FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING, by Tomás A. Mateus

Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 This handout belongs to ______________________________________________________________________ Academic writing relies on logical argument, on the development and interconnection of ideas, and on internal consistency and coherence. For this reason, it depends heavily on well-organized paragraphs with topic sentences, which are appropriately interconnected with each other (Punch, 2006, p. 72). Page 2 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING  Academic Vocabulary 1 : This issue has to do with subject-specific words. There are words in English that are mostly used in academic writing (Bailey, 2003; Jordan, 1999). In this regard, we are not expected to use whatever word we like or encounter. Please stick to those words and expressions that most experts in the field of ELT or TESOL use. (I will send you a comprehensive list of Academic Vocabulary or Sublists of the Academic Word List from Averil Coxhead, Massey University, New Zealand). On the other hand, we are hoped to avoid words that we do not understand as their use may lead to malapropisms (i.e. the unintentional use of incorrect, similar sounding words), or unnecessary ‗big words‘. Some writers often tend to use unknown words or language that is above his or her understanding just to impress.  Accuracy: This issue has to do primarily with grammatical agreement, punctuation, avoidance of grammatical and spelling mistakes. To this end, we should (a) write in full sentences (i.e. every sentence should contain a subject and a finite verb), (b) vary paragraph and sentence lengths, (c) vary the sentence constructions/structures , ensure that the concord of the sentence is correct, and (d) decide on the most suitable tense for your topic. (Lutrin & Pincus, 2009, pp. 72, 73)  C i t at i on (in-text citation) and Referenci ng (end-of-the-text citation): we should avoid plagiarism. We must support our statements with evidence from readings, and cite them by using the appropriate referencing guide/style (MLA or APA). For in-text citation, we have some examples: X has been supported by Y (2017, p. 31). It means that we must follow the conventions as regards academic writing (e.g. APA). Other expressions for citing or reporting (someone‘s opinion, an opinion) are: according to X; as for X; as pointed out by X; as X notes / points out / remarks / says, etc.; as X claimed / noted / pointed out / remarked / said, etc.; as X has claimed / noted / pointed out / remarked / said, etc.; for X; from X’s point of view/standpoint; from the viewpoint of X; his / her view is that …; in X’s views; in the words of X; it has been argued / claimed / established / suggested / viewed that…; X (2014) argues / concludes / maintains / notes / points out / states that…; X argued / asserted / believed / claimed / observed / stated / wrote that…; X challenges the notion that…; X expresses the opinion/view that…; X takes the view that…; X is of the opinion that… etc. For further details see the section Reporting verbs below.  C l ari t y: For the sake of clarity, we must avoid using very long sentences with many clauses, because it can be difficult to understand. We are hoped to avoid ambiguity 2 , but we have to stick to conciseness, preciseness, and specificity (i.e. to be more specific). Whatever type of text we are writing, our aim should always be to express our ideas clearly and in a way our readers can easily understand. In this regard, when we read an article, a book, etc., we should notice the type of language that is used in the subject or field we need to write about. For example, there are verbs used for saying what a text is all about: the paper / the study is (all) about…; this chapter centres around, on, round, upon / deals with …; the author discusses the …; the article offers / presents / provides an overview of …; the book explores …; the report examines …; the research considers / focuses on, upon…; the findings revolve around, round / hang on, upon…; the discussion aims to provide a (balanced, critical, detailed) overview on …; in this/that expert’s opinion, this study emphasizes / highlights the importance of …;… etc. We are meant to avoid overuse of adjectives and adverbs: The students were absolutely, completely, totally, and utterly overwhelmed by their feelings guilt and sadness. (We simply write: The students were totally overwhelmed by their feelings guilt and sadness.) In this respect, we avoid tautology. See below. 1 Examples of some academic vocabulary are: affect, analyse, assume, conduct, calculate, challenge, clarify, compare, consider, contrast, demonstrate, describe (= give/offer/provide a description of), differentiate, discover, discuss, distinguish, elaborate, emphasise (= lay / place / put emphasis on), examine, explain (= give/offer/provide an explanation of/for), explore (= carry out an exploration of), find, identify, illuminate, illustrate, include, influence, investigate, involve, present, provide, summarise, support, validate; to cast doubt on, to analyse / collate / collect / interpret results, to come to a conclusion, to examine the evidence, to put forward a suggestion / a theory, to shed light on, to shine a light on; approximately, considerably, especially, essentially, explicitly, eventually, frequently, generally, implicitly, precisely, primarily, specifically, etc. 2 For example: The teachers told students that their books are on the desks. (Whose books are on the desks – teachers‘ or students‘?) Page 3 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017  C oherence : It refers to sentence meaningfulness or logical flow of ideas. It means that what we are expected to write must be understandable and logical to other people. It involves "continuity in meaning and context". (Louwerse & Graesser, 2005, p. 216). Accordingly, write what you know about. Avoid at all costs mismatches, misconstructions, misconceptions, and misjudgements.  