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JONATHAN BRODEUR
Génie Industriel
Décembre 2022
DÉDICACE
À mon épouse, Nathalie, pour son support inconditionnel dans cette aventure
iv
REMERCIEMENTS
Tout d’abord, je tiens à remercier mon directeur de recherche, Prof. Robert Pellerin, et ma co-
directrice de recherche, Prof. Isabelle Deschamps. Leurs conseils et supports ont permis de rendre
ce travail possible et de me dépasser.
Je remercie les membres du jury pour leurs temps et commentaires constructifs qui ont amélioré le
positionnement et la qualité de ce travail de recherche.
Je voudrais également remercier les employés et gestionnaires du partenaire industriel sans qui ce
projet de recherche n’aurait pas pu être réalisé. Par le fait même, j’aimerais remercier tous les
experts ayant également contribué à cette recherche par leur participation leur partage de
connaissance. Je ne peux malheureusement pas les nommer par respect de la confidentialité des
données, de l’organisation et des personnes.
Je transmets également à mes employeurs des remerciements de m’avoir permis de travailler sur
ce projet de recherche en parallèle à mes réalisations et mon avancement professionnel. Ce projet
n’aurait pas pu être réalisé sans votre compréhension et votre ouverture.
Finalement, j’aimerais remercier mon épouse, Nathalie Boileau, sans qui ce projet n’aurait jamais
pu être réalisé. Merci pour ta patience, tes encouragements et ton support à chaque moment difficile
de cette aventure.
v
RÉSUMÉ
Les PME manufacturières se lancent de plus en plus dans une transformation numérique vers
l’industrie 4.0 afin d’améliorer leur productivité et d’atteindre de nouveaux marchés. Cependant,
celles-ci rencontrent plusieurs problématiques rendant difficile l’exécution et la gestion de cette
transformation numérique, que ce soit par manque de ressources ou d’outils pour les aider. Plus
spécifiquement, les gestionnaires de PME manufacturières se demandent comment lancer et gérer
leur transformation numérique en prenant en compte leur contexte particulier, soit leur flexibilité
et leur agilité, mais également leur manque de ressources, structure et de processus de gestion, en
comparaison aux plus grandes entreprises. Pour résoudre ce défi, plusieurs chercheurs ont mis de
l’avant différents éléments facilitant la gestion de la transformation numérique en PME, que ce soit
par des techniques de portefeuilles de projets, la mise en place d’échelle de maturité ou encore
l’identification de facteurs de succès critiques. Malheureusement, ces éléments sont pour la plupart
très théoriques ou génériques et ne s’appliquent que peu souvent au contexte de la PME
manufacturière.
Cette thèse vise donc à faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique des PME manufacturières
vers l’industrie 4.0. Cette étude a été effectuée en partenariat avec une PME industrielle du Grand
Montréal, qui était alors en démarrage de transformation numérique et cherchait à déterminer
comment lancer et gérer son virage vers l’industrie 4.0. La méthodologie de recherche adoptée fut
divisée en deux phases. Tout d’abord, une recherche-intervention auprès du partenaire industriel a
permis de mieux comprendre comment se déroulait la transformation numérique au sein d’une
PME et comment les caractéristiques de celle-ci influencent sa façon de gérer sa transformation
numérique et d’adopter différents outils et processus de gestion. Ensuite, une étude Delphi-Régnier
a été effectuée auprès d’un panel de 19 experts en transformation numérique afin d’identifier et de
valider des recommandations en vue de faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique en PME.
Cette démarche a permis d’observer auprès du partenaire industriel comment son contexte et ses
caractéristiques ont influencé sa façon de gérer sa transformation numérique. Plus particulièrement,
nous avons observé quels ont été les outils et processus de gestion, ainsi que les modèles de
gouvernance, qui ont été adoptés pour gérer cette transformation. Lors de cette recherche-
intervention, nous avons pu constater que la PME adoptait d’abord un nombre restreint d’outils et
de processus de gestion très simples lui permettant de démarrer sa transformation numérique, pour
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ensuite faire évoluer rapidement ces outils et processus en fonction des bons et mauvais coups
qu’elle a réalisés durant ses projets. Au fur et à mesure que cette approche de gestion évoluait,
celle-ci se complexifiait, nécessitant d’apporter différents changements au sein de l’organisation.
Ces changements ont permis à la PME d’obtenir la capacité et la maturité nécessaire pour exécuter
et gérer des projets de transformation numériques de plus en plus complexes. Les résultats de
l’étude Delphi-Régnier ont aussi permis de démontrer que cette approche de gestion n’était pas
unique au partenaire industriel. Lors de cette étude, les experts ont également proposé différentes
façons d’encadrer cette approche ainsi que des suggestions permettant de faciliter la gestion de la
transformation numérique de la PME manufacturière.
La thèse dans son ensemble fournit plusieurs recommandations visant à faciliter la gestion de la
transformation numérique en PME manufacturière. Nos recommandations mettent de l’avant des
phases, étapes, actions et livrables permettant à la PME de lancer et de gérer sa transformation
numérique tout en assurant des apprentissages lui permettant d’améliorer la gestion de sa
transformation numérique au fur et à mesure de ses projets. Ces recommandations sont basées sur
les observations effectuées en entreprise, sur plusieurs facteurs de succès critiques et bonnes
pratiques pertinentes ressorties de la littérature scientifique, ainsi que sur les réponses et
commentaires du panel d’experts lors de l’étude Delphi-Régnier. Ces recommandations sont
particulièrement intéressantes pour les praticiens qui pourront s’en servir comme gabarit détaillant
la séquence d’étapes et de livrables leur permettant de lancer une transformation numérique dans
leur entreprise, tout en assurant que celle-ci apprenne et améliore de façon continue son approche
de gestion. De façon générale, cette thèse permet d’obtenir une meilleure compréhension de
l’influence du contexte d’une PME manufacturière sur la gestion de sa transformation numérique.
Les conclusions de cette recherche restent cependant limitées au cas étudié et à son contexte
organisationnel spécifique. De futures études serviraient à vérifier l’impact réel de ces
recommandations et de les améliorer en les testant auprès d’un plus grand nombre de PME
manufacturières.
vii
ABSTRACT
Manufacturing SMEs are increasingly embarking on a digital transformation towards Industry 4.0
to improve their productivity and reach new markets. However, they face several problems that
make it difficult to execute and manage this digital transformation, whether due to a lack of
resources or tools to help them. More specifically, managers of manufacturing SMEs are
wondering how to launch and manage their digital transformation taking into account their
particular context, i.e., their flexibility and agility, but also their lack of resources, structure, and
management processes, compared to larger companies. To solve this challenge, several researchers
have put forward different elements that facilitate the management of digital transformation in
SMEs, whether through project portfolio techniques, the implementation of a maturity scale, or the
identification of critical success factors. Unfortunately, most of these elements are too theoretical
or generic and rarely applied to the SME manufacturing context.
Therefore, this thesis aims to facilitate managing the digital transformation of manufacturing SMEs
towards Industry 4.0. This study was conducted in partnership with an industrial SME in the
Greater Montreal area. This SME was in the early stages of its digital transformation and was
seeking to determine how to launch and manage its transition to Industry 4.0. The research
methodology adopted was divided into two phases. First, an intervention-research with the
industrial partner allowed to understand better how the digital transformation was taking place
within an SME and how its characteristics influence its way of managing its digital transformation
and adopting different management tools and processes. Next, a Delphi-Régnier study was
conducted with a panel of 19 digital transformation experts to identify and validate
recommendations to facilitate digital transformation management in SMEs.
These research methodologies allowed us to observe with the industrial partner how its context and
characteristics as an SME influenced how it managed its digital transformation. More specifically,
we observed which management tools and processes, as well as the governance model, were
adopted by the SME to manage this transformation. During this research-intervention, we observed
that the SME adopted a minimum of elementary management tools and processes that allowed it
to start its digital transformation and quickly evolve these tools and processes according to the good
and bad moves it made during its projects. As this management approach evolved, it became more
complex, requiring different organizational changes. These changes than enabled the SME to gain
viii
the capability and maturity to execute and manage increasingly complex digital transformation
projects. The results of the Delphi-Régnier study also demonstrated that this management approach
was not unique to the industrial partner. During this study, the experts also proposed different ways
to frame this approach as well as suggestions to facilitate the management of the manufacturing
SME's digital transformation.
The thesis, as a whole, provides several recommendations to facilitate the management of digital
transformation in manufacturing SMEs. Our recommendations put forward phases, steps, actions,
and deliverables allowing the SME to launch and manage its digital transformation while ensuring
learning curves allowing it to improve the management of its digital transformation as its projects
progress. These recommendations are based on observations made in companies, several critical
success factors and relevant best practices from the scientific literature, as well as the responses
and comments of the expert panel during the Delphi-Régnier study.
These recommendations are of particular interest to practitioners who can use them as a template
detailing the sequence of steps and deliverables that will allow them to launch a digital
transformation in their company while ensuring that it learns and continuously improves its
management approach. Overall, this thesis provides a better understanding of how the context of
the manufacturing SME affects the management of its digital transformation and proposes different
avenues to facilitate this management.
