What Happens When We Flush?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 features What Happens When We Flush? Nicholas C. Kawa AQ1 o“” people who u“e a lu“h ”oile” p’obably don’t spend a lot of time thinking abou” whe’e ”hei’ bodily luid“ and “olid“ will journey after they deposit them. This is because modern sanitation systems are designed to limit personal responsibilities when it comes to managing these most intimate forms of excreta. With the ability to carry human excrement out of sight, modern infrastructure and technology perpetuate the illusion that human excrement can be made to “disappear.” Milan Kundera wonderfully captures this point: “Even though the sewer pipelines M reach far into our houses with their tentacles, they are carefully hidden from view, and we are happily ignorant of the invisible Venice of shit underlying our bathrooms, bedrooms, dance halls, and parliaments.”1 So what really happens when the mode’n ”oile” goe“ lu“h ? The human exc’e”a i” handles most certainly does not disappear. Instead, a potential resource is turned into waste. But it hasn’t always been this way, and it doesn’t have to be. Dark Earths and Night Soils Much of my research as an environmental anthropologist has focused on human relationships to soils, particularly anthropogenic soils of Brazilian Amazonia. As early as 2,500 years ago and perhaps even much earlier, large indigenous settlements formed along the Amazon River and its major tributaries. Through everyday food production and subsistence practices, the inhabitants of these settlements deposited massive amounts of organic materials that became incorporated back into the soil. Manioc peels, cacao pods, palm fronds, half-burnt logs and “”ick“, animal dung and i“h bone“ and yes, human excrement too, all piled up over years and years of village living. With time, this had a di“”inc”ive efec” on ”he land“cape, slowly transforming the very ground upon which people walked. Such former indigenous settlemen”“ can “”ill be iden”iied by ”hei’ Figure 1. A handful of Amazonian Dark Earth gathered in Borba, dark, fertile soils known in Brazilian Amazonas, Brazil. The soil is the product of long-term indigenous Portuguese as terra preta do índio, settlement, including organic matter from human excrement. Nicholas C. Kawa What Happens When We Flush? 1 Anthropology Now, 8:000–000, 2016 • Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1942-8200 print / 1949-2901 online • DOI: 10.1080/19428200.2016.1202580 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Figure 2. Archaeologists Claide de Paula Moraes and his assistant take a break from excavating a test pit at an Amazonian Dark Earth site. or what is often described in English as Amazonian Dark Earth. In contradiction to the prevailing notion that Amazonian upland soils inhibited the development of complex 2 anthropology societies, terra preta is prime evidence that past human populations altered regional soils in ways that actually expanded their agricultural potential. Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 In pre-Columbian Amazonia, human excrement may not have been perceived as waste at all. Soil chemical analyses suggest that it was used — either deliberately or not — in that wild mix of composted materials that led to the formation of terra preta. Even today, the soils continue to attract contemporary farmers for the production of a number of valuable cash crops, many of which are grown in terra preta because of its distinctive fertility. Since the early origins of agriculture, farmers throughout the world have used human excrement as a fertilizer, often known euphemistically as “night soil.” This is particularly well documented in China, which saw the development of an elaborate network of night soil trade between urban and rural areas during the 16th and early 17th centuries. The historian Yong Xue has shown that Jiangnan, the most prosperous region in early modern China, owed its remarkable rice harvests to intensive fertilization, which consisted in large part of urban night soil collected by rural farmers.2 As the night soil trade expanded, many farmers eventually gave up their work in agriculture to become professional night soil collectors. The market was so lucrative that some less-than-honest individuals made a living by extorting night soil boat operators — yes, there were even poop pirates! In 1649, authorities in Edo (what is now Tokyo) banned toilets that discharged into canals or rivers to prevent human excrement from being foolishly wasted. Later, in the early 20th century, the American agricultural scientist Franklin Hiram King observed during his visit to Japan, “Among the most common sights on our rides from Yokohama to Tokyo, both within the city and along the Nicholas C. Kawa ’oad“ leading ”o ”he ield“ … we’e ”he load“ of night soil carried on the shoulders of men and on ”he back“ of animal“ … S”’ange a“ i” may seem, there are not today and apparently never have been, even in the largest and oldest cities of Japan, China or Korea, anything corresponding to the hydraulic systems of sewage disposal used now by western na”ion“ … when I a“ked my in”e’p’e”e’ if i” wa“ not the custom of the city during the winter months to discharge its night soil in the sea … hi“ ’eply came ‘uick and “ha’p, No, ”ha” would be waste. We throw nothing away. It is worth too