C ohesi on / cohesi veness: It may also be referred to as sentence unity. It means that we must make good use of discourse connectors , pronouns, conjunctions, lexical substitutions, and occurrences of related lexical items to link ideas in an effective way 3 . It is also to do with reference: anaphoric reference (when it points or refers back to someone or something that was already mentioned) and cataphoric reference (when it points or refers forward to someone or something later). These types of references are done by means of personal pronouns (he, him; she, her; it; one, ones; they, them), demonstrative pronouns (this, these, that, those), possessive pronouns or possessive determiners (his; her, hers; its; their, theirs), reflexive pronouns (himself, herself, itself, themselves), some adverbs (here, there, now, then), and definite article (the). Cohesion involves "continuity in word or sentence structure." (Louwerse & Graesser, 2005, p. 216).  C ol l ocat i ons: It refers to word combinations / partners , that is, words or phrases that always go together in order to sound correct and natural both in speaking and in writing . Thus, advanced students need to be aware of the importance of collocation s. For example: carry out / conduct a study, research; a large amount/number of; depend on, focus on; deal with; a significant / substantial decrease in¸ a significant / substantial increase in; a vast majority of; a wide range of, etc. We must know which word goes with another word such as: adjective + noun 4 , adjective + preposition 5 ; noun + preposition 6 , noun + verb 7 ; verb + preposition 8 , verb + noun 9 , etc. For 3 Expressions for providing cohesion between paragraphs or sentences: as established / mentioned / stated above; as established / mentioned / stated earlier, before, previously; … as follows…; as previously established / stated; as already mentioned; as can be seen in Table 1, …; as has been seen…; it has been seen that …; as was mentioned earlier, …; as was mentioned in the previous chapter, …; as outlined earlier,…; as we shall see later, …; (after) having analysed / considered / dealt with / discussed / examined … let us (now) move on to / turn to … (or centre / concentrate / focus / turn our attention on, upon … / or turn our attention to…); let us turn our attention / concentration / interest to … ; in the preceding pages / paragraphs / sections, let us state at the outset that …; let us state for the record that …; unless otherwise stated / unless stated otherwise; for the reasons stated above/below, …; all the approaches / issues mentioned so far / thus far…; in the example mentioned above / below,…; the former … the latter…; there follows …;… to mention just a few / to mention just a few, to return to the previous point,…etc. 4 common concern / experience / feature / ground / knowledge / interest / practice / use; considerable / enormous amount / degree / difference / diversity / expansion / extent / impact / influence / interest / number / power / range / significance / variation; explicit account / comparison / mention / reference / statement; inevitable collapse / conflict / consequence / decline / development / effect / outcome; major/minor changes / concern / contribution / difference / factor / issue / point / problem / role / theme; potential complication / danger / disaster / drawback / embarrassment / hazard / pitfall / risk / threat; potential advantage / benefit / improvement / saving; positive/favourable comment / impression / opinion / reaction / report / response; relevant data / details / documents / factors / information; significant accomplishment / achievement / evidence / improvement / increase / number / problem / proposition / relationship / reduction; specific case / characteristics / conditions / context / example / form / information / purpose / type; valuable/helpful/good/constructive/positive suggestions/advice / experience; widespread acceptance / assumption / belief / opposition / support / use; etc. 5 able to, according to, angry about/at/with, appropriate for/to, associated with, attributable to, capable of, certain about/of, characteristic of, common to, connected with, convenient for, covered in/with, dependent on, different from, disappointed about/at/with, distinct from, due to, excited about, exclusive of, furious about/at/with, important for/to, inappropriate for, irrelevant to, irrespective of, linked to/with, mad about/at, owing to, pertinent to, regardless of, related to, relative to, relevant to, separate from, significant for/to, similar to, specific to, suitable for, typical of, unable to, unconnected with, unrelated to, unsuitable for,; essential/vital/crucial/critical/decisive/indispensable/imperative for sth; essential/vital/crucial/critical/ indispensable/pivotal to sth; it is necessary/compulsory/mandatory/obligatory for sb to do sth; it is necessary/compulsory/ mandatory/obligatory to do sth etc. T hus, after the prepositions we must use a noun (or a verb in -ing form except for those structures above with ‗to-‘ infinitive). 6 affection for, agreement about/on, argument against/for, answer to, antidote to, appetite for, approach to, aptitude for, aspiration for, attachment to, attraction for, battle against/for, call for, case against/for, competence in, confidence in, consequence for, craving for, cure for, debate about/on, decision about/on, desire for, devotion to, effect of/on/upon, expectation for, expertise in, flair for, gift for, guide to, hankering for, hope for, the idea of, impact of/on/upon, implication for/of, impression on/upon, inclination for, infatuation for, influence on/upon, introduction to, the key to, knack for, know-how in, liking for, longing for, love for, lust for, means for/of, mechanism for, medium for, method for/of, methodology for/of, misgiving about, need for/of, occasion for, opportunity for, outcome of, panacea for, passion for, path to, possibilities for, process for, proficiency in, prowess in, qualm about, remedy for, repercussion for, resolution to, result of, route to, skill in, solution to, strategy for, system for/of, talent for, technique for/of, tenderness for, thirst for, the thought