However, the conclusions of this research remain limited to the case studied and its specific
organizational context. Future studies would verify the real impact of these recommendations and
improve them by testing them with a larger number of manufacturing SMEs.
ix
REMERCIEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... IV
RÉSUMÉ........................................................................................................................................ V
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................VII
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 39
4.5.3 The Contribution of innovation culture on the Industry 4.0 transformation .............. 63
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 67
5.4.1 Stage 1: Initial approach and mechanisms creation (CADT Model, version I) ......... 81
xii
5.4.3 Stage 3: Final collaborative approach and mechanisms mapping (CADT Model,
version II) ............................................................................................................................... 89
6.2.1 Management of industry 4.0 transformation within manufacturing SMEs .............. 104
6.2.2 Critical success factors for industry 4.0 transformation ........................................... 106
6.5.1 Steps and actions to manage industry 4.0 transformation ........................................ 120
Tableau 2.1 - Résumé de littérature sur les études de cas portant sur l'Industrie 4.0 en PME ........ 5
Tableau 2.3 – Facteurs de succès critiques de l’Industrie 4.0 (suite et fin) .................................... 7
Tableau 2.5 - Résumé de littérature sur les échelles de maturités 4.0 (suite et fin) ........................ 9
Tableau 2.7 - Résumé de littérature sur la gestion de portefeuille de projets TI (suite et fin) ...... 14
Tableau 2.8 - Phase d'implantation des processus de gestion de portefeuille de projets TI (Reyck et
al., 2005) ................................................................................................................................ 15
Tableau 2.9 - Résumé de littérature sur les outils de sélection de projets ..................................... 16
Table 4.1- Organizational Changes during the Industry 4.0 transformation ................................. 54
Table 4.2- Organizational Changes during the Industry 4.0 transformation (cont’d) ................... 55
Table 6.1 - Actions to support CSF in the Identification phase. ................................................. 128
Table 6.2 - Actions to support CSF in the Preparation phase. .................................................... 129
Table 6.3 - Actions to support CSF in the Execution phase ....................................................... 130
xv
Figure 4.4 - Cycle of SME Organizational changes during Industry 4.0 projects ........................ 61
Figure 5.7 - " Observe & Share " Project execution approach ...................................................... 94
Figure 7.1 – Phases, étapes et livrables de gestion de la transformation 4.0 pour les PME
manufacturières ................................................................................................................... 141
La liste des sigles et abréviations présente, dans l’ordre alphabétique, les sigles et abréviations
utilisés dans le mémoire ou la thèse ainsi que leur signification. En voici quelques exemples :
CHAPITRE 1 INTRODUCTION
Le contexte économique mondial actuel favorise une compétitivité croissante à l’échelle mondiale
entre grandes et plus petites entreprises, les forçant ainsi à se surpasser en matière d’optimisation
de leur processus, de diversification de leur offre et d’innovation. En effet, dû à la croissance de la
mondialisation et à l’introduction constante de nouvelles technologies et pratiques, plusieurs
entreprises, en particulier les petites et moyennes entreprises (PME) manufacturières, se retrouvent
coincées entre les forces économiques des grandes entreprises et les innovations des entreprises en
démarrage. Celles-ci doivent donc d’un côté optimiser leur processus afin de rester compétitives
dans leur marché actuel, et d’un autre côté, innover dans leurs processus, produits et services afin
d’offrir davantage de valeurs ajoutées à leur clientèle. Pour y arriver, plusieurs ont décidé de se
tourner vers les technologies numériques.
En 2011, le gouvernement allemand a d’ailleurs annoncé une première initiative appelée Industrie
4.0 afin d’accélérer l’adoption de technologie numérique au sein de son industrie manufacturière.
L’Industrie 4.0 représente la 4e révolution industrielle et est perçue de multiples façons, comme le
témoigne la centaine de définitions différentes proposées dans la littérature (Ghadge et al., 2020;
Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). Au Canada, le concept de l’Industrie 4.0 est souvent vu de façon plus vaste
en comportant toute initiative visant à améliorer les processus, les produits et les services en
améliorant les décisions de façon décentralisée et basée sur l'exploitation de données en temps réel
(Danjou et al., 2016; Moeuf et al., 2018).
L’Industrie 4.0 repose sur plusieurs technologies, comme les systèmes automatisés et d’acquisition
de données, les infrastructures TI, les systèmes ERP/MES/PLM, etc. (Ghadge et al., 2020; Xu, L.
D. et al., 2018). Sur cette couche technologique, on y rajoute des technologies de l’internet des
objets, d’analyse de données massives, d’intelligence artificielle, de système cyberphysique, de
système infonuagique, de cobotique, etc. (Moeuf et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). Grâce à ses
technologies, la 4e révolution industrielle non seulement optimise et rend plus efficace les éléments
de la 3e révolution industrielle, mais en plus, permet de changer la dynamique de plusieurs
industries en permettant de développer de nouveaux produits et services personnalisés et de
développer de nouveaux modèles d’affaires (Müller, J. M., 2019; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018).
2
Ces technologies sont pourtant présentes dans différentes industries depuis un certain temps.
Cependant, la capacité croissante d’intégration de plusieurs technologies et d'exploitation de
données massives en temps réel pour améliorer les performances et la collaboration des entreprises
manufacturières font de l'Industrie 4.0 une véritable révolution industrielle (Barratt, 2004; Ghadge
et al., 2020; Manavalan & Jayakrishna, 2019; Moeuf et al., 2018). L'Industrie 4.0 étant intimement
liée à l'exploitation des données en temps réel, beaucoup ont défini l'Industrie 4.0 comme la
transformation numérique de l'industrie manufacturière (Lu, 2017; Moeuf et al., 2018; Oztemel &
Gursev, 2020; Piccarozzi et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018).
Les PME manufacturières sont particulièrement intéressées par les opportunités que peut offrir
cette nouvelle révolution. Celles-ci sont définies au Canada comme des entreprises du secteur de
la fabrication possédant moins de 500 travailleurs et dont le chiffre d’affaires ne dépasse pas 50M$,
représentent 99% des entreprises manufacturières au Canada. Elles embauchent 84,7% des
travailleurs du secteur manufacturier (Institut de la statistique du Québec, 2012; Statistique Canada,
2015). Plusieurs d’entre elles ont déjà débuté leur processus de transformation numérique depuis
quelques années (Gamache, 2019). Contrairement aux autres révolutions industrielles, l’adoption
des pratiques de l’Industrie 4.0 sera plus graduelle pour les PME, afin d’intégrer petit à petit, projet
par projet, les différents technologies et processus nécessaires pour être plus efficaces et mieux
intégrés au sein de leur chaîne de valeur, ainsi que pour développer des modèles d’affaires
innovants qui utiliseront comme levier ces nouvelles technologies (Brettel, Malte et al., 2014;
McKinsey Digital, 2015; The Boston Counsulting Group, 2015; World Economic Forum, 2019).
Malheureusement, les PME manufacturières rencontrent plusieurs défis en lien avec la gestion et
l’implantation de ces technologies (Moeuf et al., 2019; Schröder, 2016). En effet, celles-ci doivent
composer avec des problématiques telles qu’un manque de ressources possédant l’expertise
nécessaire pour l’intégration de ces technologies, une résistance à la mise en place des technologies
4.0 par les employés, ainsi qu’un manque de vision et stratégie numérique claire (Khan &
Turowski, 2016; Moeuf et al., 2019; Stentoft et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2020). Les PME
manufacturières sont également reconnues pour posséder une vision stratégique à court terme.
Ainsi, elles préfèrent établir des objectifs atteignables et moins risqués pour leur transformation
4.0 et utiliser leur flexibilité et leur capacité d'adaptation pour les atteindre en ajustant leur
3
portefeuille de projets de transformation au fur et à mesure de leur progression (Chen et al., 2018;
Wank et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2017).
Cette thèse a pour objectif de faciliter et d’améliorer la transformation numérique vers l’Industrie
4.0 en proposant des recommandations de gestion de la transformation 4.0 adapté au contexte des
PME manufacturières. Elle vise à proposer des réponses concrètes aux défis liés à la planification,
au lancement et à la gestion de la transformation numérique des PME manufacturières.
Cette thèse est structurée de la façon suivante. Tout d’abord, le prochain chapitre présente une
revue et une critique de littérature en lien avec la gestion de la transformation 4.0 des PME
manufacturières et la gestion de projets et de portefeuille de projets numériques. Les objectifs de
recherche ainsi que la méthodologie proposée sont par la suite présentés au Chapitre CHAPITRE
3.
Les Chapitres 4 à 6 présentent les résultats de cette recherche sous la forme de trois articles
scientifiques parus ou soumis dans des journaux scientifiques. Le Chapitre 4 présente l’article
Organizational Changes Approaches to Facilitate the Management of Industry 4.0 Transformation
in Manufacturing SMEs qui a été soumis le 9 octobre 2022. Le Chapitre 5 présente l’article
Collaborative approach to digital transformation (CADT) model for manufacturing SMEs qui a
été publié par le Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management le 16 juillet 2021
(https://doi.org/10.1108/Jmtm-11-2020-0440). Finalement, le Chapitre 6 présente l’article
Operationalization of Critical Success Factors to Manage the Industry 4.0 Transformation of
Manufacturing SMEs qui a été publié dans le journal Sustainability le 21 juillet 2022
(https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148954).
Le Chapitre CHAPITRE 7 discute des éléments communs entre les articles et des recommandations
de gestion de la transformation 4.0 en PME manufacturières, ainsi que des contributions
scientifiques de cette recherche. Finalement, le Chapitre CHAPITRE 8 conclut cette thèse en
soulignant les défis et limitations de cette recherche et en y proposant de nouvelles avenues de
recherches.
4
Ce chapitre porte sur la revue de littérature effectuée afin d’identifier des pistes de solutions
potentielles permettant de résoudre la problématique de recherche de cette thèse. Puisque nous
cherchons à faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique des PME manufacturières, la revue
de littérature sera divisée en trois sections. Tout d’abord, une revue des bonnes pratiques en
transformation numérique en PME est présentée. Cette revue est basée sur des études de cas de
transformation numérique en PME manufacturière décrivant les défis rencontrés par celles-ci et
les solutions utilisées. Une revue des facteurs de succès critiques en transformation numérique est
également abordée dans cette section. Ensuite, une revue des échelles de maturité 4.0, de leur rôle
et de leurs utilités dans un contexte de gestion de la transformation numérique en PME
manufacturière est présentée. Les échelles de maturité 4.0 et leurs dimensions servent à identifier
les éléments de la PME manufacturière à considérer à l’intérieur de leur transformation numérique
ainsi que les éléments à implanter dans le but de préparer la PME à lancer sa transformation
numérique. Puisqu’il a déjà été établi que les PME manufacturières se concentrent sur des
stratégies court terme et adoptent une succession de petits projets technologiques, une revue des
méthodes de gestion de portefeuille de projets numériques est présentée. Finalement, nous
concluons le chapitre avec une analyse critique de la littérature.
Cette section traite du statut de la littérature et des courants de recherches autour des meilleures
pratiques de gestion de la transformation 4.0 utilisées par les PME. Celle-ci est divisée en deux
sections : les études de cas effectués en PME et les facteurs de succès critiques pour la
transformation 4.0 des PME manufacturières.
qui ont affecté les opérations sur le plancher d’usine (Moica et al., 2018), qui ont introduit des
systèmes de réalité augmentée dans un chantier naval (Fraga-Lamas et al., 2018), que des projets
qui ont changé les interactions d’une chaîne de valeur entière (Heberle et al., 2017).
