spectator think about how the end of the film will be. Kurban Murat, who left the process of killing Cahide half finished, is called to the place where he will commit the murder and after Şule and Alper leaves the place, he says “take a plane trip to Southern Turkey” with the money he takes out of his pocket. The idea and expression of going to the South are also a cue that is heard in Hollywood narratives. In some of the dialogues that the director uses, he discursively permits intertextuality. After this scene, Kurban Murat turns to the spectators again and uses some expressions that aim the spectators to question the truth. He also asks questions and says “but the important thing is not how we perceive but what we perceive”. In a sense, this sentence refers to what the spectator perceives and how he/she perceives it in his/her watching process. While Kurban Murat speaks, he starts to walk towards his house and he soliloquizes regarding death, murder, the murdered, fear of death and self. The spectator begins to understand who the character Hamiyet is towards the end of the film and reaches catharsis. Fikri, who is in the body of Kurban Murat, disguises himself as Hamiyet and tells the spectators “so there was nobody named Hamiyet; Hamiyet was the armor of the hired killer Kurban Murat who went mad due to the fear of being killed. Here is the secret of the paradox of Hamiyet that has ruined my life” and finishes his sentence by looking at the mirror. The character looking in the mirror reminds once more that the spectator is watching a movie. Fikri, who disguised himself as Hamiyet, sees Alper and Şule coming by taxi, kills Alper and himself, so Fikri becomes the remaining 252 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives character. They sit on a bench by the sea and the film ends with their dialogue. In their dialogue, Şule tells Alper “you are being silly!” and Alper says, “but the silliness of the work done is directly proportional to the number of spectators”. By saying this, he expresses an implication that the content of the movies with highest-grossing is ridiculous. Thus, using the self-reflective narrative strategy, the director has conveyed again the critical interpretation of the relationship between the number of spectators and the nonsense of the content of the films to the spectators via the character. The camera that shoots the two characters from different angles is a moving camera, and in the spectator’s gaze of the characters, the movement of the camera reminds the spectator that he/she is watching a movie. Fikri, who learns that Şule is pregnant, decides to kill himself because he does not want to be a mother and makes a statement on the astonishment of Şule: “The thing is, I came to the end of the road, I am going; since I cannot be the old me again, at least I want to be the one that I want and that is you” he says and shoots himself. After the shooting scene while the song Kara Sevda is playing, Şule goes away, and this scene, similar to the end of old Turkish Yeşilçam films, presents an example of intertextuality by referring to Yeşilçam films. While in detective movies, ill-hearted, sexy, femme-fatale characters are being punished, Şule is the survivor and not a person who is killed. In this context, this also shows that the film has broken the codes of the discourses of the classical narrative structure. Fikri and the professor are the ones who did not die as the immortal “Sons of the Sun”, and while the dialogues are given at the end of the film, both characters accepted to experience each other’s lives. When the professor watches a place with mummies with a hand camera at hand, the camera focuses on the hand camera and the spectator remembers that he/she is watching a movie by seeing a camera inside the camera. The images are said by the professor to belong to the souls entered into the mummies and he also says that he is not sure whether he should share it with the public or not. While the film allows spectators to think about concepts such as oscillation, death, fear of death, reality, and simulacra, the dialogues increase the concentration of questioning until the film ends. The definition of oscillation in Turkish in the field of physics is made by the Turkish Language Association (TDK) as the “the regular movement of an object at a steady speed with certain positions” (http://www. tdk.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_bts&view=bts&kategori1=veritbn&kelimesec=271901). While the inclined progression of the characters that oscillate in time and the plotline, and the film narrative with a structure that makes the spectators question to support the causal motivation of the spectator constantly and also make the spectator think about the reality of the concepts in the narrative. Jean Baudrillard sees the death of the individual in the removal of the distinction between reality and representation (Hayward, 2012: 367). The presentation of Hamiyet as actually Kurban Murat to the spectator and Kurban Murat’s words about death, reality, fear, and self at the end of the film create questioning about the disappearance of reality and representation. The alienation effect that the director often uses in the film and Kurban Murat providing questioning for the spectators by asking