of, tool for, transition from/to, urge for, vehicle for, way of, wish for, yearning/yen for; advice / article / assignment / book / essay / dissertation / idea / lecture / opinion / project / view about/on; age / attempt / look / point at; assumption / logic / principle / rationale / reason behind; connection / contrast / difference / distinction / link / relationship between; basis / case / need / preference / reason for; change / decrease / difference / increase in; Page 4 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 example: research demonstrates / finds / indicates / reveals / shows / suggests that … (I will send you a Dictionary of Collocations)  C onsistency: It refers to words, symbols, signs, ideas, thoughts, or expressions which should behave or perform in a similar way or throughout the work (i.e. when words, ideas, or expressions always appear or are written in the same way). An example of consistency is: X (2017) asserts that … He adds that … . It means that if we are using Simple Present, we are not expected to use Simple Past in the same idea (unless we are referring to results), or if we are using & (i.e. ampersand), we must use & but not the word ‗and‘ at the same time and in the same idea.  D i scourse C onnect ors : We are likely to be expressing complex ideas. To do this we may need to write sentences using coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or), subordinating conjunctions (e.g. although, because, if), relative pronouns (e.g. that, which, whom, etc.), and transition words / phrases according to their semantic categories: adding information: additionally, as a matter of fact, as well as that, furthermore, in addition, in addition to…, in this/that regard, moreover, what is more; beginning a paragraph: by way of introduction, first, first of all, firstly, first and foremost, to begin / start with; being tentative: it has been reported that …; it has commonly been assumed that …; it is a widely held view that …; it is believed that …; it is thought that …; concluding a point: briefly, by way of conclusion, in conclusion, in short, in sum, to conclude, to sum up; making a counter-argument/contrast: all the same, but, despite the fact that…, despite this / that, even so, however, in spite of the fact that …, in spite of this / that, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding (the fact that…), still, yet; giving an example: by way of illustration, for example, for instance, in particular, like, namely, such as, to illustrate; generalizing: by and large, broadly / generally speaking, generally, in all / many / most / some cases, in general, on the whole, to a great extent, to some extent, etc. introducing a new topic or aspect of a topic: as far as X is concerned, …; as regards X, …; in terms of X, …; in the case of X ...; regarding X, …; with regard to X, …; with respect to X, …; making a logical consequence / deduction: as a result, consequently, for this / that reason, hence, therefore, thus; ordering/listing: after that, afterwards, in the first / second / third place, later on, second, secondly, then, third, thirdly, finally, last but not least, last of all; referencing: as far as … is concerned, as for …, as regards, concerning, in/with regard to, in relation to, regarding, with reference to, etc. reintroducing a topic: as described on the previous page, ...; as discussed above, ...; as explained earlier, ...; as explained in the introduction, it is clear that …; as was mentioned in the previous chapter, ...; as was pointed o ut in the introduction to this paper, ...; returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …; summarizing: all things considered, by and large, in brief, in a few words, in a nutshell, in short, in the main, in the words of one syllable, on the whole, to cut/make a long story short; etc. (I will send you a comprehensive list of Discourse Connectors from my Thesis)  E vi dence-based support : It means that whenever we make a claim, a point, or a suggestion, we should support it by providing relevant information, without sidetracking or sidestepping the key point. We are mean to concentrate on given information (i.e. shared knowledge) and new inquiry / insight / investigation / research into; analysis / basis / difficulty / examination / exploration / idea / lack / means / part / problem / study of; effect / emphasis / influence / programme / research / work on/upon; approach / attention / relation / response to; attitude / move / progress / tendency to/towards; difficulty / problem with/in; etc. T hus, after the prepositions we must use a noun or a verb in -ing form. 7 analysis/examination/research/the study reveals / shows / suggests sth; the problem/difficulty/trouble lies in sth; the disadvantage/drawback/snag/downside/catch is that… , etc. 8 account for, adhere to, apply for, argue against/for, associate with, be about, belong to, benefit from, call for, centre around / upon, comment on, comply with, conform to, consent to, consist of, convince sb of, couple with, cure of, deal with, decide on, depart from, depend on, derive from, dispose of, emerge from, equip with, exclude from, focus on/upon, lead to, listen to, provide sb/sth with, rely on, quarrel about, search for, speak of, stand for, stem from, tamper with, worry about, write of, etc. T hus, after the prepositions we must use a noun (or a verb in -ing form). 