La majorité des études de cas en PME ont porté sur l’introduction de système cyberphysique dans
un but d’acquisition de données et de système de données massives et d’analyse de données
(Moeuf et al., 2018; World Economic Forum, 2019). Un résumé des études de cas analysées dans
le cadre de cette revue de littérature se retrouve dans le Tableau 2.1 ci-dessous.
Tableau 2.1 - Résumé de littérature sur les études de cas portant sur l'Industrie 4.0 en PME
Auteurs Type d’étude Résumé
World Economic Forum Étude de cas Cas d’entreprises ayant mis sur pied plusieurs projets de transformation 4.0
(2019) majeurs.
Chen et al. (2018) Étude de cas Suivi de la transformation d’une architecture et d’une infrastructure TI pour la
mise en place de technologie servant à récolter et interpréter des données
massives.
Müller, J. M., Buliga, et al. Étude de cas Identification de projets de création de valeurs auprès de PME par l’entremise
(2018) de technologie 4.0.
Heberle et al. (2017) Étude de cas Un ensemble de projets 4.0 axés sur l’exploitation de données servant à
développer plus de valeur à plusieurs points d’une même chaîne de valeur de
l’industrie forestière en suède.
Moeuf et al. (2018) Revue de Revue de littérature sur plusieurs études de cas d’Industrie 4.0 en PME. La
littérature majorité de ces études de cas ont porté sur l’introduction de technologie
permettant l’acquisition et l’analyse de données massives.
Tantik et Anderl (2017) Étude de cas Mise en place de technologie de structure et d’analyse de donnée pour
améliorer l’utilisation de ressource administrative chez Shell.
Fraga-Lamas et al. (2018) Étude de cas Prototype de technologie et d’application en réalité augmenté pour un chantier
naval.
Leitão et al. (2016) Étude de cas Développement et mise en place de système cyberphysique pour la récolte de
donnée sur un plancher de production et impact sur l’architecture de système.
Pisching et al. (2018) Étude de cas Prototype d’architecture cyberphysique pour détecter des équipements durant
la mise en production et en opération d’un nouveau produit manufacturier.
Zangiacomi et al. (2020) Étude de cas Étude multi-cas portant sur les difficultés rencontrées par les PME
manufacturières en Italie et les actions entreprises par elles.
Cimini et al. (2020) Étude de cas Étude multi-cas portant sur comment les technologies 4.0 affectent les
changements organisationnels des PME manufacturières.
6
Une étude de cas a mis de l’avant comment différentes PME manufacturières ont adressé les défis
qu’elles ont rencontrés par des actions concrètes de gestion. Zangiacomi et al. (2020) ont en effet
rattaché plusieurs actions à la résolution de problèmes de gestion rencontrés par des PME
manufacturières, par exemple la nécessité de construire une feuille de route technologique 4.0 afin
de clarifier la stratégie numérique de l’entreprise, ou encore d’adopter des pratiques de Lean avant
d’entamer certains projets de transformation numérique. Au total, 15 défis ont été identifiés et 4 à
5 actions par défi ont été proposées par ces PME manufacturières.
Les facteurs de succès critiques sont des éléments permettant d’assurer le succès de la
transformation 4.0 en PME. Récemment, plusieurs études ont identifié les facteurs de succès
critiques nécessaires pour la gestion de la transformation numérique en PME manufacturière. Ces
facteurs de succès critiques ont été identifiés au travers d’une revue de littérature structurée (Pozzi
et al., 2021; Shinohara et al., 2017; Sony & Naik, 2019; Vrchota et al., 2021), d’étude Delphi
(Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019), et d’études de cas (Cimini et al., 2020). Les Tableau
2.2 et 2.3 présente ces facteurs de succès.
Alignement de la stratégie La PME manufacturière doit s’assurer que sa (Shinohara et al., 2017; Sony & Naik,
d’Industrie 4.0 et de la stratégie stratégie numérique supporte les objectifs à court, 2019)
d’affaires moyen et long terme de sa stratégie d’affaires.
Leadership La PME manufacturière doit assurer la présence (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al.,
d’un leadership fort à chaque étape de sa 2019; Pozzi et al., 2021)
transformation numérique.
Alignement et engagement des La PME manufacturière doit assurer l’alignement (Moeuf et al., 2019)
lignes hiérarchiques et l’engagement de tous les niveaux hiérarchiques
de l’entreprise.
Effectuer une étude avant les La PME manufacturière doit effectuer une étude (Moeuf et al., 2019; Shinohara et al.,
projets d’Industrie 4.0 de sa situation actuelle avant de débuter sa 2017; Sony & Naik, 2019)
transformation numérique.
Communication La PME manufacturière doit créer et mettre en (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al.,
place un plan de communication. 2019).
Composition et gestion des La PME manufacturière doit mettre en place une (Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, R. et al.,
équipes équipe de projets 4.0 et assurer sa gestion et 2012; Müller, R. & Turner, 2007)
coordination.
7
Formation des employés et La PME manufacturière doit documenter sa (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al.,
gestion des connaissances transformation numérique et former ses employés 2019; Shinohara et al., 2017; Sony &
sur les nouvelles technologies. Naik, 2019)
Culture organisationnelle et La PME manufacturière doit mettre en place une (de Sousa Jabbour et al., 2018;
gestion du changement culture organisationnelle propice à sa Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al.,
transformation numérique et gérer le changement. 2019; Sony & Naik, 2019)
Gestion de projet La PME manufacturière doit utiliser les processus (Moeuf et al., 2019; Sony & Naik,
et outils d’une saine gestion de projets. 2019)
Amélioration continue La PME manufacturière doit assurer l’alignement (Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, J. M. et
de sa transformation numérique avec sa stratégie al., 2020; Shinohara et al., 2017;
d’amélioration continue. Zangiacomi et al., 2020)
Afin de lancer une transformation, il est recommandé par plusieurs chercheurs et gouvernements
de débuter le processus de transformation par une évaluation du niveau actuel de l’entreprise en
termes de maturité et de préparation 4.0 (Khan & Turowski, 2016; Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018;
Zangiacomi et al., 2018). Cette évaluation de la maturité permet non seulement de comparer les
systèmes et les processus d’une entreprise avec les principes d’Industrie 4.0, mais aussi de
déterminer les points à améliorer, leur permettant ainsi de focaliser leurs efforts de transformation
sur certains points.
On définit une échelle de maturité comme un ensemble de plateaux évolutifs bien définis qui
établissent un niveau de capacité d'amélioration des aptitudes d’une main-d’œuvre ou d’une
entreprise. Chaque niveau de maturité spécifie certaines caractéristiques pour les processus, les
niveaux de maturité plus élevés ayant des caractéristiques plus avancées et représentant une étape
vers la réalisation d'un processus mature, fournissant un ensemble d'objectifs qui, lorsqu'ils sont
satisfaits, placent une organisation au niveau de maturité suivante (IGI Global). Le terme
« préparation » (readiness) est également associé aux échelles de maturité et est dans certains cas
utilisé de façon interchangeable pour parler de la maturité.
Plusieurs échelles de maturité en lien avec l’Industrie 4.0 ont été développées au cours des
dernières années, la majorité d’entre elles basée sur d’anciennes échelles de maturité en innovation
et en système TI (De Carolis, Macchi, Kulvatunyou, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016; Mittal, Khan,
8
et al., 2018; Schumacher et al., 2016; Unterhofer et al., 2018). Ces échelles mesurent en général
des éléments comme le niveau de maturité technologique en lien avec l’Industrie 4.0, mais
également la maturité en lien avec la stratégie, la culture de l’entreprise, les processus, etc. (De
Carolis, Macchi, Kulvatunyou, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016; Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018;
Schumacher et al., 2016; Unterhofer et al., 2018). Les Tableaux 2.4 et 2.5 ci-dessous résume
différentes études en lien avec des échelles de maturité reliées à l’Industrie 4.0.
Akdil et al. (2018) Développement de Modèle de maturité 4.0 centré sous des dimensions rattachées aux
modèle processus d’affaires de l’entreprise.
Anggrahini et al. (2018) Développement de Échelle de préparation 4.0 adressée aux PME en transformation du thon en
modèle Indonésie.
Basl (2017) Quantitative Résultat d’un questionnaire adressé aux PME en République tchèque sur
leur niveau de préparation à l’implantation des principes de l’Industrie 4.0.
Basl (2018) Revue de littérature Analyse de modèle de maturité d’Industrie 4.0 dans le but d’ajouter une
dimension en lien avec les systèmes de gestion d’entreprise ERP.
Bibby et Dehe (2018) Quantitative Étude servant à déterminer le niveau de maturité en Industrie 4.0 du
domaine de la défense en fonction de différent groupe technologique.
Brozzi et al. (2018) Revue de littérature Étude et analyse servant à présenter les approches utilisées afin de
développer un outil d’auto-évaluation de maturité 4.0.
Canetta et al. (2018) Développement de Proposition d’un modèle d’évaluation de maturité 4.0 divisé en 5
modèle dimensions : Stratégie, Processus, technologies, Produits & Services, et
Personnes.
De Carolis, Macchi, Revue de littérature Étude servant au développement d’une échelle de maturité autour de la
Kulvatunyou, et al. (2017) numérisation des processus des entreprises basés sur plusieurs échelles de
maturité en technologie.
De Carolis, Macchi, Développement de Proposition d’un modèle de maturité 4.0 du nom de DREAMY divisé en
Negri, et al. (2017) modèle dimension de gestion du domaine manufacturier (ingénierie, production,
logistique, etc.).
Gamache et al. (2019) Développement de Proposition d’un modèle d’évaluation de la performance numérique des
modèle PME manufacturières du Québec.
Gökalp et al. (2017) Développement de Proposition d’un modèle de maturité en 6 dimensions d’aptitude de
modèle l’application du 4.0 au sein de l’entreprise allant du niveau 0 :
« Incomplete » jusqu’au niveau 5 : « Optimizing ».
Jung et al. (2016) Développement de Proposition d’un modèle de « Smart Readiness System Readiness
modèle Assessment” permettant d’évaluer le niveau de maturité technologique des
entreprises intelligentes.
9
Tableau 2.5 - Résumé de littérature sur les échelles de maturités 4.0 (suite et fin)
Auteur Type d’étude Résumé
Leyh et al. (2017) Test de modèle Test du modèle de maturité SIMMI 4.0 auprès de 6 entreprises
manufacturières afin d’évaluer la compréhension du modèle et
comparaison avec une auto-évaluation des entreprises.