much money.’”3 In the year prior to King’s trip to Japan in 1909, statistics from the Japanese Bureau of Agriculture showed that almost 24 million tons of excreta had been used on nearly 13.5 million hectares of arable land. King believed that Western nations could learn a great deal from East Asian societies, especially with regard to the management of human and animal wastes, which he believed were “sacred to agriculture.” Holy shit, indeed. The Origins of the “Culture of Flushing” Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most European cities relied on night soil collectors to remove excrement from cesspits and privies befo’e ”’aicking i” in”o ”he coun”’y“ide fo’ use as agricultural fertilizer, just as seen in China and Japan. However, by the mid-19th cen”u’y, ”he lu“h ”oile” had become widely sold and marketed in Europe as increased urbanization and industrial wealth made it an attractive amenity for the social elite and those who aspired to be among its members. What Happens When We Flush? 3 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Rather than having to rub elbows with the neighbors while relieving oneself at a local ce““pi” o’ p’ivy, ”he p’iva”e lu“h ”oile” made it possible to comfortably and discreetly evacua”e one “ bowel“ wi”hin ”he conine“ of the home. According to one survey, water closet installation increased tenfold in the city of London between 1824 and 1844.4 Ini”ially, p’iva”e ”oile”“ we’e “imply lu“hed into local cesspits, but the ballooning urban popula”ion ‘uickly led ”o ca”a“”’ophic con“e‘uence“ fo’ “ani”a”ion and public heal”h. Wi”h ”he g’ow”h in popula’i”y of ”he lu“h toilet, human manure became considerably dilu”ed, which afec”ed i”“ value fo’ ag’icultural application. At the same time, the expansion of cities forced night soil collectors to cover greater distances to reach their markets in rural areas. In Victorian-era London, the cost of emptying a cesspit was double the daily wage of an average skilled laborer, which presented an added challenge to timely disposal. These diverse factors created a recipe for bacteriological disaster as leaking cesspools began to contaminate drinking wells. Between 1831 and 1866, Britain was ravaged by four distinct cholera epidemics, losing more than 50,000 people in the year 1849 alone. At the time, there was much debate in Eu’ope ove’ ”he lu“hing of human fece“ in”o the new sewer systems that had been designed originally to handle city storm water exclusively. With the outbreak of cholera, howeve’, ”he need ”o ‘uickly and efec”ively remove human excreta from urban settings made ”he idea of lu“hing fece“ in”o ci”y sewers the most practical option, especially since, as Jamie Benidickson observed: “Running water, presumed to purify itself, was not 4 anthropology considered to be at serious risk from sewerage.”5 The model of ”he p’iva”e lu“h ”oile” encou’aged ”hi“ cul”u’e of lu“hing, comfo’”ably carrying urban excreta out of sight and out of mind into the rivers and out into the open ocean. And so the modern hydraulic sewage system was born. A Dying River Although the spread of disease from feces leaking into drinking water is what spurred the development of the modern sanitation system, the problem of keeping human excrement out of water was never really addressed. Instead, the system attempted to ’e“olve ”hi“ by ju“” lu“hing i” away, fu’”he’ downstream, where it could become someone else’s concern. Only very recently have modern cities adopted wastewater treatment facilities to sort this problem out. In many urban settings throughout the world, including the outskirts of Salvador da Bahia, Brazil, the problem has yet to be addressed at all. In July of 2013, I traveled to Salvador to accompany a friend in her research on local i“he’men “ igh” fo’ acce““ ”o wa”e’way“ and resources in the face of increasing urbanization and development. One afternoon, we traveled up the Joanes River with an elder i“he’man and hi“ nephew, Paulo, ”o “ee ”he problems they were facing. “If this river dies, it’s like a brother dying,” Paulo conided a“ we mo”o’ed pa“” ”he ’iver’s mouth, where it met the Atlantic. Fifty familie“, la’gely i“he’man and mollu“k collectors, were losing their livelihoods due to pollution of the river. Meanwhile, luxury condominiums continued to propagate on Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Figure 3. The Joanes Rivers runs through seven municipalities in the state of Bahia before dumping into the Atlantic, just outside of the city of Salvador. Increasing pollution in the river is a threat to ishermen and their livelihoods. its banks, directing their raw sewage directly into the waterway. “A state legislator has a house right there,” Paulo pointed out. “The houses are supposed to be built at least 30 meters away from the water, but nobody respects the law.” He added wryly, “Getting the Ministry of the Environment to do something is like trying to block the sun with a sieve.” Paulo and his uncle explained that a big dife’ence could be “een in ”he ‘uali”y of the water, even from just 10 years prior. “You can’t support yourself from the river anymore, only the sea,” Paulo remarked. His uncle added that the increased reliance on Nicholas C. Kawa the ocean meant traveling greater distances, spending more money on fuel and facing greater personal risk. Paulo continued, “Here in the river you catch almost nothing. Before there were robalo (snook) and curimã (mullet). I am 22 today. In one day I could catch nine kilo“ of i“h, 10 yea’“ ago. The’e wa“ a lo” of i“h, a lo” of i“h. Seve’al ”ype“ of la’ge mero (grouper), schools of mullet.” “When the stomach tightens, people try to ca”ch “ome”hing ”o ea”. Bu” ”he ‘uali”y i“n ” the same anymore because of the sewage,” Paulo commented when we saw a woman and he’ child i“hing in ”he ’ive’. Mo“” peo- What Happens When We Flush? 