9 to show/observe/assess/examine/measure the results/consequences/outcome; to achieve/get/obtain a result/an outcome; to promote/pursue/accomplish/achieve attain an objective/a goal/an end; to use/employ/make use of/utilize/resort to/fall back on a method/technique; to do / carry out / conduct / undertake / perform a/an activity/analysis/investigation/review/assessment/ evaluation; to carry out/conduct/undertake research/analysis/exploration/an examination/a study, etc. Page 5 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 information (i.e. latest data to support our opinions or theories). It happens because any piece of research that is undertaken or being conducted is expected to make reference to previous studies in the field (e.g. what they say and what I say). For example: Previous studies have shown that … ◊ This can be seen in the case of …◊ A good example of this can be found in …◊ Several studies have revealed that …  Fl uency: The transition from one idea to another must be done in a logical, sequential, and smooth manner (i.e. logical and easy flow of ideas). That is to say that, the first sentence should also connect the paragraph to the previous paragraph. The first and last sentences of a paragraph act as links or transitions to connect one paragraph to another. These links ensure that there is a smooth flow throughout the writing (e.g. ease / smoothness of writing, or writing without any difficulty that is, in a smooth and skilful way).  Form al Language : It is, more often than not, advisable to use Standard English words and expressions (i.e. we must employ words of classical origin [Greek and Latin] instead of everyday words or expressions). In this case, we are expected to avoid using labeled informal, slang, offensive, taboo, etc. Use suitable synonyms for common words such as do, get, make, put, etc. (e.g. This study was carried out / conducted / undertaken by … instead of This study was done / made by … ). Thus, it has to do with word choice. In addition, formality or politeness, formal Latinate10 terms instead of some Anglo-Saxon words or expressions are required in academic writing. For example: about (around / approximately / somewhere in the region of; concerning / regarding / on), a couple of (several), a lot of / lots of (a number of, numerous, a considerable amount of, a considerable / significant number of), and (furthermore / moreover), bad (unfavourable), basically (essentially / fundamentally), big (considerable / significant / substantial), blow up (explode), break out (start), build up (intensify), carry on (continue), come across (encounter), come over (approach), do (perform; conduct), find out (discover), get (obtain), give (provide), give in (surrender), good (beneficial / favourable), go ahead (continue, proceed), go down (decrease), go in/into (enter), go up (increase), have (include), keep (maintain / retain), isn’t any evidence (no evidence), kind / sort of (type of; rather / reasonably / relatively / somewhat), like (such as; for example), look at (examine / observe), look into (investigate), make (carry out / conduct; create / formulate), make up (invent), not enough (insufficient), not many studies (few studies), not much research (little research), put up with (tolerate), really / very (exceptionally / extremely / highly), stay the same (stabilize), so (therefore), story (account), thing (object), trouble (difficulty), way of doing something (method of, strategy/technique for), when it comes to (as regards, in / with regard to), etc. Thus, and overused words or expressions: nice, stuff, pretty good, things, etc.  Gender inclusi ve Language : Both genders (masculine and feminine) must be included; or rather neutral words are preferable. In this regard, after everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, nobody, no one, one of the plural pronouns they, them, and their is often used: Does everybody know what they want? ◊ Somebody’s left their book here. ◊ I hope nobody’s forgotten to bring their book with them. Thus, everybody needs his own ideas (Write: Everybody needs his or her own ideas or Everybody needs their own ideas). Use these words for two genders: he or she, his or her, him or her; actor, assistant, author, chairperson, expert, host, humanity / human beings / the human race, learner, officer, people, person, researcher, senior citizen, server, specialist, spokesperson, worker, etc. Here are some examples of formal verbs, where the phrasal verb is used more often: accelerate → speed up, acquire → pick up, accumulate → build up, analyse → go into, approach → come over, assemble → put together, calculate → work out, cancel → call off, cohabit → live together, conceal → cover up, concern → worry, continue → carry on, keep on, decelerate → slow down, decrease → go down, descend → come down, discard → throw away, discover → find out, dismantle → take apart, effect → bring about, eliminate → get rid of, take away, wipe out, emerge → come out, emit → give off, encounter → come across, enter → come in, eradicate → get rid of, erase → rub out, establish → set up, evaluate → size up, examine → look at, exhale → breathe out, exit → go out, experience → go through, extinguish → put out, fasten → do up, illuminate → light up, incorporate → build in, increase → go up, indicate → point out, inflate → blow up, inhale → breathe in, intensify → build up, intervene → step in, introduce → bring in, investigate → look into, notice → take in, observe → check out, look at, omit → leave out, participate → join in, persuade → talk into, postpone → put off, proceed → go ahead, produce → churn out, protrude → stick out, reduce → cut down, relinquish → give up, renovate → do up, reprimand → tell off, request → ask for, retaliate → fight back, revolve → go round, ridicule → laugh at, start → break out, study → go into, subside → die down, subtract → take away, surrender → give in, synthesize → bring together, tolerate → put up with, transmit → pass on, withhold → keep back. 10 Page 6 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017  Im personal Language : It is concerned with avoidance of personal pronouns , possessive pronouns / adjectives. It has also to do with end weight, that is, types of sentences which the strength is at the end, especially in it-patterns: It is axiomatic / unfair that … ◊ The time will certainly come when … . Other examples: Everybody knows that …(It is commonly / generally / universally / widely accepted that …, It is well-known that …), You can see from the graph that … (As can be seen from the graph, it can be concluded / deduced / inferred that …), It is my belief that … (It can be concluded that …, there is a commonly / deeply / strongly / widely held belief that…), I am sure that … / I have argued that … (It can be argued/claimed that …, It is evident from