Leyh et al. (2016) Développement Proposition du modèle de maturité SIMMI 4.0 divisé en 4
de modèle dimensions en lien avec les intégrations verticales et horizontales des
systèmes, le développement de produit numérique et le niveau
technologique.
Mittal, Khan, et al. (2018) Revue de Développement d’une échelle de maturité 4.0 basé sur les échelles
littérature de maturité des systèmes d’information manufacturiers axés sur le
niveau d’implantation de technologies spécifiques.
Mittal, Romero, et al. Développement Proposition du modèle SM3E et exemple d’utilisation du modèle
(2018) de modèle pour l’évaluation de la maturité d’une entreprise en lien avec les
technologies infonuagiques.
Modrak et al. (2019) Développement Proposition d’un modèle d’auto-évaluation de maturité et de feuille
de modèle de route 4.0 divisé en 3 dimensions testé auprès de 5 entreprises à
l’aide d’un questionnaire.
Rübel et al. (2018) Développement Proposition d’un modèle de maturité permettant d’évaluer la gestion
de modèle de modèle d’affaire dans l’Industrie 4.0.
Schumacher et al. (2016) Développement Modèle de maturité basé sur d’autres modèles prenant en compte des
de modèle éléments comme la culture, la gouvernance, la stratégie et les formes
de leadership dans l’entreprise.
Schumacher et al. (2019) Développement Mise à jour du modèle ci-dessus basé sur 45 nouveaux articles
de modèle portant sur l’Industrie 4.0, dont 20 portants sur l’évaluation de la
maturité 4.0.
Scremin et al. (2018) Développement Proposition d’un modèle de maturité 4.0 testé auprès d’entreprises
de modèle canadiennes et italiennes.
Sheen et Yang (2018) Quantitative Étude visant à évaluer le niveau de maturité 4.0 des entreprises sud-
coréennes.
Shinohara et al. (2017) Développement Développement d’une liste de facteur de succès critique divisé en 5
de modèle catégories facilitant l’implantation de technologies numériques dans
le contexte de l’Industrie 4.0.
Unterhofer et al. (2018) Revue de Étude sur les forces et faiblesses de quelques échelles de maturité en
littérature lien avec le 4.0 incluant l’échelle de Schumacher (2016).
Viharos et al. (2017) Quantitative Utilisation d’un modèle de maturité permettant d’évaluer le niveau
de maturité et de préparation en Industrie 4.0 de différents pays
d’Europe.
10
Les échelles de maturités 4.0 peuvent prendre plusieurs formes et dimensions en fonction des
éléments que celles-ci cherchent à mesurer. En effet, certaines études se concentrent sur les aspects
techniques (Basl, 2018; Canetta et al., 2018; Mittal, Romero, et al., 2018; Schumacher et al., 2016)
alors que d’autres vont incorporer des éléments de processus et de stratégie (De Carolis, Macchi,
Negri, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016).
Une grande majorité des échelles de maturité dans la littérature vont porter sur des dimensions en
lien direct avec l’utilisation et la gestion de technologies rattachées à l’Industrie 4.0. D’un côté,
nous allons retrouver des échelles faisant état du niveau d’utilisation de chacune des technologies
rattachées à l’Industrie 4.0 (Basl, 2018; Mittal, Romero, et al., 2018). D’un autre côté, l’aspect
technologique sera abordé en un tout et portera principalement sur la gestion de cette technologie
(De Carolis, Macchi, Negri, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016). D’autres dimensions vont également
porter sur la présence et l’alignement d’une stratégie officielle de transformation 4.0 ainsi que sur
différents aspects comme la culture et la gestion des processus de l’entreprise (De Carolis, Macchi,
Negri, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016; Rübel et al., 2018). Il est également à noter que plusieurs des
dimensions proposées au sein des différentes échelles possèdent des sous-dimensions.
Les niveaux de ces dimensions et leur définition varient grandement d’une échelle de maturité à
l’autre. Cependant, il possible de constater que le dernier niveau de ces échelles représente la
définition de cette dimension dans un contexte d’Industrie 4.0 tel que défini par le créateur de
l’échelle. Certaines échelles vont utiliser un pointage quantitatif de 1 à 5 pour chacune des sous-
dimensions et vont effectuer une moyenne des scores de chacune des sous-dimensions afin
d’obtenir le score de cette dimension. Les résultats quantitatifs sont par la suite représentés par le
biais de graphiques de type radar (De Carolis, Macchi, Negri, et al., 2017). Certaines échelles vont,
quant à elles, utiliser des niveaux qualitatifs afin de représenter la maturité de l’entreprise et ne
tenteront pas de quantifier la maturité de l’entreprise (Leyh et al., 2016).
11
L’utilisation des échelles de maturité est très souvent référée comme étant l’une des premières
étapes de la transformation 4.0. Il est important de bien comprendre le rôle que les échelles de
maturité peuvent jouer lors des étapes de lancement de la transformation 4.0 en PME.
Tout d’abord, comme leur nom l’indique, les échelles de maturité servent avant tout à mesurer la
maturité d’une entreprise par rapport à un domaine donné, selon diverses dimensions dont on
mesure le niveau d’efficacité, le niveau d’efficacité le plus élevé témoignant d’un niveau de
maturité plus élevé de l’entreprise dans cette dimension. Tel que mentionné plus tôt, plusieurs
échelles de maturité de l’Industrie 4.0 existent dans la littérature académique et le rôle principal
de chacune de ces échelles est de mesurer le niveau de maturité de l’entreprise désirant évoluer
vers l’Industrie 4.0. Grâce aux résultats de ces échelles, l’entreprise estime son niveau par rapport
à une définition précise de l’Industrie 4.0 et se compare avec ses pairs lorsque des moyennes de
maturité de certains secteurs sont disponibles. Ces échelles servent à estimer leurs forces et leurs
faiblesses en lien avec chacune des dimensions et ainsi à définir des objectifs de transformation
4.0 clairs, en vue d’atteindre un niveau de maturité supérieur dans chacune de ces dimensions.
Certaines échelles ont également été conçues afin d’identifier différentes opportunités de
transformation 4.0 au sein des entreprises (Basl, 2018; Canetta et al., 2018; Gamache, 2019;
Gökalp et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016; Modrak et al., 2019) et ainsi de définir des projets qui
pourront constituer un portefeuille de projets de transformation 4.0. Ces échelles de maturité sont
généralement centrées sur des dimensions de type technologies et processus et possèdent des
niveaux axés sur le niveau d’intégration de ces technologies au sein de l’entreprise ainsi que sur le
niveau de complexité de ces technologies (Basl, 2018; Canetta et al., 2018; De Carolis, Macchi,
Negri, et al., 2017; Leyh et al., 2016).
Ces échelles jouent donc un rôle important durant les étapes de lancement de projet puisqu’elles
guident l’établissement des objectifs des initiatives de transformation 4.0 visés par l’entreprise, et
contribuent ainsi à définir la direction de la transformation 4.0 de l’entreprise.
12
Récemment, il a été démontré qu’il était possible d’utiliser une échelle de maturité afin d’aider à
la sélection de technologies et d’initiatives 4.0 au sein d’une PME (Gamache, 2019). En effet, dans
le cadre de sa thèse doctorale, Gamache a été en mesure de rattacher des regroupements
technologiques facilitant le passage à l’Industrie 4.0 aux différents niveaux et dimensions de son
échelle de maturité, afin d’identifier les regroupements technologiques prioritaires qu’une
entreprise devra implanter en fonction de son niveau de maturité actuel.
L’utilisation de l’échelle de maturité a donc permis d’identifier les objectifs des initiatives 4.0 de
l’entreprise en plus de sélectionner les technologies nécessaires pour accomplir ces initiatives,
menant ainsi à l’obtention d’un premier ensemble de projets de transformation 4.0 pour
l’entreprise.
Le très grand nombre d’opportunités que peuvent poursuivre les PME par l’entremise de leur
transformation numérique est aussi un enjeu important. Ces opportunités étant exécutées sous
forme de projets, les pratiques de gestion de portefeuille de projets pourraient contribuer à résoudre
cette problématique. Un portefeuille de projets est ici défini comme un ensemble de programmes,
projets ou opérations gérés en tant que groupe pour atteindre des objectifs stratégiques. Les
composantes du portefeuille peuvent ne pas être nécessairement interdépendantes ou avoir des
objectifs connexes. Les composantes du portefeuille sont quantifiables, c'est-à-dire qu'elles
peuvent être mesurées, classées et hiérarchisées. (Project Management Institute, 2013).
À l’intérieur de cette section, nous nous attarderons aux outils et processus pouvant contribuer à
résoudre notre problématique de recherche, soit aux éléments de structure et gouvernance des
portefeuilles de projets, des outils et modèles de sélection de projets et des interdépendances de
projets.
Amberg et Lang (2009) Théorie enracinée Recherche servant à mettre de l’avant les façons de concevoir un
portefeuille de projet TI afin de supporter l’innovation au sein d’une
entreprise.
Cubeles-Marquez (2008) Proposition de Article portant sur la proposition d’un modèle de gestion de portefeuille
modèle de projet TI axé et sur l’importance de l’alignement du portefeuille de
projet avec une stratégie TI.
Reyck et al. (2005) Proposition de Proposition d’un modèle de gestion de portefeuille de projet TI incluant
modèle une analyse de l’impact de l’implantation ainsi qu’une approche
d’implantation par phase.
14
Tableau 2.7 - Résumé de littérature sur la gestion de portefeuille de projets TI (suite et fin)
Auteur Type d’étude Résumé
Frey et Buxmann (2011) Recherche Recherche auprès d’une douzaine d’entreprises permettant de mieux
qualitative comprendre la gouvernance entourant la gestion des portefeuilles de
projet TI au sein des organisations, avec une emphase sur la sélection de
projets, gestion des demandes et gestion des ressources.
Frey et Buxmann (2012) Revue de littérature Revue de littérature structurée catégorisant les dernières recherches au
niveau de la gouvernance des portefeuilles de projets TI, leur structure,
les facteurs de succès, et les modèles et système de support de décision.
Gleisberg et al. (2008) Étude multi-cas Recherche qualitative permettant de mieux comprendre les processus de
prises de décisions et la gouvernance des portefeuilles de projet TI.
