Desertification

D Desertification debates on combating desertification and the highly politicized nature of the issue. K. B. Usha Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Context Keywords Anthropogenic disaster · Desertification · Dry lands · Human well-being · Land degradation neutrality · Sustainable development goals Introduction Desertification has become one of the most pressing global environmental and socio-economic concerns in the twenty-first century. It is commonly understood as land degradation due to anthropogenic changes in the soil and environment in the arid and semiarid regions. Today, the damaging effect of desertification is recognized worldwide as equal to that of global warming and climate change. Desertification is even treated by the scientific community as a security issue considering the multifaceted threats and risks it generates (Brauch 2003) for the lives of humans and nonhumans. The latest studies show nearly twofifth of humanity affected by land degradation severely threatening human survival and wellbeing (Stam 2018). This chapter outlines the concepts and definitions of desertification, its causes and consequences, mitigation efforts, and policy challenges. It concludes by examining the recent The term desertification was first coined by Louis Lavauden, French scientist and explorer, in 1927 (Darkoh 2003). Andre Aubreville, a botanist and ecologist, in his book Climate, Forests, and Desertification published in 1949, popularized the concept of desertification (cited in Kannan 2012). However, it was only in the 1970s, in the context of the drought in the Sahel, the semiarid savannah zone in Africa, that debate was unleashed on the issue. During 1972–1974, desertification was recognized as an issue of global scale. The Sahel experienced the longest drought ever recorded in human history in modern times. The cause of this tragedy with its multiple impacts on human lives and biodiversity has been interpreted as a result of problems created by unwise, irrational, and unsustainable land use practices. Urged by the Sahel tragedy, the United Nations passed a resolution in 1974 and called for an international conference on desertification held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1977. Ninety-four countries participated in this UN Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) and adopted a Plan of Action for Combating Desertification (PACD). In 1991, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) found that despite the small success of © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Romaniuk et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_392-1 2 local efforts to alleviate land degradation, the problem of desertification got intensified in arid, semiarid, and subhumid areas. Consequent upon UNEP’s findings, the question of addressing desertification effectively became a major concern for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) held on the eve of Rio Earth Summit in 1992. In the UNCCD held in 1994, the UN General Assembly declared 17 June to be “World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought” on the basis of a resolution adopted by 194 participant countries. Since then, despite criticism from the scientific community over the logical and empirical shortcomings of the concept of desertification (Mortimore 1989; Swift 1996), it has been institutionalized at the global level, especially at the UN platform, with the aim of searching for remedies and solutions to alleviate desertification and land degradation. Currently, the UNCCD is the legally binding international instrument to address land-related issues. Given the current complexity of unsustainable land use, climatic conditions, and environmental change, scientists have predicted further aggravation of the situation threatening the subsistence and future of human life. The international community recognized the need for a firm commitment and continuous efforts to address the issues of desertification, land degradation, and the multifarious disastrous effects of these phenomena on the environment, biodiversity, and human beings at the local, regional, and global levels. Concept and Definitions Desertification is a concept widely used for comprehending the natural- and human-induced changes in land-based ecosystems leading to multidimensional catastrophic consequences after the Sahel tragedy. It has generally been recognized as a process of land degradation with alarming consequences. It is not about the expansion of already-existing desert areas. An allagreed definition is not available on the evolving concept of desertification, and the concept has been defined in many different ways by scientific Desertification and policy communities. Since humans become triggers as well as victims of desertification, Fouad Ibrahim suggests a more human-oriented definition: “Desertification is the degradation of the dry lands production systems which have developed as a result of centuries-long interactions between the human communities and their environments” (Ibrahim 1993, p. 5). A widely accepted definition of desertification was conceptualized in the 1994 UNCCD meeting. It defined desertification as “the degradation of land and vegetation, soil erosion and the loss of top soil and fertile land in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, caused primarily by human activities and climate variations” (UNCCD 1994, p. 4). The UNCCD elaborates land degradation as: The reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or a combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) longterm loss of natural vegetation. (ibid., p. 5) These definitions help understand the multiple causes, consequences, and ecological and human impact of the problem of desertification and may help in finding ways of alleviation. The UN-supported Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) by the World Resources Institute considers desertification as a process of land degradation which is “the reduction in the capacity of the land to perform ecosystem goods, functions