the data that …), I / we agree that … (It is broadly / generally / largely agreed that …, or It basically / wholeheartedly agreed that…), We have a lot of problems in … (There have been so many problems in …). In a few words, first person singular / plural becomes third person singular. For example: I / we decided / found that … (It was decided / found that …), etc. Thus, patterns with it + be / appear / seem + adjective (+ that / to) are often used: It is apparent / axiomatic / clear / critical / crucial / essential / evident / imperative / likely / obvious / possible / self-evident / surprising / unfortunate / vital that …; It is critical / crucial / difficult / essential / important / interesting / necessary / possible / vital to do sth…; it is by no means certain that …; It seems likely that …; it would seem that…; there is a direct connection / link between …; there is a strong correlation between …; there is no doubt that …; there is some evidence that …; etc. There are also some impersonal structures or expressions used to highlight an important point: it must be / should be emphasized / noted that…; it is important to remember that …; an important point to remember is that …; it is worth bearing in mind / keeping in mind / mentioning / noting / pointing out / remembering / stressing that … etc.  Nom inalization: It has to do with transforming verbs (actions) into nouns. The whole sentence (i.e. verbs) can be turned into a noun group, which can then be linked to another idea, because the focus is on the concept of the noun (i.e. to turn actions into ideas). For example: It results in … (The results show / reveal that …), the situation of the classroom deteriorated … (The deterioration of the classroom …), data must be handled carefully … (Careful handling of data is a must …), I have argued that … (The argument that …). In a few words, first and second person singular / plural becomes third person singular. For example: I argue that … (This paper/study argues that …), In this study I aim to … (This study aims to …, or The aim of this study is to …), We investigated the issue of … (The paper/ study investigated the issue of …, or The group investigated the issue of …), I used structured interviews as my methodology (The chosen methodology was structured interviews), After this I will analyse topic X (Subsenquently, topic X will be analysed …), We thought the results were … (The results appeared / seemed to be…), I / we found that … (This paper/study found that …), You may find it difficult to replicate this experiment. (The replication of this experiment may be difficult.), Your reading will be more effective if you have a study plan. (The use of a study plan will improve the effectiveness of one’s reading), etc.  P aragraphing (Paragraph C om ponent s) : In terms of paragraph level, a well-structured paragraph is made up of topic sentence, supporting/detailing sentence, concluding / closing sentence. However, the introduction has also three parts: Thesis statement, scope, structure. All these aspects provide idea development (i.e. the text is clear and focused, and captures reader‘s attention) and text organization (i.e. the order compels, enhances, and moves ideas).  P aral l el i sm : It relates to the combination of similar grammatical or lexical features of words and expressions. An example of parallelism is: Professors Cacumba, Tweuhanda, and Piedoso. ◊ My respondents are teachers, students, and directors. It means that if we have in a line nouns, verbs, adjectives, then we must have nouns, verbs, adjectives respectively, and not conjunctions, pronouns, or prepositions. (I will send you a video about Parallelism) NO TE: In parallelism, use the same grammatical form for words, phrases or clauses that form a pair or a series and are alike in function. For example, rewrite "She likes swimming, cooking, and to play squash" as 'She likes swimming, cooking and playing squash" or as "She likes to swim, to cook, and to play squash." Please avoid FAULTY PARALLELISM.  P assi ve Voi ce : Passive forms are often used because the focus is mainly upon the verb (the action), not the person (the agent). For example: A study was conducted to see …; It can be argued that …; It can be seen that …; It should/must be noted that …; It should/must be emphasized that …; It has been acknowledged / established that …; They are encouraged / Page 7 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 recommended to …; It has become / has been a cliché to say that …; It was announced / declared / indicated / proclaimed / stated that …  Reporting Verbs: It concerns verbs to introduce an author‘s ideas. They are inserted before a piece of writing / information according to author‘s stance. For example: reporting verb + that + main idea: X acknowledges that …, X adds that…, X admits that…, X advises that…, X agrees that…, X alleges that…, X (strongly) argues that …, X asserts that …, X assumes that …, X believes that …, X claims that …, X comments that …, X concedes that …, X concludes that …, X contends that …, X declares that…, X determines that…, X emphasizes that …, X hypothesizes that …, X maintains that …, X notes that …, X observes that …, X points out that …, X postulates that …, X proposes that …, X says that …, X states that …, X stresses that …, X suggests that …, X takes the view that …, X theorizes that …, etc.; reporting verb + noun/pronoun + connecting word (e.g. as, because, by, in terms of, for, that): advocate (for), analyse, assure, challenge, classify, defend, define, demonstrate, depict, describe, discuss, encourage, endorse, evaluate, examine, highlight, identify, illustrate, investigate, present, put forward, refer, study, substantiate, support, take issue with, throw light on, validate, view, etc. For example: This study highlights the advantages in terms of …; The findings illustrate the importance of academic writing as …; Raúl José (2017) advocates for the rights of students because …  Tent at i ve Language ( Hedgi ng) : It is concerned with language used to avoid being too assertive or categorical in our statements. For