philosophical questions to them enable different readings about the reality and the simulacra order in which the character is experienced. The fact that Hamiyet, a character that is in the focal point of the plotline, emerges as Kurban Murat at the end of the film and the presentation of Kurban Murat as the immortal character create irony with the name of the character and it makes the spectators think why the person who died in this simulacra is chosen to be mortal. In this context, a character substituting another character, which is read as simulacra, but the fact that the character has communed in a single person and the notion of “the appearance that is desired to be seen as a reality”, as Baudrillard says, show parallelism with the montage of presentation of a single character until the end of the movie as if there are two different characters (Baudrillard, 2011: 6). While Norman Denzin describes the emergence of the postmodern simulacra, he says that it happens when the 253 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives reality is produced with copies, representations and media-based devices, and he calls it the simulation. According to Denzin, simulation is not something that uncovers the truth because he states that simulation is something that shows that there is no such thing as reality (Denzin, 1995: 198). In this regard, Ünlü questioned real and reality regarding the existence of characters and life, and they weighed on the spectators’ minds and made them ask questions. These all have made the spectators rethink Baudrillard’s simulation theory that he theorized. In the interviews that the director of the film gave about the film, he mentioned the genre of the film as a fantastic fun and games; the film is observed to refer also to detective films, film noir films, and fantastic films. While the film’s name refers to the LP album of Zeki Müren that was released in the 1970s, the storyline enables an interpretation with regard to the name of the film as a name given to the king in ancient civilizations because the two characters that are immortal in the film are called sons of the sun and this reveals the fact that they have a special feature. The director has used the pastiche with the plotline similar to the one that can be seen in the detective and film noir genres, with the character stereotypes that can be found in these genres and with the references made with the objects such as weapons commonly used in these genres. The director also used pastiche with the gloomy places that can be seen in film noir movies, the stereotype of the hired killer, the stereotype of the femme-fatale character and with cues that can be seen in Turkish Yeşilçam or Hollywood films. The music genres used in the film are completely different from each other, and the usage of music is different from the classical narrative structure so the spectator sees the example of pastiche in the use of music in the narrative. THE MOVIE “THE EXTREMELY TRAGIC STORY OF CELAL TAN AND HIS FAMILY” The film focuses on the plotline in which the professor of constitutional law Celal Tan kills his young wife as a result of jealousy, Celal Tan’s family witnesses the murder and some other incidents take place. Events that develop after the murder enable the spectator to question concepts such as rights, justice, law, etc. The Examination of Film by Postmodern Type Film Criticism Within the Frame of Postmodern Cinema Narrative Strategies When Celal Tan comes home, his young wife, Özge, welcomes him. However, Celal Tan, without allowing Özge to speak, commits violence to her and kills her, while the family witnesses the situation behind the frosted glass in the living room. In order to hide the incident, Celal Tan goes out quickly and goes to the Constitutional Lawyers Association Club to find his friend Turan who is waiting for death. He confesses the murder and asks Turan to take the blame for the murder. In the meantime, the rector comes to the club and sees two friends talking. A dialogue takes place between Celal Tan and the rector; Celal Tan’s son aims to sell a massage chair to the school and the rector confirms that this will happen. The questions asked about what the seats are and the answers given are a criticism of the power mechanism. Turan agrees that he will take the blame for the murder but he has a condition, he wants Celal Tan to help him with the after-life questions that will be asked of him in the other world. The family, displayed with a 180-degree reversed image, waits in fear in a car, not knowing what to do. This scene contains a transition with a reverse angle and the screen slowly becomes straight. The 180-degree reverse display 254 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives of the screen reveals the concrete presentation of a disrupted family. When Celal Tan returns home, he shouts “Özge, Özge!” he feels sorry as if nothing happened and complains. Then Celal Tan looks at himself in the mirror, faces himself then the family comes home at that moment and reacts as if they are seeing the event for the first time. Özge’s brother blind Ergün and the doorman learn the event that night. The arrival of the ambulance and the police in the building is presented to the spectators from a high angle as if they are watching