Hansen et Kræmmergard Revue de littérature Revue de littérature structurée permettant de diviser la littérature sur les
(2014) portefeuilles de projet TI en 4 catégories de discours, soit les discours
critique, dialogique, interprétatif et normatif.
Prifling (2010) Étude de cas Étude de cas permettant d’évaluer l’influence de la culture
organisationnelle (divisé en 3 catégories : sauvegarde, consensus et
durabilité) sur la gestion des portefeuilles de projets TI.
Richard et al. (2021) Proposition de Proposition d’un modèle de gestion de portefeuille de projets 4.0 adressé
modèle aux entreprises manufacturières, basé les modèles les plus pertinents
ainsi que sur la définition des méthodologies de transformation
d’entreprise.
Comme le démontre le Tableau 2.6, les recherches en lien avec la gestion de portefeuille de projets
TI sont très diversifiées et portent sur des sujets comme l’impact du portefeuille de projets sur
l’innovation de l’entreprise, les phases d’implantation des processus de portefeuille de projets, la
structure et la gouvernance des portefeuilles de projets. D’autres recherches portent également sur
les méthodes de sélections de projets et les interdépendances de projets, cependant ces articles
seront traités dans les sections 0 et 2.3.3 de ce chapitre. Un papier en particulier a proposé un
modèle de gestion de portefeuille de projets de transformation 4.0 adressé expressément aux
entreprises manufacturières, détaillant les phases et livrables du modèle et leurs interactions
(Richard et al., 2021).
Les portefeuilles de projets TI ont en général une structure et des pratiques similaires à la gestion
de portefeuille du PMI, mais mettent de l’avant certaines particularités et caractéristiques des
projets TI , tels que le fait que ces projets affectent l’ensemble des départements des entreprises et
ont donc besoin d’un apport de l’ensemble des départements d’affaires (Amberg & Lang, 2009),
ainsi que de l’alignement des projets à une stratégie TI reliée à la stratégie d’affaires de l’entreprise
(Cubeles-Marquez, 2008).
15
Bien entendu, il n’est pas nécessaire d’implanter l’ensemble des pratiques en gestion de
portefeuille de projets pour obtenir des gains de performance. En effet, Reyck et al. (2005)
proposent une approche d’implantation en trois phases, soit une phase d’inventaire de portefeuille,
une phase d’administration de portefeuille et une phase d’optimisation du portefeuille.
L’implantation de ces phases, détaillées dans le Tableau 2.8, à différent niveau de maturité de
l’entreprise permet à celle-ci de gagner des gains petit à petit sur ses projets sans toutefois avoir à
implanter l’ensemble des pratiques en gestion de portefeuille de projets TI.
Tableau 2.8 - Phase d'implantation des processus de gestion de portefeuille de projets TI (Reyck
et al., 2005)
Phase Processus implanté
• Centralisation de l’administration des projets
Inventaire de portefeuille
• Procédure d’évaluation des risques
• Incorporation des contraintes de ressources
• Augmentation de la responsabilité des gestionnaires d’entreprise sur la réussite des
projets
• Catégorisation des projets
Administration de portefeuille
• Évaluation de l’impact du portefeuille de projet sur les clients des projets
• Comité de portefeuille de projet
Optimisation de portefeuille
• Évaluation de la valeur financière du portefeuille
• Gestion de l’interdépendance des projets
• Suivi des bénéfices des projets
La sélection de projets est l’un des processus critiques de tout portefeuille de projets puisque celle-
ci déterminera l’ensemble du portefeuille et ultimement la performance de celui-ci. Ces outils
permettent de choisir les projets à prioriser en utilisant différentes méthodes et critères et peuvent
donc contribuer au succès d’une transformation numérique en assurant que les bons projets soient
sélectionnés au lancement et en cours de transformation.
Il existe plusieurs outils et modèles de sélection de projets au sein d’un portefeuille. Ceux-ci
emploient très souvent des méthodes de pointages et de critères multiples afin de comparer les
projets les uns aux autres et ainsi effectuer une sélection de projets qui maximisera les retombées
du portefeuille (Danesh et al., 2018).
Plusieurs outils théoriques peuvent être retrouvés dans la littérature puisqu’aucun outil de sélection
de projets n’a été démontré comme étant « universel », chaque outil étant approprié pour certains
16
types de projets ou type de portefeuille et sous certaines conditions (Danesh et al., 2018). Le
Tableau 2.9 résume l’ensemble de la littérature sur les méthodes de sélection de projets qui a été
revu pour ce projet de recherche.
Alvarez-García et Fernández- Développement Modèle mathématique de sélection de projets prenant en compte des
Castro (2018) de modèle contraintes financières et non financières en plus de considérer les
dépendances entre les projets.
Archer et Ghasemzadeh (1999) Développement Cadre d’un processus de sélection de projets avec des critères de sélection
de modèle à très haut niveau.
Bhattacharyya et al. (2011) Développement Modèle mathématique de type « fuzzy » servant à la sélection de projets
de modèle de R&D interdépendants et testés avec un portefeuille de projet de R&D
d’une entreprise de génie civil et mécanique indienne.
Danesh et al. (2018) Revue de Revue de littérature sur les différentes méthodes de sélection de projets
littérature et sur les critères pour sélectionner l’outil adapté à son contexte.
Gamache (2019) Thèse doctorale Thèse doctorale portant sur le niveau des PME québécoises en 4.0 et
présentant un modèle de sélection de technologie basé sur le niveau de
maturité présent et souhaité.
Henriksen et Traynor (1999) Développement Proposition d’un modèle d’analyse multicritère servant à évaluer et
de modèle sélectionner les projets de R&D d’une entreprise.
Isikli et al. (2018) Développement Modèle mathématique servant à la sélection de projets numériques basé
de modèle sur les coûts, résultats, ressources et dépendances des projets.
Karasakal et Aker (2017) Développement Modèle mathématique et critères permettant la priorisation et sélection de
de modèle projets de R&D. Les critères développés portent sur les caractéristiques
technologiques du projet, la planification de celui-ci et l’impact
économique du projet.
Kundisch et Meier (2011) Revue de Revue de littérature portant sur les interactions des projets TI et leur
littérature impact sur leur sélection.
Lawson et al. (2006) Développement Modèle de sélection de projets de R&D passant par un nouveau processus
de modèle ainsi qu’une approche multicritère avec des critères prédéfinis axés sur
des éléments techniques des projets, mais également sur des éléments
financiers comme les flux de trésorerie.
Meade et Presley (2002) Développement Modèle de sélection de projets de R&D utilisant un processus de réseau
de modèle analytique plutôt qu’une approche multicritère qui a été testé avec une
entreprise américaine de haute technologie.
Shakhsi-Niaei et al. (2011) Développement Modèle et processus de sélection de projets utilisant des critères
de modèle d’incertitude et en utilisant des simulations de Monte-Carlo.
17
Comme il est possible de le constater en regardant le Tableau 2.9, les courants de recherche actuels
portent pour la plupart sur la création d’outils de sélection spécialisés, basés sur les principes de
modèles plus généralistes. La majorité de ces outils reste encore théorique, la plupart n’ayant été
testée qu'avec un exemple d’un portefeuille de projets ou deux d’une entreprise. Leur efficacité
dans un contexte d’entreprise n’a donc pas été démontrée pour la plupart d’entre eux.
La majorité des outils de sélection de projets est présentée sous la forme de « Multi-Criteria
Decision Model » ou MCDM (Danesh et al., 2018). Les MCDM fonctionnent sous le principe d’un
système de pointage accordé à plusieurs éléments d’un projet, en vue d’effectuer une sélection des
projets basés sur le total du pointage et ainsi de maximiser les bénéfices du portefeuille de projets.
Ces méthodes MCDM servent à évaluer aussi bien de façon quantitative que qualitative les
différents projets d’un portefeuille par l’entremise de pointage et de poids. Il est à noter que le
pointage de critère qualitatif reste subjectif au gestionnaire et à l’entreprise qui l’évalue (Danesh
et al., 2018).
Il est également à noter que plusieurs défis peuvent être reliés à la sélection de projets (Danesh et
al., 2018; Kundisch & Meier, 2011), notamment :
- Le nombre de projets;
Plusieurs auteurs ont suggéré que les méthodes et outils permettant de sélectionner la bonne
méthodologie de MCDM doivent être simples, faciles à comprendre, opérationnels, complets, non
redondants et essentiels (Al-Kloub et al., 1997; Bouyssou, 1990; Danesh et al., 2018;
Georgopoulou et al., 1997).
18
Récemment, certaines méthodes ont été développées pour traiter justement de la sélection de
projets 4.0 en PME. Un des modèles suggérés est un modèle mathématique prenant en compte
l’effort, le budget, la durée ainsi que les interdépendances séquentielles entre les projets (Isikli et
al., 2018). Le modèle permet d’obtenir une sélection de projets dans un cas où un ensemble de
ressources internes est disponible pour la durée d’une année (Isikli et al., 2018). D’autres écrits
récents ont porté sur l’utilisation d’une échelle de maturité pour identifier et sélectionner les
technologies qui feront partie du portefeuille de projets de transformation 4.0 de la PME
(Gamache, 2019) alors que d’autres ont porté sur un modèle de sélection de projets 4.0 applicable
en PME (Richard et al., 2021).
Un des éléments des projets 4.0 venant contribuer à la problématique de cette recherche se retrouve
au niveau de l’interdépendance des projets 4.0 qui complexifie grandement le processus de
sélection de projets et de démarrage de la transformation 4.0 de la PME. En effet, des
interdépendances de projet peuvent exister lorsqu'un projet est partiellement ou totalement
influencé par un autre projet en vue de son développement ou, littéralement, lorsque le succès d'un
projet dépend d'un autre projet (Killen & Kjaer, 2012). Cela est notamment vrai pour les projets
de transformation 4.0 en PME qui nécessitent un partage des ressources stratégiques ainsi que la
mise en place de technologies et processus pouvant s’influencer mutuellement.
Depuis quelques années, plusieurs chercheurs se sont attardés à l’impact des interdépendances des
projets sur plusieurs autres concepts, outils et processus comme la gestion et la sélection des projets
au sein d’un portefeuille de projets. Le Tableau 2.10 résume la littérature sur le sujet.
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Alvarez-García et Fernández- Développement Modèle de sélection de projets prenant en compte les dépendances entre
Castro (2018) de modèle les projets comme critère de sélection.