5 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Figure 4. New condominiums developed along the Joanes River, such as these, frequently divert their raw sewage into the water. ple won ” i“h ”he ’ive’ anymo’e, only ”he very desperate do.” As we traveled further up the river, Paulo’s uncle pointed to the raw sewage running from the new homes and condos that stood uniformly along the bank, glaring with white paint. In some cases, people attempted to hide ”hei’ “ewage ’un-of pipe“, bu” in o”he’“, as he showed us, “they stick it out in the open sun. They don’t think about anyone else.” Turning home, images of the river as it once was seemed to gnaw at Paulo. “Sururu (mussels), there were a lot here,” he recalled. “When the guys went diving, they’d get lots 6 anthropology of big oysters.” He explained that since that time, he could only dive near the mouth of ”he ’ive’, whe’e ”he wa”e’ ‘uali”y wa“n ” ‘ui”e as bad. “When there’s a big tide, you can still dive in ”he ’ive’ fo’ i“h. Bu” no” like befo’e. After arriving back at the beach, where the Joanes River dumps into the Atlantic, we watched kite surfers skim across the water. With palms exaggeratedly swaying in the wind, the setting aligned easily with popularized images of tropical paradise. But Paulo’s uncle wanted to turn our attention to the residues of garbage in the sand. “There’s a real lack of education,” he lamented. “Garbage Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 The problems of pollu”ion facing i“he’men ou”“ide of Salvado’ a’e no” uni‘ue to Brazil, or even the “developing world.” The 2007 EU Commission’s report on wastewater treatment determined that less than two thirds of the big cities in Europe complied with treatment ’e‘ui’emen”“; 17 majo’ ci”ie“ had no treatment at all, including Milan and Barcelona. In the United States, it was not until 1992 that New York City stopped sending its sewage sludge into the ocean. Even today, in many U.S. cities including New York, runof f’om la’ge ’ain even”“ often pushes the sewer system beyond its capacity. Since rain and the water from toilets are handled in the same Figure 5. A large billboard reads “90% discount. This is a chance to pay your system, any excess is released debts.” Underneath raw sewage dumps into the Joanes River from a mixed into rivers and waterways commercial and residential district. through combined sewer outlets, known as CSOs, when the system meets its capacon the beach — bottles, plastic bags, plastic ity. In this manner, sewer systems throughcup“. People come ou” he’e ”o ba’be‘ue and out the United States continue to dump raw, then leave their little cups of beer.” untreated sewage into lakes, rivers, streams and oceans. Paulo, on the other hand, still seemed caught up in thoughts of the river’s past and the life forms it had supported. “There used to be a lot of rays. They came from the sea into Rethinking Waste the river to lay their eggs,” he told me. “The water was crystal clear. You could see the For most of humanity’s existence on this ’ock“ down ”he’e. You could “ee i“h “wimplanet, people relied primarily on plants that fed us, and we in turn fed the soils that supming below. Now you can’t see anything.” Nicholas C. Kawa What Happens When We Flush? 7 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Figure 6. Where the Joanes River meets the Atlantic, local wind surfers and tourists visit daily to practice the sport. Figure 7. Fishermen’s boats docked just beyond the mouth of the Joanes River. 8 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 ported them with feces. Before the development of agriculture, this was likely done without much thought. Yet with the emergence of farming, it became a management practice for many human populations across the world. When properly composted, the activity of thermophilic microbes that break down human excrement will heat the organic matter well beyond the temperature needed to kill most potential pathogens. After their work is done, they leave rich humus that is ideal for the production of many crops. Many people, howeve’, ind ”he idea of compo“”ing ”hei’ excreta too unsavory or inconvenient (not to mention socially alienating) to attempt. Nevertheless, there are places where people are bucking the modern sanitation system and taking matters into their own hands. Lucy Pickering has studied how hippies in Hawaii actively compost their feces as part of their commitment to a lifestyle that emphasizes environmental sustainability as well as political and economic independence. For them, using bucket toilets and transforming their excrement into rich, friable soil is a form of “ocial c’i”i‘ue di’ec”ed a” main“”’eam Ame’ica. In her words, “In both their valuing of bodily waste and their choice of toilet design, they simultaneously reframe their relations to others through excrement: disconnection from the state and reconnection with