the incident from another building, so the spectator becomes the third eye looking at the narrative from outside. The camera movements and angles used at the beginning of film signal that the spectators will watch the film with different cinematographic techniques that are different from the classical narrative structure. The daughter of the family Jülide is shown crying on the television screen and the camera moves backward to show the studio environment, the camera and the cameraman on the television channel. While the spectator is aware of the fact that the film character is in front of the cameras, he/she is also informed about the presence of another camera that shoots the camera that he/she sees on the movie screen; in this regard the spectator does not forget that he/she is watching a movie. The policeman who comes to take the family’s testimony also makes philosophical speeches about death and the pastiche of policemen characters that are observed in detective movies is presented. Another policeman who stands quietly beside the other policeman and whom we cannot hear until the end of the film follows only the dialogues on the radio in his hand. After the police are gone, Özge’s elder brother Ergün asks the youngest person in the house Ege what color the policemen were wearing and accordingly comments on how the case will proceed. Kamuran, the son of Celal Tan, enters Özge’s room one night and tries to find a clue as to whether Özge has cheated on his father, but he comes across a document from a person named Okan, but he encounters Özge’s ghost. With surprise, he says “What are you?” and Özge says, “What do you think I am?” While the spectator is prompted to question about the existence of ghosts, the questions of the blind character Ergün make the spectators think about concepts such as the reality and the truth. Okan is the name of the soprano lover of Jülide who studies in the conservatory. The character Okan sings Italian arias by shouting and his talking style emulates the artist characters in Italian films. With the character Okan, Ünlü makes a pastiche of the soprano and artist characters. Jülide says that she is pregnant and the father of the baby is Okan. Okan tells Jülide “I’m saying go! Get out of my house!” Okan’s cues are also referring to the charismatic and handsome actors of old Turkish Yeşilçam films, therefore the film makes a pastiche of the characters of Yeşilçam as well. As the family begins to question everything after this murder, Celal Tan gets worried and nervous. At a moment when Celal Tan is about to cross the street, the traffic light begins to talk to him gives him advice. The traffic light tells him that he should not trust Turan and Turan can use his doorman as a false witness, and Celal Tan answers the traffic light and thinks about what it says. This dialog, which can be seen in fantastic films, is not a strategy that directors use too much in Turkish cinema. Does Celal Tan speak at that point with his own inner voice, or did voice from the invisible world come into existence in the traffic light? The spectators are made to encounter with metaphysical issues. In addition, a non-diegetic sound is given to the traffic light and thus the film plays with the conventions of classical narrative cinema in terms of cinematography. Kamuran also believes in the reality of the ghost he sees, shares this situation with Jülide, and says that Okan cheats on him with Özge. Jülide, surprised, is thrilled to get the revenge on Okan. However, Kamuran, again confronted with the ghost of Özge, learns that Okan is another Okan; he learns this from Özge but asks her to learn which Okan he is. Celal Tan, on the other hand, goes to the police and testifies in accordance with the traffic lights. 255 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives As opposed to the denouncement of Celal Tan who told the police that Turan is a murderer, the police says that Turan denounced Celal Tan as the killer. Jülide goes to the school to get revenge and stabs Okan. During the transition to the next scene, the “DIY – Do it Yourself Sculpture Exhibition” poster hanging on the schoolyard is shown to the spectator. The director presents the criticism of a world, where everyone can easily kill each other, via discourse. Jülide visits the policeman Hakkı at night not to be punished, seduces him and starts to make love with him. The policeman stereotype who watches everything silently listens to what happens from the outside. When the police go to the house of the Tan family for another statement, Ergün, as a character who internalizes life more than the other characters who can see, yells at Celal as “you filthy killer!” and says that he is the killer. He says “but everybody here saw the murder. They saw it.” And this reminds the cult movie of Antonioni Blow Up (1971). This reference to a different film, which is made by the discourses in the film, presents an example of intertextuality. The television is on at every moment when everyone is together, and when the police arrive, the news of the death on the television is heard. The death news of the man whom Kamuran’s paternal grandmother loves is heard by everyone in the living room, and everyone turns to the television screen with a surprise. The presentation on