Bathallath et al. (2017) Étude de cas Recherche qualitative sur la gestion des interdépendances au niveau des
projets TI. La recherche a fait ressortir plusieurs défis de la gestion des
interdépendances, notamment au niveau de la planification et de
l’implémentation des projets.
Bathallath et al. (2016) Revue de Revue de littérature structurée qui a permis de recenser les différentes
littérature catégories et interaction d’interdépendances de projet.
Bhattacharyya et al. (2011) Développement Modèle de sélection de projets de R&D intégrant les interdépendances de
de modèle projet à l’intérieur d’un algorithme flou (fuzzy).
Isikli et al. (2018) Développement Modèle de sélection de projets 4.0 intégrant des critères
de modèle d’interdépendances avec des interactions séquentielles (dépendance entre
projets).
Killen et Kjaer (2012) Développement Développement d’une approche de visualisation des interdépendances
de modèle basées sur un affichage réseau des projets qui a été bien reçu par les
gestionnaires de PME.
Il existe plusieurs sortent d’interdépendances que l’on peut retrouver dans des portefeuilles de
projets reliés aux projets TI/IS (Bathallath et al., 2016), comme le souligne le Tableau 2.11.
Interdépendances de ressources Surviens lorsqu’il y a un besoin de partage de ressources entre les projets d’un même
portefeuille.
Interdépendance technologique Surviens lorsqu’il y a un besoin d’utiliser des technologies communes entre projets.
Interdépendance technique Surviens lorsque le succès technique d’une activité de projet affecte les probabilités de
succès d’une activité d’un autre projet.
Interdépendance de marché Surviens dans le cas d’introduction de nouveaux produits dans le marché d’un produit
existant.
Interdépendance d’apprentissage Surviens lorsque les connaissances acquises d’un projet sont utilisées pour la réussite d’un
autre projet.
la performance du portefeuille de projets dans son ensemble et donc d'autres projets contributifs
(Bathallath et al., 2016).
Une interdépendance séquentielle est une relation en série entre deux interdépendances de gestion
de portefeuilles de projets ou lorsqu'un projet nécessite la production d’un autre projet en tant que
contribution à son avancement (Bathallath et al., 2016). Une interdépendance réciproque est une
relation mutuelle entre deux projets ou plus. Cela signifie que le portefeuille de projets devient
plus complexe en raison non seulement d'un degré accru de contingence, mais également du
recours accru à la coordination grâce à un ajustement mutuel (Bathallath et al., 2016).Qui plus est,
les interdépendances de projets peuvent avoir trois types d’interactions possibles tels que présentés
dans le Tableau 2.12 (Bathallath et al., 2016; Kundisch & Meier, 2011).
Interaction Ressources-Ressources Surviens lorsqu’il y a un besoin de partage de ressources entre 2 projets ou plus.
Interactions Résultats-Résultats Surviens lorsque les résultats d’un projet affectent les résultats d’un autre projet.
Interactions Résultats-Ressources Surviens lorsque les résultats d’un projet affectent la disponibilité des ressources d’un
autre projet.
La gestion des interdépendances de projets est très complexe et influence aussi bien les méthodes
de sélection et de priorisation de projets (Alvarez-García & Fernández-Castro, 2018) que l’analyse
des risques des projets (Bhattacharyya et al., 2011; Killen & Kjaer, 2012; Singla, 2010). Une
mauvaise gestion des interdépendances des projets au sein d’un portefeuille peut résulter
en plusieurs problématiques (Bathallath et al., 2016):
- Gaspillage de ressources;
Jusqu’à présent, la majorité des recherches retrouvées sur le sujet ont porté sur la gestion des
interdépendances des projets, les risques associés et leur impact sur des outils de sélections de
projets. Cependant certains auteurs se sont attardés à la visualisation des interdépendances de
projets comme outil pouvant faciliter leur gestion (Bathallath et al., 2016, 2017; Killen & Kjaer,
2012; Singla, 2010).
Plusieurs outils de visualisation des interdépendances de projets sont disponibles dans la littérature,
les plus récents tentant de représenter les interdépendances sous forme de réseaux (Killen & Kjaer,
2012).
Suite à cette revue de littérature, il est important de comparer chacune des notions étudiées avec
la problématique de recherche afin d’en faire ressortir les points forts et les lacunes permettant
ainsi de mettre de l’avant les objectifs de cette recherche doctorale.
Des études de cas et des entrevues auprès d’experts et de gestionnaires de PME (Moeuf et al.,
2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2020) ont fait le point sur les difficultés pour les gestionnaires d’entamer
leur transformation numérique et d’assurer la réussite de celle-ci. De ces études sont ressorties les
problèmes de gestion de l’ensemble des projets, du manque d’expertise aussi bien technique et
managériale et du manque de ressources compétentes pour naviguer cette transformation 4.0
(Moeuf et al., 2019; Mueller et al., 2017; Singla, 2010; Zangiacomi et al., 2020). Pour répondre à
ces problématiques, ceux-ci ont donc offert plusieurs suggestions sous la thématique de
« meilleures pratiques » (Zangiacomi et al., 2020). Malheureusement, ces suggestions restent
anecdotiques et ne permettent de répondre complètement à la question de recherche, notamment
sur les éléments et pratiques déjà en place au sein de ces entreprises qui leur ont permis de faciliter
la gestion de leur transformation 4.0, la façon dont ces entreprises se sont structurées pour réaliser
leurs projets ainsi que les approches que ces entreprises ont prises afin d’exécuter leurs projets de
transformation 4.0.
Des études ont été effectuées sur les facteurs de succès critiques nécessaires à la réussite des projets
de transformation 4.0. Même si plusieurs facteurs de succès critiques ont été identifiés par le biais
de revue de littérature et d’étude Delphi avec des experts, ceux-ci restent génériques et les
22
chercheurs ne démontrent pas comment ces facteurs doivent être implantés et supportés par la
PME manufacturière. D’autres études en lien avec les facteurs de succès critiques appliqués dans
le contexte de projet numérique majeur ont démontré des actions concrètes pour l’implantation et
le support de ces facteurs. Malheureusement, ces actions n’ont été identifiées que dans le contexte
d’un projet unique et ne prennent pas en compte le contexte de projets itératifs propres à la
transformation numérique des PME manufacturières.
Du côté des échelles de maturités, la section 2.2.2 a démontré que celles-ci sont en mesure de jouer
plusieurs rôles lors de la transformation 4.0 d’une entreprise. Bien qu’elles soient en mesure d’agir
en tant qu’outil de diagnostic permettant d’un côté d’identifier le niveau de l’entreprise face à une
définition de l’Industrie 4.0 et d’un autre d’identifier les pistes de solutions potentielles afin
d’augmenter cette maturité, celles-ci ne sont pas en mesure de résoudre entièrement la
problématique de recherche. En effet, tel qu’il est possible de constater dans la section 0, les
échelles de maturité permettent d’identifier le statut de l’entreprise face à l’Industrie 4.0 sous
diverses dimensions, allant des niveaux de maturité technologique aux processus de gestion et à la
stratégie de l’entreprise, mais ne permettent pas de définir les éléments et processus nécessaires
afin d’entamer une transformation numérique. On se retrouve donc encore au cœur de la
problématique où les entreprises comprennent leur statut actuel et sont présentées avec plusieurs
pistes de solutions pouvant leur permettre de se transformer numériquement, mais ont encore de
la difficulté à planifier, lancer et gérer leur transformation convenablement puisque ces outils ne
leur fournissent pas les informations nécessaires pour lancer le processus de transformation 4.0.
Nous avons finalement effectué une revue sur les pratiques de gestion de portefeuille de projets à
l’intérieur de la section 2.3. Étant donné le nombre très limité d’études alliant gestion de
portefeuille de projets et Industrie 4.0, la revue de littérature s’est étendue à la gestion de
portefeuille de projets TI puisque les projets de transformation 4.0 possèdent avant tout une
importante composante TI. Il est à noter que la majorité des modèles qui sont ressortis de cette
revue de littérature n’a pas été testée dans un contexte de transformation 4.0 et demeure donc
uniquement des pistes des modèles potentiels pouvant être transférés dans un contexte de
transformation 4.0.
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Lors de l’analyse de ces textes, il a été possible de constater qu’il existait plusieurs modèles,
processus et outils pouvant être appliqués à un ensemble de projets de transformation 4.0 et qu’il
était possible d’implanter certains outils par phase afin de faciliter leur intégration au sein des
entreprises (Reyck et al., 2005). Cependant, les recherches portant sur le sujet ne permettent pas
de déterminer les justifications derrière ces phases ni les critères permettant d’élaborer s’il est
nécessaire de passer d’une phase à l’autre.
Les outils de sélection de projets analysés dans la section 0 peuvent permettre d’identifier les
projets de transformation 4.0 les plus critiques à mettre en place en fonction de plusieurs critères,
dont les analyses de maturité 4.0 de l’entreprise. Ces outils de sélection sont très utiles pour former
et réviser les composants du portefeuille de projets de transformation 4.0 de la PME nécessaires
au lancement de cette transformation. Ces outils peuvent également intégrer les notions
d’interdépendances de projets qui contribuent à la problématique de recherche, tels que présentés
dans la section 2.3.3, et peuvent ainsi offrir un élément de solution à la problématique du lancement
de la transformation 4.0 en PME. Cependant, ces outils peuvent être très complexes et ne sont pas
nécessairement adaptés au contexte des PME. De plus, la majorité de ces outils doivent être utilisés
à l’intérieur d’un processus de gestion de portefeuille de projets bien établi au sein de l’entreprise,
ce qui est rarement le cas en PME.
Également, il a été démontré à maintes reprises que les PME manufacturières doivent faire preuve
de flexibilité et d’agilité dans leur transformation, cependant les recherches actuelles ne
démontrent pas comment les PME utilisent cette flexibilité et cette agilité afin de mettre en place
24
les changements nécessaires pour supporter leur transformation 4.0 ou encore quels sont les
changements devant être adoptés par la PME. Alors que les recherches actuelles ont permis de
déterminer plusieurs bonnes pratiques et facteurs de succès critiques permettant de faire face aux
barrières et défis rencontrés par les PME manufacturières lors de leur transformation 4.0, ces
études ne permettent pas de déterminer les actions à entreprendre pour mettre en place et supporter
ces bonnes pratiques et facteurs critiques de succès.