the local environment.”6 In the developing world, where sanitation infrastructure is often lacking, many initiatives are looking at how human excrement can be managed to not only produce agricultural amendments, but also address public health concerns. The organization SOIL, for example, has been working in Haiti since 2006 and has helped to develop the country’s Nicholas C. Kawa i’“” “i”e fo’ ”’ea”ing human exc’emen” u“ing thermophilic co-composting. In a recent pilot study, SOIL used container-based sanitation services in a dense urban settlement, nearly eliminating reports of “open defecation” and thus mitigating health hazards as well.7 In parts of Asia, excrement has even become an engine for energy production. In rural areas of China, India and Nepal, human excrement and agricultural wastes are collected under or outside peoples’ homes for the production of biogas. Through the anaerobic activity of microbes, the decomposing organic matter releases methane and other gases, which are then used as fuel for heating and cooking stoves. Because methane i“ 25 ”o 30 ”ime“ a“ efec”ive a” ”’apping ’adia”ion a“ ca’bon dioxide, i”“ efec” on climate change is much greater. Even while the burning of methane still releases greenhouse gases in the form of carbon dioxide, it yields a much less damaging byproduct. What is also valuable about the biogas model is that the use of methane from excrement prevents the release of CO2 cu’’en”ly “e‘ue“”e’ed in other sources, such as those buried under the ground. In this way, it allows for a reduction in net greenhouse gas emissions. It is estimated that over 30 million rural households in China and approximately 250,000 in Nepal are currently using anaerobic digesters.8 Some developed nations, especially in Europe, have also adopted large-scale anaerobic digesters to produce energy while cutting back on greenhouse gas emissions. And fo’ individual“ who wan” ”o live of ”he grid,” the use of biogas represents a chance ”o enhance “elf-“uiciency and minimize dependency on the broader political-economic structures that govern people’s lives. What Happens When We Flush? 9 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Conclusion In the Humanure Handbook, which has become a sort of bible for those who compost their excrement, J. C. Jenkins makes a simple yet poignant observation: Everyone shits, but the creation of human waste is a matter of human choice.9 We choose to throw things away rather than reuse them. Human excrement is really only waste if we decide to discard it and treat it as something devoid of value. It has the potential to be many other things, including energy for gas stoves, fertilizer for useful crops or simply organic matter that can feed the seas of microbes in our soils. Depositing it untreated into fresh drinking water and river ways shows complete disregard for the potential value of our excrement and for the water that is so vital to human life on this planet. Can inding be””e’ way“ of managing ou’ excrement help to avert a looming ecological c’i“i“? No one can “ay fo’ “u’e. Bu” i” ha“ the potential, I believe, to push humanity ”owa’d a dife’en” way of ”hinking ecologically. It may even encourage a new sense of ethical engagement with what is perceived as waste, opening new pathways toward a more sustainable common future. At the very least, it’s something worth thinking about next time you lu“h. 2. Yong Xue. T’ea“u’e Nigh”“oil a“ if I” We’e Gold’: Economic and Ecological Links Between Urban and Rural Areas in Late Imperial Jiangnan,” Late Imperial China 1 (1959): 41–7. 3. Franklin Hiram D. King. Farmers of Forty Centuries, or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan. (Madison, WI: Mrs. Franklin Hiram King, 1911). AQ3 4. Steven Johnson. The Ghost Map: The Story of London’s Most Terrifying Epidemic—and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World. (New York: Riverhead Books, 2006). AQ4 5. Jamie Benidickson. The Culture of Flushing: A Social and Legal History of Sewage. (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007). AQ5 6. Lucy Pickering. “Toilets, bodies, selves: Enacting composting as counterculture in Hawai’i.” Body & Society 4 (2010): 33–55. 7. Yu Chen, Wei Hu, Yongzhong Feng, and Sandra Sweeney. “Status and Prospects of Rural Biogas Development in China.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 39 (2014): 679–685. 8. Sebastian Tilmans, Kory Russel, Rachel Sklar, Leah Page, Sasha Kramer, and Jennifer Davis. “Container-based Sanitation: Assessing Costs and Efec”ivene““ of Exc’e”a Managemen” in Cap Haitien, Haiti.” Environment and Urbanization 27, no. 1 (2015): 89–104. 9. J. C. Jenkins. The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure (Emphasizing Minimum Technology and Maximum Hygenic Safety), 3rd ed. (Grove City, PA: Jenkins Publishing, 1994). AQ6 Nicholas C. Kawa is assistant professor of anthro- Notes pology at Ohio State University. His research cen- Photos by Nicholas C. Kawa ac”ion, wi”h “peciic focu“ on human ’ela”ion“hip“ ”e’“ on ‘ue“”ion“ of human–envi’onmen”al in”e’to plants and soils. He is author of Amazonia in 1. Milan Kundera. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. (New York: Harper, 1984). AQ2 10 anthropology the Anthropocene: People, Soils, Plants, Forests (University of Texas Press, 2016). Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116