television has critically handled the presentation of the newscasts, and by doing so, the director uses the pastiche in this scene in the film about the presentation of television news. The grandmother attempts to commit suicide after she hears the news but does not die; she is hospitalized and the family members who are with her are confronted with the autopsied body of Özge, who is then being released from the morgue. Celal Tan views religion critically and goes to a mosque at night after seeing Özge. Just like the spotlight in the theater stage illuminates the character, Celal Tan looks at the mosque under the spotlight. Celal Tan tells Özge, who came to him with her autopsied body, “didn’t you die?” Özge replies “you don’t know what death is.” This dialogue about death presents an example of intertextuality as a stereotypical dialogue that spectators can see in horror movies. Celal Tan strangles Özge again under the spotlight. The identity of a character is hidden in the film narrative and that creates the question of “who is that character?” This is one of the elements that provide the causal motivation of the spectator in the classical narrative cinema and it also provides that the identity of the character Okan becomes evident in the film. When the film approaches the end, Kamuran gives the spectator the sign that the narrative of the film has begun to dissolve. The musician, who occasionally gets on stage at the Constitutional Lawyers Association Club, finds Okan and tries to find out who is the other side of the forbidden love by asking him if he has an affair with Özge. Okan accepts this love, the rector comes in at that moment and states that Kamuran’s seat business has been concluded; 400 seats have been sold to the school. The reference to the concept of the seat and the number of seats have been repeated at the end of the film as well. While the film is about to end, the news about the murder is heard from the television in the living room and the news announces that the murder suspect doorman Ibrahim is caught and the killer of Okan is the character blind Ergün. In the meantime, Celal Tan sits on the massage chair and smiles at the camera that shoots him at a high angle; he sits comfortably and makes a meaningful smile. The fact that a law professor is a murderer and that he is also awarded by the Constitutional Lawyers Association Club exemplifies the parody the director made through the character. The facts that a person who gives lectures about justice and rights does not accept the crime by performing one of the most serious unlawful acts, denies his crime and covers the event present a serious irony to the spectators. Criticism of an order, in which innocent people are sent to jail and the real killers live freely, is thus presented to the audience. The director not only presented the example of a different narrative structure with the story of the film and dramatic structure but also showed alternative narrative strategies in the cinematic language 256 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives with shooting angles and camera movements. While characters are shown in a close shot in many scenes from the beginning until the end of the film, black boxes and blurs are used on the right and left sides of the screen frame. The fact that the camera is shows the characters and shoots from different angles allows the spectator to look at the same scene from many angles. The use of the mirror item made it possible for the characters to look at themselves, while reminding the spectators that they were watching a movie, allowing them to keep their distance from the film. FUTURE RESEARH DIRECTIONS Both films of Onur Ünlü examined in this study present the spectators the differences between high culture and popular culture while bringing some criticism to the popular cultural indicators. Changes, transformations, and developments in popular culture also play important roles in determining both the content and the forms of film moments. In postmodern culture, individuals who have been exposed to the batch of codes of popular culture are beginning to lose the essence and meaning of their daily lives, which creates gaps in their interpretation of life. The links between the postmodern film narratives, the popular culture, and high culture must be re-examined and these contexts should be opened up to a discussion. Simon Frith says that the concept of popular culture has begun to be debated with academic approaches in the 1930s and 1940s with the critique of mass culture. Firth also expresses that Marxist critiques of the production of the contemporary popular culture and of the cycle of the commodity were written (Firth, 1991: 103). According to John Storey, thoughts about popular culture are shaped by postmodernism debates. Postmodern culture, on the other hand, has become a concept that began to decline from the 1960s between high culture and popular culture. According to Storey, the popular culture taken more seriously and its seriousness within itself are among the reasons for this decline (Storey, 2014: 10-11). Storey refers to Michel de Certeau and states that the definition of the popular culture is “the art of using”. According to Storey, this description explains that popular culture products are used by