example: verbs: can, could, may, might, would; fail to, tend to; appear, seem; adjectives: apparent, likely, possible, probable, seeming; adverbs: apparently, often, possibly, probably, seemingly, sometimes; nouns: likelihood, possibility, probability, tendency; other words / expressions: a few, a great deal of, approximately, a vast majority of, every so often, frequently, generally, in a way to, in many / most cases, in such a way, many, many times, more often than not / as often as not, most, most of, often, perhaps, rarely, some, usually, etc. There is (no) possibility / chance / prospect / likelihood of sth. ◊ The chances / probability / odds / likelihood is/are that…; It appears / seems that …, It appears / seems certain that…, It would appear / seem that …, It is likely / possible / probable / unlikely that …; etc. We are meant to use hedging to avoid overgeneralization or oversimplification, with words or expressions such as: always, are, are not, at no time, cannot, do not, everybody, everyone, everything, every time, have, have not, is, is not, merely, must, must not, never, none, no one, nothing, only, ought to, ought not to, shall not, should not, simply, solely, will, will not, etc. These words and expressions are used when we are absolutely or completely certain about something (e.g. there is no doubt that …; there is no denying/disputing the fact that …). They are categorical in meaning, because they signal assertiveness. In academic writing, we are expected to be tentative in our arguments or findings. (I will send you a comprehensive list of Tentative Discourse Connectors from my Thesis) AVOID:  choppy sent ences: Sentences that contain a lot of short sentences and change topics too often. Too many short simple sentences can make your writing appear unsophisticated and your ideas seem disconnected. Solutions: SHOW LOGICAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN IDEAS by using words that show cause and effect such as because, since, and so, and words that show contrast such as but, yet and although. An example of a choppy sentence: Reading is very important for students. Reading helps students to develop new vocabulary. Students read for many reasons. Teachers are invited to help their students to gain the reading habit.  cl i chés: Overused or overworked expressions or ideas whose original meaning or effect is lost: It is all part of life’s rich pageant / tapestry (= It is part of life and cannot be avoided), the cream of the crop (= the best), there’s many a true word spoken in jest (= there is truth in a joke). Most academic papers collapse under the sheer weight of clichés (i.e. having a cliché ridden style). In this regard, we should avoid overused words or expressions.  com m a spl i ce: The wrong use or place of a comma in a sentence (i.e. the use of a comma to join two independent clauses). In this case, we are not supposed to separate the subject and the verb by a comma, nor do some sentences (dependent clauses) with some subordinating conjunctions or connectors (although, as a result of, because, because of, before, due to, if, since, when) that are in the middle of an entire sentence (i.e. when the dependent clause comes at the end of the sentence, we must omit the comma). For example: Most students will improve their English, if they study hard. ◊ The research was carried out by several experts, however, Page 8 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus            Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 one expert was missing. In this case, we have to use a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;) before however, nevertheless, nonetheless, and not a comma. See a good grammar for the use of a comma with transition words. cont ract i ons: We are expected to avoid contracted forms or short forms of the verbs: I’d, I’m, can’t, doesn’t, don’t, haven’t, it’s, shan’t, won’t, etc. Please use full forms: I had / would, I am, cannot, does not, do not, have not, shall not, will not, etc. dangl i ng m odi fi ers 11 : Modifying words and phrases are said to 'dangle' if the subject they describe is not directly stated in the sentence; the resulting sentence can be un clear or even nonsensical (e.g. "Swimming across the lake, the sun set.") Here is another example: "Denied this love, the reaction of the dog can be harmful." (This sentence implies that the "reaction of the dog" – not the dog itself – is "denied this love."). ghost w ri t i ng: It is referred to as writing an article, a book, etc. for another person who publishes it as their own work. It is considered to be a criminal conduct or an academic misconduct. However, it does not necessarily mean that we cannot seek for any support. On the other hand, we can help our colleagues or fellow teachers in some aspects of academic writing. In sum, we can count on highly skilful persons‘ support. i nform al l anguage: Slang words (busted → unattractive, chill out → relax, guys → persons/people); colloquialisms; some phrasal verbs 12 (assemble instead of put together, effect instead of bring about, eliminate instead of wipe out, establish instead of set up, hide instead of cover up, produce instead of churn out, reduce instead of cut down, tolerate instead of put up with, etc.); some abbreviations (ASAP = as soon as possible, ad = advertisement). m i splaced modifiers: Place modifying words and phrases as close as possible to the subject they describe; adverbs (e.g. only ) can be particularly tricky. Check that your placement of modifiers conveys your intended meaning. For example, the sentence "Jones became ill after he married and died" should be rewritten as "After he married, Jones became ill and died." pat chw ri t i ng: It is generally regarded as ―unacceptable paraphrases‖ or ―unattributed quotations‖. Nonetheless, it is something like ‗quilts or patches‘ of borrowed words or expressions melded/sewn together seamlessly, without paraphrasing, summarizing or quoting. redundancy / t aut ol ogy: Words used that are not really necessary for a piece of writing to understand the meaning. It is an