2.5 Conclusion
En conclusion, l’objectif de cette thèse de recherche est de proposer des façons permettant de
faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique des PME manufacturières vers l’industrie 4.0.
La revue de littérature a permis de déterminer des approches potentielles de résolutions de cette
problématique, sans pour autant être en mesure de donner des actions et étapes concrètes aux
manufacturiers désirant lancer et gérer leur transformation numérique. Le chapitre suivant
détaillera les objectifs spécifiques de recherche permettant d’atteindre l’objectif principal ainsi que
la méthodologie utilisée afin d’y arriver.
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Ce chapitre vise à mettre de l’avant les objectifs de recherche de cette étude et à décrire la
méthodologie adoptée pour y répondre. Nous commencerons par préciser les liens entre les
limitations discutées dans la revue de la littérature et les objectifs de recherche retenus. Par la suite,
l’approche générale de recherche sera décrite et mettra également en lumière les relations entre les
différents articles et les objectifs spécifiques. Nous introduirons ensuite deux méthodologies de
recherche exécutées en séquence : une approche de recherche-intervention suivit par une approche
d’étude Delphi-Régnier. Finalement, nous aborderons la mitigation des risques de fiabilité et de
validité.
Nous rappelons que la problématique de cette recherche repose sur les difficultés des PME à
démarrer et gérer leur transformation 4.0. Comme nous l’avions démontré, les études sur le sujet
apportent des réponses encore très vagues et génériques et ne permettent pas à la PME de bien
comprendre la démarche à suivre afin de lancer et de gérer sa transformation 4.0.
Afin de répondre à cet objectif, plusieurs sous-objectifs spécifiques devront être réalisés :
Afin de répondre aux sous-objectifs de recherche et à l’objectif principal, il est nécessaire d’avoir
une approche de recherche créative permettant de développer et de proposer des recommandations
ancrées dans la réalité et prenant en compte les caractéristiques des transformations 4.0 en PME.
Pour ce faire, une approche de recherche inductive supportée par une recherche terrain
longitudinale est la mieux adaptée (Saunders et al., 2009) puisque nous ne cherchons pas à tester
une hypothèse ou encore à prouver qu’un modèle est généralisable (Hlady-Rispal, 2015; Saunders
et al., 2009), mais bien à proposer des recommandations basées sur des données empiriques et une
analyse de type « sensemaking » (Saunders et al., 2009). Cette approche de structure de recherche
est beaucoup plus flexible et permet une meilleure compréhension du contexte de la recherche
(Saunders et al., 2009).
Afin d’obtenir les données empiriques nécessaires pour répondre à chacun des sous-objectifs de
recherche, nous utiliserons différentes stratégies de recherche qualitative non exclusive.
L’ensemble de ces stratégies de recherche nous permet d’obtenir une meilleure compréhension de
la réalité des PME en transformation numérique ainsi que d’obtenir les données nécessaires pour
définir des recommandations applicables au contexte de ces PME manufacturières.
Un total de trois approches de recherche seront utilisées de façon itérative et séquentielle. L’étude
commencera par une revue de littérature cherchant à établir les concepts de bases en lien avec la
gestion de la transformation numérique en PME et l’ensemble des sous-objectifs de recherche. Par
la suite, une étude longitudinale prenant la forme d’une recherche-intervention sera effectuée sur
une période de 27 mois auprès d’un partenaire industriel. Cette recherche-intervention servira à
étudier en profondeur comment ce partenaire gérera sa transformation numérique, les phases et
étapes qu’il suivra, les approches de réalisation qu’il utilisera, les changements organisationnels
27
qu’il implantera et les actions qu’il prendra en cours de transformation. Cette étape conduira
également à identifier et analyser les facteurs internes et externes à l’entreprise qui influenceront
l’évolution de son approche de gestion de transformation 4.0. Il est à mentionner que des revues
de littérature additionnelles seront réalisées durant la recherche-intervention afin d’analyser plus
en profondeur des éléments observés en entreprise.
Finalement, une étude Delphi-Régnier avec un panel d’expert en transformation 4.0 sera effectuée
afin d’obtenir et de valider des informations ne pouvant être observées directement dans la PME
manufacturière. La Figure 3.1 décrit les approches de recherche qui seront utilisées pour chacun
des articles ainsi que les objectifs spécifiques répondus par ces approches. Chacune des phases de
recherche mentionnée dans cette figure sera expliquée dans les sections suivantes.
Il est important de noter qu’en raison de la nature des données collectées et la participation
d’experts à un questionnaire, l’équipe de recherche a obtenu un certificat de conformité éthique
délivré par l’École Polytechnique (référence CER-1920-37) qui peut être consulté dans l’Annexe
B de ce document.
3.3 Recherche-Intervention
Le processus de recherche-intervention a été effectué sur une période d’une durée de 27 mois, soit
de janvier 2018 à avril 2020, durant laquelle furent récoltées les données empiriques nécessaires
pour répondre aux sous-objectifs nos 1 à 4 et rédiger les articles 1 et 2.
Les observations ont été notées dans un cahier au fur et à mesure de l’intervention et de la
participation du chercheur au sein des initiatives de l’entreprise.
30
Les documents ont été sauvegardés sur une plateforme de partage de type One Drive avec l’équipe
de projet. Les documents ont été classés par catégorie et par projet. L’équipe de recherche a
également pu garder un accès à l’ensemble des communications électroniques par courriel du
chercheur intervenant. Cette base de données de communication a permis de repositionner dans le
temps des prises de décisions, discussions et événements qui ont influencé la gestion de la
transformation 4.0 du partenaire industriel.
3.3.1.3 Sense-Making
Les notes et mémos des observations ont été informatisés afin de pouvoir facilement s’y référer
aux fins d’analyse. Les données acquises lors de cette approche ont été analysées au sein d’une
boucle en continu par le biais d’un processus de « sense-making » (Dervin, 1998). À l’intérieur de
ce processus, une analyse préliminaire est effectuée sur les données empiriques, amenant à des
questions supplémentaires pouvant être répondues par la littérature et par d’autres observations en
entreprise. Cette technique d’analyse permet de faire ressortir les liens entre les éléments observés,
leur cause et effet, et ainsi obtenir un niveau de profondeur élevé dans l’interprétation des
observations en entreprise.
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Le choix de l’organisation pour le partenariat de recherche a été principalement fait pour des
raisons pratiques. Un des membres de l’équipe de recherche avait accès à des contacts dans
l’organisation et la présence de projets de transformation numérique a été identifiée. De plus,
l’organisation a démontré de l’ouverture à partager des informations sur ce type de projets et à
embaucher à la hauteur de quatre jours par semaine le doctorant dans son équipe de transformation
numérique.
Le partenaire industriel est une entreprise manufacturière du Grand Montréal spécialisée dans
l’usinage de composants et de pièces d’aéromoteurs et d’aérostructure pour l’industrie de
l’aéronautique. L’entreprise familiale, fondée en 1974 qui a été reprise par le fils du fondateur, en
2009, possède près de 210 employés divisés en quatre (4) sites, Montréal, Beauharnois, Valleyfield
et Bromont, et génère près de 80 millions de dollars canadiens. Elle a supporté une croissance
d’environ 25 à 30% par année durant les cinq (5) années précédant la pandémie de Covid-19.
Au cours des dernières années, celle-ci a changé considérablement son modèle d’affaires et ses
pratiques, passant de l’usinage de pièce en mode « job shop » pour l’industrie du textile et de
l’automobile à l’usinage de pièce de haute précision, le traitement de surface, la peinture et
l’assemblage de pièces pour l’industrie de l’aéronautique et de la défense.
Malgré son statut de PME, le partenaire industriel possède une structure avoisinant les grandes
entreprises en divisant sa structure organisationnelle en quatre (4) départements : Opération,
Finance, Ressources humaines et Infrastructure/Innovation, ainsi qu’en ayant en place un Conseil
d’administration responsable des décisions d’investissements majeurs de l’entreprise et un comité
de direction responsable des alignements stratégiques de l’entreprise. Afin de supporter son
changement de système ERP en 2017, le partenaire industriel a également officialisé au sein du
département d’infrastructure et d’innovation la mise en place d’une équipe spécialisée pour les
projets à caractère numérique tels que les modifications et mises à jour du système ERP, la création
de solutions d’intelligence d’affaires (BI) et les projets en technologie de l’information.
du lancement des initiatives, celui-ci a lancé plus d’une demi-douzaine de projets 4.0 en parallèle,
une majorité d’entre eux en collaboration avec un compétiteur et partenaire d’innovation. La
gestion de l’ensemble des initiatives de transformation 4.0 est effectuée par le Responsable des
processus numériques de l’entreprise, sous la supervision du Directeur des infrastructures
stratégiques et du VP Innovation et Infrastructure. Celui-ci est également responsable de la gestion
de la collaboration avec le compétiteur, des plans de communications au sein de l’entreprise pour
les initiatives 4.0 ainsi que de mettre en place et d’exécuter une vision et une architecture de
transformation numérique pour l’ensemble de l’entreprise.
Les projets de transformation 4.0 de l’entreprise sont divisés par phase, allant d’analyse de
processus, aux études de faisabilité, prototype fonctionnel et déploiement des solutions. Plusieurs
projets actuels en sont encore à l’étude de faisabilité et la mise en place de prototype fonctionnelle
alors que deux projets sont en phase de déploiement au sein de l’entreprise. L’ensemble des projets
déjà défini s’étend sur un horizon de deux à trois ans afin de passer des phases d’étude de faisabilité
aux déploiements complets des solutions.
Suite à la pandémie de Covid-19 ayant débuté en mars 2020, le partenaire industriel a pris la
décision de suspendre la grande majorité de ses projets de transformation numérique et de
dissoudre l’équipe responsable des projets d’Industrie 4.0.
La méthode Delphi est une méthode structurée permettant d'obtenir et d'organiser les opinions d'un
groupe d'experts sur un sujet particulier. Elle peut être utilisée pour explorer des sujets complexes
ou développer des modèles. La méthode Delphi est largement appréciée pour sa capacité à faire
33
progresser les connaissances empiriques et les jugements de groupe qui conduisent à l'émergence
d'un consensus ou d'un dissensus sur un sujet. Elle est définie comme "un processus itératif utilisé
pour recueillir et distiller les jugements d'experts à l'aide d'une série de questionnaires" (Linstone
& Turoff, 1975; Rowe & Wright, 1999; Skulmoski et al., 2007). Cette méthode est généralement
divisée en un processus de recrutement d'experts et un processus de collecte de données à plusieurs
reprises, appelées "itérations", dans lequel chaque itération vise à affiner les données collectées
lors de l'itération précédente et implique un retour contrôlé des réponses (Rowe & Wright, 1999).