consumers, they are utilized and offer products that can become a habit in terms of consumers’ wishes. Popular culture is expressed as non-culturally productive, un-signed, unread and un-symbolized. Storey explains that popular culture, mass culture, and the mass consumption produced for mass culture have a concept and this culture, in a sense, causes brain numbness and passivity (Storey, 2014: 4). Popular culture, according to Storey, is a culture open to ideological manipulation, influenced by the culture industry (Storey, 2014: 12). According to Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson, popular culture includes people’s beliefs, practices, and objects of which the roots are found in local traditions, the mass beliefs, practices, and objects that are produced in political and commercial centers. In addition to the elite cultural forms popularized in the popular culture, there are also popular forms that have risen to the level of museum tradition (Mukerji & Schudson, 1986: 48). According to John Fiske, too, the popular culture is a culture that is prone to be extreme and of which the brushstrokes are thick. According to Fiske, the extreme paves the way for accusing in “fair, melodramatic, obvious, superficial, sensational and similar” ways. Likewise, it also causes overflow in the act of making sense (Fiske, 2012: 142). Also, while narrative strategies used by Ünlü in his films remind the spectators of the extremism of the popular culture, they also bring about overflows in the act of making sense. On the other hand, with the discourses he includes in the dialogues, Ünlü shows that this culture is criticized. The character, who says that the absurdity of the work is directly proportional to the number of spectators, discourses about the popular culture products. Fiske emphasizes that popular texts are overly trivialized and boring and 257 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives they point out an immature admiration (Fiske, 2012: 142). Likewise, the sentence of the character in the narrative reminds Fiske’s thoughts again. The fact that popular texts are obliged to present certain meanings and certain delights can also lead to the obligation to include aggressive, vulgar and resistance items (Fiske, 2012: 156-157). Ünlü’s films also satirize these obligations that popular texts contain and allow the spectators to pay attention to the line between popular culture and high culture. According to William Warner, intellectuals do not respect the popular culture, but on the other hand, they are open to experiences to confuse them about art. This resistance of them to the popular culture also stems from the difficulty of managing the popular (Warner, 1990: 732). The extremism of the indicators regarding the popular culture that Ünlü also presents in his films is, in fact, a criticism of the popular culture and it makes the spectators rethink the discourses of this culture. Having presented the popular cultural indicators in two films in an exaggerated way, Ünlü also shows how these cultural products are standardized and repeated continuously. James B. Gilbert states that the characters presented in the comedies, dramas, series, and detective dramas are stereotyped and that this has become a necessity. Gilbert, however, adds that film genres that contain popular culture narratives have been trying to make some changes in their sense-making over the last thirty years (Gilbert, 1983: 141). If multiple readings can be developed in the studies containing subjects like postmodernism, popular culture, high culture, and the determination of the narrative strategy in films then more sense-making regarding the position of culture in community life and artistic life can be possible. CONCLUSION The two films of Onur Ünlü which were analyzed reveal that the narrative strategies of postmodern cinema have been applied to films. While narrative strategies such as prefabrication, intertextuality, bricolage, pastiche and parody, intertextuality, and self-reflexivity are narrative strategies to which Turkish film spectators are unaccustomed, Ünlü makes the spectators internalize this narrative language by iterating these strategies in the two films. While postmodern cinema makes Turkish cinema successful in the international context, it is effective in the new era Turkish cinema gaining different narrative languages. Postmodern cinema, which makes people think with its high cultural elements, makes people question today’s postmodern society and popular culture with its popular cultural products, also indicates that the new era Turkish Cinema can offer multiple film readings. In this context, Ünlü is a director who contributes to the development of postmodern cinema in the Turkish Cinema and enriches his narrative language in every film he releases. The interpretation of the two films of Onur Ünlü in terms of the viewpoint of the spectators brings the avant-garde spectator formulation to mind that Laura Mulvey mentions. In her avant-garde spectator formulation, Mulvey mentions that pleasure-oriented peeper spectators watch female characters in a voyeuristic manner on the movie screen and argues that avant-garde spectatorship is different from this spectatorship. The difference of the avant-garde spectator is that he/she