unnecessary repetition of words or expressions. Thus, please be concise and precise in your writing. For example: in my personal opinion, more profitable, most unique; comprise of, discuss about, emphasize on, repeat again, request for, return again, stress upon; irregardless (write regardless of). Thus, it is expected to avoid superfluous and unnecessary words or statements , repetitive sentence structure, and repetition of words/expressions at the beginning of sentences . In this case, we are meant to vary the length and construction of sentences (i.e. simple, compound, and complex sentences). rhetorical questions: It means that those questions that are used to introduce significant new ideas must be avoided, and we can replace them with statements. run-on sentences (also called fused sentences): Sentences without any punctuation mark to signal the pauses. For example: This paper deals with classroom management in addition to this it is going to focus on time management. (This paper deals with classroom management. In addition to this, it is going to focus on time management.) sent ence fragm ent s: Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea or thought. Sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing a subject or a verb is incomplete. For example: I love reading. is a thought-provoking process. ◊ If the students are grouped in pairs, … st ringy sentences / long-winded sent ences : "sentences that are too long. They are too long because they have too many independent clauses joined together with coordinating 11 Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description. In clear, logical sentences, you will often find modifiers right next to — either in front of or behind — the target words they logically describe. A dangling modifier is a group of words (often at the beginning or the end of a sentence) that refers to (modifies) a word or phrase that has not been clearly stated in the sentence. Very often, dangling modifiers are verb phrases (containing an -ing verb or a to + verb construction) at the beginning of a sentence. These verb phrases do not contain a subject, so, by default, they refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence. A misplaced modifier is placed too far from the word it modifies that it is difficulty for the reader to understand the connection. Sometimes, misplaced modifiers create unintentional humor — but the joke is on the writer, unfortunately. 12 However, there are other phrasal verbs that are formal and used in academic writing such as: abide by, abstain from, accede to, accord with, acquaint with, act on/upon, address to, adhere to, appertain to, ascribe to, allude to, attend to, attest to, avail of, base on/upon, be acquainted with, be attuned to, be bound to, bear on/upon, benefit from, bring (down) on/upon, bring forth, build on/upon, provide sb/sth with, refer to, relate to, set forth (= expound), etc. Furthermore, there are also some phrasal verbs that are neutral and used in academic writing such as: account for, add to, associate with, attribute to, be bound up with, belong to, carry out (an investigation/a study/research) , cope with, deal with, etc. Page 9 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 conjunctions such as and, but, and so." (Strauch, 2005, p. 108). For example: STRINGY: In Egyptian classrooms, when students address teachers, they must do so very carefully, so they must never interrupt, and they must use very polite forms of speech when they talk to a teacher. CORRECT: In Egyptian classrooms, when students address teachers, they must do so very carefully. They must never interrupt, and they must use very polite forms of speech when they talk to a teacher.  st uffed / overloaded sentences (verbosi t y) : These are considered to be a long string of phrases and clauses joined by various connectors such as because, when, then, so, etc. These sentences are too wordy (i.e. with too much information or too many ideas). Please avoid sentences that contain more information than is necessary or than the reader can easily follow or understand. A good sentence focuses on a single idea and comes directly to the point without wandering all over the place. An example of an overloaded sentence: Teachers need to realise that the education of a child is a critical undertaking and should be carried out with care and consistency so that the child can gain maximum benefit from each educational episode in order to set a solid foundation for any follow-up teaching, especially during the early years of primary school. For this reason, avoid the use of too many words, when the same idea could be stated simply and clearly. For example: Students need to apply themselves diligently and conscientiously to the studying of their work for the forthcoming exams. (Write simply: Students need to work diligently for their exams.) IMPROVE  Anal yzi ng: Examining or studying the nature or structure of a piece of information, in detail, especially by separating it into its parts, in order to understand or explain it, or to discover more about it.  E di ting / Proofreadi ng: Before submitting a paper, reread it carefully in order to correct, add, rephrase, reformulate, or eliminate something wrong, unnecessary or unclear. Do it by: checking for correctness (i.e. instructions, content, format, paragraphs, sentence construction/structure, tense, concord/grammatical agreement, word choice/diction, spelling , highlighting, punctuation) and checking for appropriateness/appropriacy by means of TRIALS (Tone, Register, Intention, Audience, Language, Style). Likewise, we can use the SIDES (Strong verbs, Imagery, Detail, Experience, Suggestion) technique. Thus, the use of the SIDES and TRIALS techniques will ensure a competent, well-rounded piece of writing. (Lutrin & Pincus, 2009, pp. 75)  Int erpol at i on : Inserting words or expressions into a piece of information to make it more meaningful or clearer.  Int erpret i ng: Expressing your own ideas about the intended meaning of a piece of writing, a piece of information or data.  