and services that support society and development,” and as the process of desertification of the dry lands collectively (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) defines desertification “as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas (collectively called dry lands) because of human activities and climatic variations” (Scholes 2018, p. 17). As these definitions depict, a wide range of issues such as human intervention in nature, land use, agricultural practices, topography, climate change, soil Desertification erosion, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, etc., are involved in the process of desertification and land degradation. The intensity of the problem is felt more in the areas near deserts. But other areas are also affected. In spite of several attempts to prevent and combat desertification through measures such as the restoration of vegetation and so on, land degradation remains a vital issue in many regions of the globe including China, Russia, India, America, Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, etc. Thus, desertification has emerged as an international political issue of great significance in many human development initiatives, especially under the UN platform. When the assessment of the land-related issues in different regions has been made, critics argued that the concept of desertification is no longer analytically useful for policy purposes. They argue that the concept is vaguely defined, and therefore, the concept of “land degradation” is preferred, unless desertification does create a desert-like condition in the affected areas (Lijuan Miao 2015). Given the complexity of the problem, the UNCCD has recognized land degradation as a better concept, as one that captures various aspects of the problem as among the important priorities for achieving sustainable development. However, some scientists see the UN definition as too broad and suggest desertification to be viewed in terms of loss of productivity of the land that is not reversible. According to them, whether the change is permanent on a human time scale is important in defining desertification. Thus, disagreement between the policy and scientific research communities on the concept of desertification is visible. The scientific community alleges a political agenda behind the institutionalization of post-Sahel desertification in the UN system (Cortner 1989). Some scholars claim that new scientific knowledge from climatology made the concept irrelevant in the current context. Roy H. Behnke and Michael Mortimore observe that desertification research has been “targeted and deeply involved in formulation of public policy.” They further state: If scientists require clarity in the concepts they employ, the politicians and administrators who create and manage large institutions have other, very 3 pragmatic requirements. In the search for money and support, they need a problem that is dramatic enough to command immediate attention, simple enough to be quickly grasped, and general enough to satisfy diverse interest groups; they need. . . a development narrative—a powerful story line with clear, broadly applicable policy implications and urgent funding needs. (Behnke and Mortimore 2016, pp. 5–6) These scholars indicate that a bias in favor of the policy community ignoring scientifically informed knowledge was reflected in the institutionalization of the concept of desertification on a global scale. However, whatever be the tension between the policy and the scientific communities, the problem of desertification poses a big challenge to both groups in contemporary times. Causes and Consequences of Desertification Desertification is not a new issue. As the outcome of certain natural process and development related to human intervention in nature, desertification always existed since recorded history. Several causes for this phenomenon are identified by researchers. Desertification is driven mainly by economic activities, such as property development, industry, and agriculture. A range of processes such as soil erosion, wind erosion, salinization, droughts, and wild fire burnings cause desertification. Overgrazing of livestock creates conditions of land degradation. Injudicious farming practices, poor environmental awareness, mismanagement of water resources, oil exploration, and mineral mining among others are underlying human factors causing desertification and land degradation (Squires and Heshmati 2013). The human mismanagement of land may decrease the quantity of rainfall and moisture and transform land to desert-like conditions. Soil contamination due to the overuse of pesticides and chemicals in agricultural lands is another factor that causes desertification. The overuse of chemicals leads to land salinity, with high concentration of salt contents leading to degradation (Kumar 2015). Climate change and desertification are interlinked. Desertification can 4 be exacerbated by climate through the change of spatial and temporal patterns of temperature, precipitation, solar insolation, and winds. Climatic variations can influence drought patterns. The fossil fuels generating Green House Gas Emissions (CO2), the main driver of climate change, can worsen the effect of desertification. Scientists theorized that increased atmospheric dust produced by overgrazing, rangeland burning, and overcropping can reduce local rainfalls or may cause global climatic shifts. Dense pall of dust can reduce precipitation as happening in northern India and Pakistan (Kannan 2012). China is also one of the countries severely affected by dustsand storms and desertification (Lu Qi 2005). The Kalmykia republic in the Russian Federation is an example of anthropogenic intervention under the 70 years of Soviet socialist development model disregarding ecological consequences, contributing to overexploitation of natural resources and land degradation, desertification, soil erosion, and related issues. By 1990, almost the whole of Kalmykia has undergone desertification, and 13% of its territory has been transformed into