watches the film in a different way and emerges as a questioning spectator. Mulvey mentions that the theme of the narrative film reveals new types of spectatorship in the stopping or delaying of normal cinematic time, and this type of spectatorship finds its level with the features of Ünlü films, which uncover the type of spectators that Mulvey mentions (Mulvey, 2012: 224). In addition to stopping the cinematic time, the director also made the narrative line of the film Son of the Sun inclined in terms of the story by proceeding with the oscillation issue in the film and provided that the spectator is able to see an example of the new type of 258 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives spectators in Turkish cinema in their experience, as Mulvey mentioned. While Norman Denzin mentions the film Blue Velvet (1986) with postmodern features, he indicates that the film is multi-layered and the spectator experiences contradictions in his/her relationships about what he/she sees. In parallel with the ideas of Denzin, who expresses that the concepts of the traditional spectating is made difficult for both male and female spectators and that the spectator feels a contradictory spectating experience with the repetition of these concepts, the spectators who watch the films of Ünlü experience the same spectating experience (Denzin, 1995: 76). In addition to the stories used in the narrative, the presence of the characters presented in relation to the story in the film Son of the Sun can cause the spectator to find himself/herself in simulacra. Baudrillard said, “It is not simulacra that hides the truth. Because the truth tells us that there is no truth. Simulacra is the truth itself. ‘’ (Baudrillard, 2011: 12). Baudrillard’s thoughts, which allowed people to think about the conceptual questions oscillated between reality and the truth, provided the opportunity for the spectators to question the stories that Ünlü covers in his film narratives and the issue about the representation of the characters regarding their existence based on these thoughts. Hence, the spectators of Ünlü films will have a spectating experience in parallel with the questioning avant-garde spectator formulation. In this context, while the postmodern narrative strategies used by Ünlü play with the codes of the classical narrative cinema, they also remind the spectators that they are watching a movie, as well as prompt the spectators to involuntarily think and question via the stories and montage of the films. Ünlü uses concepts such as oscillation in time, death, fear of death, soul and substance, the truth, reality, rights, justice, and law in his films, and allows the spectators to think while laughing with these concepts and also the concepts of philosophy and metaphysics. In terms of the Turkish cinema after 1990, Ünlü’s concepts, stories and narrative strategies used in his films have deconstructed the classical narrative structure and show both the spectators and the Turkish cinema that different narrative strategies can also be produced. Ünlü, who includes pastiche in the films with his lines and characters that are reminiscent of old Turkish Yeşilçam movies, shows that different cinematic languages can be used while showing that a different cinema language has been developed in the Turkish Cinema that is different from Yeşilçam. While Harvey mentions that postmodern fictitious characters are often confused about the world they live in, the inner worlds of the characters that Ünlü used in two films remind the worlds of these postmodern fictitious characters (Harvey, 2006: 56). The characters in Ünlü’s films are acting as postmodern fictitious characters who are confused about the world they belong to both in terms of the stories of the movies and with the conflicts in their own inner world. References are also made to the objects used by characters, the stories of the films, concepts, and genres. While pastiche of extreme violence is observed in the film Son of the Sun, in the film The Extremely Tragic Story of Celal Tan and His Family, the concepts of rights and justice are parodied and presented through characters and events, and by doing so, differences are brought about in the spectating experience of the spectators. Through the shooting techniques used in art cinema, Ünlü makes the spectators question about how a spectator watches a movie genre, and he also presents how sees other cinemas. The spectator, who watches a soprano character that he/she can see in a foreign art film, suddenly sees the character as a charismatic actor of Yeşilçam, he/she remembers what he has watched so far with the pastiche technique used by the director, and thus, examples of pastiche are presented in various forms in the film narrative. In this context, there are also people who think that the use of pastiche in cinema may be dangerous. Hayward criticizes mainstream postmodern directors and mentions that they have a despising attitude about culture. Thinking that the distinction between high and popular culture should be removed, Hayward indicates that the result should be meaningful. However, Hayward states that 259 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives pastiche cinema devotes itself to contradictory readings. In this context, Hayward, who