Making indent at i on : Long quotation (30 words or more). Using equidistant margins on both sides of a sheet of paper, that is, if the quotation is longer, then we must put it into an indented paragraph. We should also indent the bibliography.  Not e -t aki ng and Not e -m aki ng: Jotting down every single word or expression (when someone is speaking, or when you are reading a book, etc.) that is considered to be useful and organizing all this information in order to be used later. Strictly speaking, we take notes when we are listening to someone and we make note when we are reading a book, an article, etc.  P araphrasi ng: Putting the ideas of authors into your own words, without distorting the original thought. Always cite this.  Quot i ng: It centres around short quotation or direct quotation (under 30 words). As the term implies, we should always cite this, inside inverted commas (or quotation marks) "" (i.e. date and page number). Whenever we make a point, we are hoped to support the point, by quoting experts‘ ideas (i.e. quote and describe or explain, or vice versa). Do not cluster a paragraph with quotes without expounding, detailing, or critiquing (i.e. follow the golden writing rule: what they say – what I say).  Reading criti cal l y: Reading a piece of writing in a detailed way in order to weigh up the pros and cons of it, or analyse what is relevant and what is irrelevant, what is an opinion and what is a fact. In this regard, scanning and skimming can be of great assistance.  S um mari zi ng: A summary is a short and concise statement, written in your own words, of the main points, ideas, concepts, facts or statements of another text. Always cite this.  S ynt hesi zi ng: Taking ideas from a wide range of authors and make critical judgements about them. It is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words. Always cite this. Page 10 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017  Thi nki ng cri t i cal l y : Thinking clearly or thinking something through (i.e. thinking carefully about all the advantages and disadvantages of something , and in the end, we find our own position). STRONG VERBS According to Lutrin & Pincus (2009, p. 51), strong verbs are those which highlight and enhance our writing. These verbs can empower us to write and speak more expressively. However, our choice will depend on the context and the way in which they are to be used. Furthermore, these verbs may reinforce what is needed to achieve success. achieve victory – triumph agree unwillingly – condescend allow – permit become less – diminish, dwindle bring peace – appease collect – accumulate come uninvited – intrude desire too much – covet eat away – corrode end thirst – quench excuse – condone express sympathy – commiserate give up – capitulate go before – precede hate very much – abhor help – empower help to grow – foster, nurture hold back – repress keep annoying – badger, pester lead astray – mislead lie, make up – fabricate look at casually – browse make changes – modify make fun of – deride, mock make suitable – adapt pretend to be ill – malinger remember – recall repay, return – reciprocate say in advance – predict settle down – subside speak ill of – malign take for granted – assume throw out – eject urge on – incite wet thoroughly – saturate work out – resolve _______________________________________ ◊ _______________________________________ References Academic writing guide part 1 – Academic Writing. Sydney, Australia: UTS (University of Technology Sydney) Library. Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: A practical guide for students. New York: Nelson Thornes Ltd. Burke, J. (n.d.). Creating writers. London: Addison Wesley Longman. (By Vicki Spandel for complete exploration of the Six Traits model). Davis, J. & R. Liss (2006). Effective academic writing 3: The essay. New York: Oxford University Press. Jordan, R. R. (1999). Academic writing course: Study skills in English. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Lea, D. (ed.). (2008). Oxford learners’ thesaurus: A dictionary of synonyms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Louwerse, M. & A. Graesser (2005). Coherence in discourse. In Strazny, P. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Fitzroy Dearborn. (pp. 216–218). Lutrin, B. & M. Pincus (2009). English handbook and study guide: A comprehensive English reference book (5th edition). Birnam Park, South Africa: Berlut Books. Page 11 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Designed by Tomás A. Mateus Lubango, Huíla – 31/01/2017 Mateus, T. A. (2016). Teaching Discourse Connectors to Help 2 nd Year Students Develop Writing Proficiency at Instituto Superior Politécnico da Huíla. Lubango, Huíla, Angola: ISCED-Huíla. (Licenciatura Paper) McCarthy, M. & F. O‘Dell (2008). Academic vocabulary in use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mclntosh, C. (ed.). (2009). Oxford collocations dictionary for students of English (2nd edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Simmons, R. L. (2017). The dangling modifier: Recognize a dangling modifier when you see one. Retrieved on January 31, 2016 from http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/danglingmodifier.htm. Strauch, A. O. (2005). Writers at work: The short composition. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. Turnbull, J. (ed.). (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (8th edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Types of sentences. Retrieved on January 31, 2016, http://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/eduweb/grammar/marking/sentmark.htm#se4. from Williams, J. (2010). Cohesion and Coherence. Style: Ten Lessons in clarity and grace . (10th edition). Boston, USA: Longman, pp. 66–81. Email: [email protected] Contact number: +224 934 96 49 57 NOTA: Caso tenham algumas dúvidas quanto às questões ou aos pontos acima referidos, por favor, procurem por mim para algum esclarecimento. Mas informem-me atempadamente; isto é, 48 horas antes, marcando assim a data e o local para a devida elucida ção. MUI TO OB R I G A DO!!! Page 12 of 12 Designed by Tomás A. Mateus