true desert (Zonn 1995, p. 347), with lasting human and ecological consequences. Desertification is recognized as a global problem that generates far-reaching consequences: social, cultural, economic, and political. It affects all continents and a great number of countries, including countries such as China, India, Russia, Australia, USA, and European countries. The negative impact generated by desertification on both environment and humans matters the most. Desertification causes decline in agricultural production, degradation of land and ecosystems, water crises, environmental problems, and loss of well-being for the people, i.e., human security issues. It generates public health crises, loss of livelihood, and other socioeconomic impacts. The vulnerability depends on other related factors such as age, gender, disability, immune status, and access to healthcare services of the individuals affected (World Information Transfer 2009). Migration to other areas searching for better livelihood opportunities may generate conflicts. The worst-affected people are found in Africa and Asia. Desertification The reciprocal influence between development and environmental problems, one enhancing the other, aggravates desertification. The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (April 1987), identified desertification along with population growth, deforestation, and water pollution as one of the “four most urgent global environmental requirements.” The Commission linked desertification to problems of food security, social welfare, political stability, and mankind’s ability to achieve the Commission’s goal of “sustainable development” (WCED 1987). Scholarly research points out the possibility of food insecurity in the future as there is a need to feed a 9-billion population in the world by 2050 on available and decreasing land resources (Juntti 2014). According to the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), more than 2.6 billion people in 100 countries are vulnerable to the process of desertification. More than 33% of Earth’s surface is also affected by desertification. The estimate of Plenary of the IPBES held in 2018 indicates, “Currently, degradation of the Earth’s land surface through human activities is negatively impacting the well-being of at least 3.2 billion people, pushing the planet towards a sixth mass species extinction, and costing more than 10 per cent of the annual global gross product in loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services” (IPBES, 2018 cited in Scholes 2018). Thus, desertification forms an issue with wider implications for biodiversity, eco-safety, poverty eradication, socio-economic stability, and sustainable development across the globe. Mitigation Strategies: Institutions, Strategies, and Programs The UNCCD, adopted in Paris on 17 June 1994, which came into force on 26 December 1996, is the globally recognized institution and platform that has the legal authority for addressing desertification issues. Ratified by 196 countries, the UNCCD identifies land degradation and desertification as one of the most pressing environmental concerns of the contemporary world. The Desertification UNCCD’s decision-making structure consists of several institutions. The Conference of the Parties (CoP) established in 1997 is the highest decisionmaking body. The CoP includes 196 countries and the European Union as its committed members. It meets biennially since 2001, and as of 2017 it had 13 sessions. This is the body that evaluates country reports, and makes necessary suggestions, recommendations, and amendments for facilitating implementation. Besides the CoP, the other institutions in the UNCCD structure are the Secretariat, the Committee on Science and Technology (CST), the Committee for the Review of the Implementation of the Convention (CRIC), the Global Mechanism (GM), and National Action Programmes. In its 10-year strategy (2007–2018) adopted in 2007, the UCCD has formulated a global “zero net degradation” as desired goals to be achieved with global partnership and shared responsibility. Global Mechanism (GM) was established in 1998 for funding sustainable land management practices in member countries. GEF was adopted in 2010 taking into account the scientific evidence linking desertification to climate change and other related issues such as carbon emissions. The UN Conference on Sustainable Development (“Rio + 20”) held in June 2012 has also called for a target of “zero net land degradation” (Juntti 2014). The Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development adopted by the 193 Member States of the United Nations General Assembly at the Sustainable Development Summit on 25 September 2015 gives priority to desertification and land degradation. In the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) built on the Millennium Development Goals which were targeted to be achieved by 2015, goal 15 “Life on Land” aimed to “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss” (United Nations 2017). This Goal’s section 15.3 specifically refers to the need to “combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world” by 2030 (United Nations 2017). 