cites John Orr’s thoughts, also points out that pastiche cinema may be potentially dangerous and may have a schizoid aspect (Hayward, 2012: 366). Tania Modleski comments on postmodernism by using the concept of ‘fake decency’ that Lionel Trilling used in his essay “The Fate of Pleasure” (1963). While Trilling states that pleasure is associated with bourgeois habits and modes of behavior for the modernist and speaks of the necessity of demolishing it, Modleski notes that postmodernism is deemed as valuable as it declares war against ‘fake decency’ (Modleski, 1998: 200). With reference to the idea that while criticizing bourgeois habits, behaviors and moral principles with the term ‘fake decency’, Modleski adopts the idea of the attack of high art against pleasure, in the two films of Ünlü, an attitude towards ‘fake decency’ is observed. Details such as poet Alper Canan’s addiction for luxury, Fikri’s ideal Cihangir house, soprano Okan’s bourgeois wannabe manners in the film The Extremely Tragic Story of Celal Tan and His Family and the satirical usage of some discourses also reveal that the films have oppositional discourses. In this regard, the concepts of high culture/popular culture discussed in postmodern films are undermined by Ünlü films and both cultures are criticized. The examination of the films of the post-1990 Turkish Cinema, which is called New Period Turkish Cinema, in terms of its relationship with Yeşilçam reveals the fact that the two films of Ünlü refer to the classical narrative cinema in lower texts by using genres such as film noir, detective and science fiction and by using pastiche with certain elements that belong to Yeşilçam, insert also philosophical concepts into the narrative of the film and so allow the spectators to think while laughing and conceptually enable dangerous open readings. In this context, dangerous readings, as Orr suggests, have a schizoid aspect. Schizoid situations arise not only with film stories but also with the inner conflicts that the characters in the narrative experience. Characters and stories within the narrative that is open to philosophical thought present a different spectating experience to the spectators of the Turkish cinema. The spectators of the Turkish cinema, who are unaccustomed to dark comedy, fantastic narratives and the films with a different cinematic language that makes them laugh and think have started to make sense of the language of the postmodern cinema. Jameson, who has established a relationship between linguistic disorder and schizophrenic spirit, associated the lack of unification of the past, present, and future times in the sentence with the inability to unify the past, present, and future times in our own biographical and spiritual experiences, and this state can emerge during the spectating experience of the spectators of Ünlü’s Son of the Sun movie. On the other hand, to what extent will these films, in which the past and present are intertwined and lost their meanings, the materials of the old are re-used like patches again not revealing a new production, and the existing is shaped and presented with different techniques to the spectators, make the spectators think deeply? This is another issue that needs to be considered. However, based on the ideas of the critics who agree with Derrida, Nathan Jun states that spectators are free to attribute more than one meaning to a film and argues that one cannot claim that the meanings that the spectators attribute are the true or real meaning (Jun, 2016: 15). The sentence “the silliness of the work done is directly proportional to the number of spectators” is a criticism of the spectator’s spectating experience and with its feature of self-reflexivity, it pushes the spectator to re-question the cinema in his/her watching experience. While Foucault opposes critical theory and cultural studies, he notes that the relationship between film and the spectator is neither completely passive nor completely active. Commenting on Foucault, Jun indicates, “A spectator can attribute a meaning on a film but it is the film that makes the audience a spectator” (Jun, 2016: 27) and underlines that in fact, the position of the spectator is involuntarily set in an established order. With the narrative strategies he used in his 260 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives films and the plotlines in his films that make the spectators think, Ünlü showed as a director that making people think and questioning can also be done in the postmodern films, and he provided cinematographic gains to the New Period Turkish Cinema. Postmodern cinema uses the structure of contemporary narrative cinema while attracting the attention of the spectators who can understand the elements of high culture and presents questioning film narratives to the spectators who have internalized the popular culture elements. In this context, the intellectual spectators who are familiar with the elements of high culture and the mainstream cinema spectators who are familiar with the elements of the popular culture can watch the same film narrative under the same roof. This situation reveals the rethinking of the categorizations in which spectators are categorized with different titles. That is why the most important feature of the postmodern cinema is that it is not included in certain and clear definitions. The questioning cinematographic approaches in the narrative language of this cinema also show how broad perspective presentation can be made in the art of cinema. Both films present the examples of prefabrication, intertextuality, bricolage, pastiche, parody, intertextuality, and self-reflexivity, they enable the involuntary questioning of the film from the perspective of the spectators who are used to the elements of popular culture and reveal the thinking of the filmmaking philosophy. 