5 The goal of land degradation neutrality (LDN) has been acknowledged as a new paradigm for managing land degradation and thereby achieving SDGs by 2030. The UNCCD conceptualizes LDN as “a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security remain stable or increase within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems” (UNCCD 2017). All the national governments, many international NGOs, and other agencies supported by the UN predominantly use the conceptualization of the UNCCD in their commitment to comprehend the issue and implement the goals of Agenda 2030. The outcome of this goal is that the rate of deteriorating lands would be counterbalanced by the rate of land improvement. The UNCCD signed a memorandum of understanding with the World Future Council to jointly combat desertification issues. As Monique Barbut, Executive Secretary at UNCCD, explains, “Desertification is a silent, invisible crisis that is destabilizing communities on a global scale. It is important to identify and promote laws and policies that successfully protect, monitor and regulate combating desertification. We look forward to working closely together with the World Future Council” (Petersen 2017). The signatory nations have formulated national action programs to mitigate various effects of drought and desertification. For instance, the Government of India is committed to achieve landdegradation-neutrality by 2030. According to India’s Environment Minister, Harsh Vardhan, the country’s new National Action Programme (NAP) for combatting drought and desertification by considering the national circumstances and development priorities focuses on sustainable land and resource management for livelihood generation at the community level. It makes the local lands healthier and productive for providing a better homeland and a better future to its inhabitants. The 2017 World Desertification Day slogan, “Our Land, Our Home, Our Future,” underlines the central role that productive land can play in turning the growing tide of migrants abandoning their unproductive land into communities and nations that are stable, secure, and sustainable in 6 future. The Indian government also launched initiatives such as the Soil Health Card Scheme, to help farmers for improving productivity through the judicious use of resources and earmarked a fund of ` 840.52 crore over the last 3 years (Press Information Bureau 2017). Similar national action programs have been implemented by all the member countries and regions in Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Europe. The 2018 World Desertification Day’s theme is “Land has true value – invest in it.” National governments are in the process of introducing national action plans according to this theme. Thus, by now, sources of funding, scientific studies, research publications, evidences, etc., are available to combat desertification. However, several questionable and complex issues centered on combating desertification still prevail as challenges to policy making. Policy Challenges It is generally considered that desertification can be prevented by restoring land and soil functions through conservation, protection, and restoration of vegetation cover and water availability. Educating people regarding engaging with nature and their responsibility for land and nature is also required through training and awareness-raising activities. Considering the long-lasting impact of desertification, its prevention is an important social challenge. A possible solution of reducing land degradation is through planting trees to increase the moisture level and slow down wind erosion. Local framers are the main players in the fight against desertification. Experiences in many parts of the world show that local people’s involvement and indigenous knowledge can make a difference in mitigating desertification more effectively. It is actually the local communities that are leading innovations to address the problems of desertification. Desertification is a global problem, but better solutions are predominantly local. The complexity and interdisciplinary nature of desertification and ambiguous and uncertain Desertification linkages of its causes and consequences pose multiple challenges to environmental managers and policy makers. Therefore, the issue calls for a comprehensive policy framework enabling to address various issues at local, national, regional, and global levels. This requires inter-sectorial collaboration, improvement of knowledge base, and innovative assessment models. Structural inequalities, such as the gendered division of labor and discriminatory approaches to women and nature, have to be addressed, and, accordingly, policy should also take into account the gendered consequences of desertification. Conclusion Desertification attracted attention as a global issue in the context of the Sahel drought tragedy of the 1970s. Desertification is a contested issue about which hundreds of definitions are available, including contradictory ones. The conceptual and definitional issues of desertification generate challenges to policy making and implementation. Since the end of 1970s, the UNCCD has become the legal program to initiate strategies for combating desertification depending on the local, national, and regional circumstances and development priorities. The multiple causes and consequences of desertification processes are widely discussed and identified in the scientific and policy communities with practical suggestions to mitigate the effects of desertification in various parts of the world. Besides the UNCCD, mitigating desertification is one of the important priorities in the programs of the UNEP, the Millennium Development Goals, and the SDGs. However, desertification is a complex issue. This has become a puzzled concept where divergent opinions of the policy and scientific communities could be seen. Since 2006, the GEF invested a huge amount of money in several projects toward mitigating desertification. Several competing factors, such as scientific knowledge, political will, corporate interests, practical experience, traditional knowledge, and know-how, may have wider implications for the effective mitigation efforts by various stakeholders and institutions. Desertification Given today’s neoliberal development model, corporate interests, and the accumulation of profit disregarding the depletion of natural resources, it remains an unanswered question how far the nature-based solutions suggested to mitigate desertification might succeed. Cross-References ▶ Anthropocene ▶ Climate Change Adaptation to Ensure Food Security ▶ Ecosystems ▶ Environmental Security ▶ Food Insecurity References Behnke, R. H., & Mortimore, M. (2016). Introduction: The end of desertification? In R. H. Behnke & M. Mortimore (Eds.), The end of desertification? Disputing environmental change in the drylands (pp. 1–36). Berlin: Springer. Brauch, H. G. (2003). 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