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New Political Science, 23(3), 351–370. doi:10.1080/07393140120080985 Bordwell, D. (2008). Poetics of Cinema. London, Newyork: Routledge. Broker, M. K. (2007). Postmodern Hollywood: What’s New in Film and Why It Makes Us Feel So Strange. USA: Praeger Press. Broker, P., & Broker, W. (1997). Postmodern After-images: A Reader in Film, Television, and Video. London, New York: Arnold Publication. Cawelti, G. J. (1980). Performance and Popular Culture. Cinema Journal, Special Issue on Film Acting, University of Texas Press, 20, 1, 4-13. Conger, M. S., & Welsch, R. J. (1980). Narrative Strategies: Original Essays in Film and Prose Fiction (An Essays in Literature Book). USA: Western Illinois University Press. Constable, C. (2015). Postmodernism and Film: Rethinking Hollywood’s Aesthestics. Columbia: Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/columbia/9780231174558.001.0001 Degli-Esposti, C. (1998). Postmodernism in the Cinema. Newyork, Oxford: Berghahn Books. Denzin, K. N. (1991). Images of Postmodern Society: Social Theory and Contemporary Cinema. London, Newbury Park, New Delhi: Sage Publications. DiMaggio, P. (1977). Market Structure, The Creative Process, and Popular Culture: Toward an Organizational Reinterpretation of Massculture Theory. Journal of Popular Culture, 111(2), 436–452. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1977.00436.x Fine, G. A. (1977). Sociology and Popular Culture. Journal of Popular Culture, 11, 379–526. doi:10.1111/ j.0022-3840.1977.00381.x Gans, H. J. (1974). Popular Culture and High Culture: An Analysis and Evaluation of Taste. New York: Basic Books. Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic Books. Grant, K. B., & Kurtz, M. (2016). Notions of Genre Writings on Popular Film Before Genre Theory. Texas: University of Texas Press. Grossberg, L., Nelson, C., & Treichler, P. (1991). Cultural Studies Now and in the Future. London: Routledge. 263 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives Haselstein, U., Ostendorf, B., & Schneck, P. (2001). Popular Culture: Introduction. Amerikastudien/ American Studies, Popular Culture. Universitätsverlag WINTER Gmbh, 46(3), 331–338. Hewitt, N. (1999). Introduction: Popular Culture and Mass Culture. Contemporary European History, Theme Issue: European Popular Culture, Cambridge University Press, 8, 3, 351-358. Hill, J. (1998). Film and Postmodernism. J. Hill, P. Church Gibson (Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 96-105. Hven, S. (2017). Cinema and Narrative Complexity. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.1515/9789048530250 Mast, G., & Cohen, M. (1985). Film Theory and Criticism. New York: Oxford Press. McRobbie, A. (2005). Postmodernism and Popular Culture. USA, Canada: Routledge. Metz, C. (1974). Language and Cinema. The Hague: Mouton. doi:10.1515/9783110816044 Mukerji, C. (1978). Artwork: Collection and Contemporary Culture. American Journal of Sociology, 84(2), 348–365. doi:10.1086/226787 Nye, R. B. (1972). New Dimensions in Popular Culture. Bowling Green, Ohio: Popular. Pattie, D. (2013). Popular Culture. The Year’s Work in Critical and Cultural Theory, 21(1), 308–327. doi:10.1093/ywcct/mbt016 Peterson, R. A. (1976). The Production of Culture. Beverly Hills: Sage Publication. doi:10.1177/000276427601900601 Posnock, R. (1989). Assessing the Oppositional: Contemporary Intellectual Strategies. American Literary History, 1(1), 147–171. doi:10.1093/alh/1.1.147 Rosen, P. (1986). Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology (A Film Theory Reader). Columbia: Columbia University Press. Ross, A. (1988). Universal Abandon The Politics of Postmodernism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Sitney, P. A. (2000). Film Culture Reader. New York: Cooper Square Press. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Intertextuality: The explanation of the relationships between two or more texts with references. Parody: Text written by ensuring that historical and sociological realities reach a sense of humor in the reader or spectator. Pastiche: While parody creates irony, pastiche does not create irony and presents the imitation of previous genres. Popular Culture: It is a culture that offers products to the consumption culture and helps consumers to consume these products frequently. 264 The Colorful Leak of Postmodernism in the Turkish Cinema Onur Ünlü Narratives Postmodernism: It is a concept that reveals its ideas and theories in a way that works contrary to modernist approaches and thoughts. Reflexivity: Cinema gives reference to itself in films and thus presents the narrative to the spectators. Simulacra: It means re-designing the modeling of the existing systems in reality. 265