L'abaque de Régnier est une technique originale de consultation d'experts qui utilise un panneau
de couleurs pour recueillir intuitivement les avis des experts sur des énoncés précis, concis et
pragmatiques. Les avantages de cette technique sont la rapidité de la synthèse des avis, la
visualisation colorée des résultats qui facilite la prise de décision et l'identification des consensus
et des dissensus (Maleki, 2009). Les experts doivent choisir entre sept couleurs pour exprimer leur
opinion :
Les trois couleurs principales (vert, jaune et rouge) indiquent la transparence des réponses, tandis
que le noir et le blanc indiquent l'opacité. Les informations recueillies apparaissent dans un
diagramme coloré synthétisant les opinions des experts à l'aide d'une visualisation colorée qui en
facilite l'analyse.
34
La création du panel d’experts est l’un des points les plus importants d’une étude Delphi-Régnier.
En effet, les experts sélectionnés doivent posséder le niveau de compétences et d’expériences
nécessaire pour soumettre une opinion éclairée sur les propositions du questionnaire. Ceux-ci
doivent donc être sélectionnés en fonction de leur expérience; leur familiarité avec l’objet de
l’étude et leur niveau de connaissance sur les caractéristiques de l’objet.
1. Doit avoir analysé, géré ou exécuté des projets de transformation numérique au cours des
trois dernières années ;
2. Doit avoir travaillé pour, ou en collaboration avec, des PME manufacturières sur des
projets de transformation numérique ; et
3. Doit avoir été impliqué dans la phase de démarrage de la transformation numérique au sein
d'une ou plusieurs PME manufacturières.
Le premier critère garantit que l'expert a une expérience directe des projets de transformation
numérique. Le deuxième critère garantit que son expérience et son expertise ont été développées
dans le contexte des PME manufacturières, le sujet principal de notre étude. Enfin, le troisième
critère garantit que leur expérience et leur expertise portent sur l'aspect gestion de la transformation
numérique plutôt que sur les aspects techniques. Grâce à ces critères, nous nous sommes assurés
que nos experts pouvaient fournir un avis éclairé sur les actions à mener pour gérer la
transformation numérique des PME manufacturières.
Afin d'inclure les perspectives des praticiens et des universitaires, les experts ont été répartis en
trois catégories. Il s'agit des catégories suivantes :
Les experts ont été sélectionnés sur la base du réseau professionnel de l’équipe de recherche.
Au cours de cette étude, deux questionnaires ont été créés sur la plateforme https://colorinsight.fr/
et distribués à un panel de dix-neuf experts en transformation numérique répondant aux critères
décrits plus haut. Les experts contactés par courriel ont pu répondre aux questionnaires en ligne.
Le premier questionnaire est basé sur les observations et la documentation de la recherche-
intervention ainsi que sur la littérature. Le deuxième questionnaire est basé sur les commentaires
et réponses des participants au premier questionnaire.
Suite à chaque questionnaire, une analyse des réponses, consensus et dissensus est effectuée et les
commentaires sont classés et analysés afin d’alimenter les résultats de l’article #3. Les réponses
de ces questionnaires se retrouvent en Annexe.
Les données de l’étude Delphi-Régnier sont analysées en se basant sur les réponses des experts
aux énoncés ainsi que sur leurs commentaires. Les réponses des experts sont synthétisées par un
abaque de couleur démontrant le ratio entre les différents niveaux d’accord allant du vert foncé
(totalement en accord) au rouge foncé (totalement en désaccord). Lorsque la majorité des couleurs
vertes ou rouges atteignent un certain ratio, un consensus est établi. Lorsque le ratio de verts ou de
rouges n’atteint pas le niveau nécessaire, un dissensus est établi. Afin d’aligner notre cible de
consensus avec la cible déterminée dans des recherches similaires (Moeuf et al., 2019; Richard et
al., 2021; Rosin et al., 2022), nous avons déterminé une cible de ratio de 60% pour l’obtention
d’un consensus.
Pour chaque énoncé, les experts sont invités à commenter leur réponse afin de justifier leur choix,
de proposer des actions supplémentaires ou encore d’indiquer si celles-ci devraient se retrouver au
sein d’une autre étape de la méthodologie. Basé sur les commentaires et sur les dissensus, un
questionnaire supplémentaire est créé, afin de creuser davantage les réponses des experts et
36
d’approfondir l’analyse de leur réponse. Au cours de cette recherche, un total de deux rondes de
questionnaires furent exécutées.
Plusieurs risques peuvent entourer les projets de recherche qualitatifs et peuvent affecter aussi bien
la fiabilité que la validité des données récoltées durant la recherche (Robson, 2002). Parmi ces
risques, on retrouve les risques de fiabilité suivants :
Afin d’atténuer les risques d’erreur et de biais en provenance des sujets et participants, le chercheur
est présent quotidiennement sur le terrain, lui laissant ainsi l’opportunité d’avoir des interactions
quotidiennes avec les participants, lui permettant de discerner les potentiels biais et erreurs et de
les régler. Afin d’atténuer les risques d’erreurs et de biais des observations, le chercheur confirme
ses observations auprès du partenaire industriel lors de points d’échanges hebdomadaires avec le
VP Innovation et Infrastructure responsable de l’équipe de transformation numérique.
Afin d’atténuer les risques de validité de données, les effets d’évènements extérieurs sur les
dynamiques observés sont notés et pris en considération lors des analyses de ces dynamiques.
Finalement, afin de limiter les biais pouvant provenir des experts, ceux-ci sont sélectionnés à parts
égales de domaine et d’expérience différents.
3.6 Conclusion
Rédigé par:
Jonathan BRODEUR
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Isabelle DESCHAMPS
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Robert PELLERIN
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
39
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to investigate the characteristics and dynamics of the organizational
changes needed to facilitate the management of an Industry 4.0 transformation in manufacturing
SMEs and propose an approach to manage them.
Finding – The research has shown that organizational changes are required in manufacturing
SMEs to better manage their Industry 4.0 transformation projects.
Research limitations – Using the case study method limits the generalization of the results. The
organizational changes observed and their characteristics might be specific to the studied
manufacturing. Although results could vary in different contexts, many manufacturing SMEs have
similar characteristics to those observed in this study.
4.1 Introduction
Industry 4.0 is defined as the 4th Industrial Revolution and represents a set of initiatives aimed at
improving processes, products, and services by allowing decentralized decision-making based on
real-time data acquisition through the introduction of digital technologies at every level of
manufacturing companies and their supply chain (Danjou et al., 2016; Ghadge et al., 2020; Moeuf
et al., 2018). Industry 4.0 has been viewed by many as a new opportunity for manufacturing SMEs
to improve their performance, manufacturing capabilities, and offers to their current and new
customers (Ghadge et al., 2020; McKinsey Digital, 2015; PWC, 2016; The Boston Counsulting
Group, 2015; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). This revolution includes introducing a dozen technology
groups, such as cyber-physical systems, big data, artificial intelligence, collaborative robotics
(cobots), and 3D printing (Moeuf et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018).
Since Industry 4.0 is intimately linked to the exploitation of real-time data allowed through the
introduction of digital technologies, many have defined Industry 4.0 as the digital transformation
of the manufacturing industry (Lu, 2017; Moeuf et al., 2018; Oztemel & Gursev, 2020; Piccarozzi
et al., 2018; Ustundag & Cevikcan, 2017; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). Digital transformation is defined
by the profound changes in societies and industries through the use of digital technologies and
information systems (Agarwal et al., 2010; Majchrzak et al., 2016; Vial, 2019). As such, digital
transformation has been positioned as a way for enterprises to radically improve their performance
through the implementation of multiple technologies affecting their infrastructure, processes, and
business model (Fitzgerald et al., 2014; Gamache et al., 2017; Majchrzak et al., 2016; Vial, 2019).
Many studies have shown that Industry 4.0 allow for the digital transformation of manufacturing
companies through the introduction of multiple smaller projects at different levels of a company
instead of a more traditional overhaul transformation that can take place through a few more
significant projects (Ali & Aboelmaged, 2022; Arcidiacono et al., 2019; Basl, 2017; Brodeur et
al., 2021; Wank et al., 2016; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). It is especially true for manufacturing SMEs
(Ghadge et al., 2020; Moica et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2015) as it allows them to counter many of
the challenges and risks they face when deploying major digital technologies projects (Buonanno
et al., 2005; Moeuf et al., 2019; Singla, 2010; Stentoft et al., 2019).
41
However, this approach still involves challenges that SMEs must face: the lack of available talents
and expertise in Industry 4.0 technologies, inefficient processes to manage the digital
transformation, lack of governance and structure, or lack of proper strategy and governance
(Moeuf et al., 2019; Schröder, 2016; Zangiacomi et al., 2020). These challenges make it difficult
for manufacturing SMEs to manage and successfully execute their digital transformation toward
Industry 4.0. To remedy the situation, multiple researchers identified that managing and
implementing organizational changes are critical success factors (Moeuf et al., 2019; Pozzi et al.,
2021; Sony & Naik, 2019). Still, the following question arises: What are the characteristics of the
organizational changes a manufacturing SME must introduce to manage its digital transformation,
and how should it approach their management?
The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections: a literature review of Industry 4.0 within
manufacturing SMEs and organizational changes theory, the research methodology and analytical
framework, the findings, a discussion, and a conclusion.
We will first look at recent research on Industry 4.0 in the context of manufacturing SMEs and,
more precisely, at research studying the relationship between organizational changes and Industry
4.0 within manufacturing SMEs.
Studies on the context of Industry 4.0 within manufacturing SMEs are still sparse compared to
Industry 4.0 as a whole. However, it has grown significantly recently and is now considered a
distinguished cluster of studies (Piccarozzi et al., 2018), mainly due to the fact that manufacturing
SMEs possess different characteristics compared to large manufacturing companies. They possess
a higher level of flexibility than larger companies to react to external and internal events (Brettel,
M. et al., 2016; Laforet & Tann, 2006; Levy, M. & Powell, 1998; Zhang, Q. Y. et al., 2003). They
42
have to deal with a lack of available resources and talents to implement digital technologies
(Buonanno et al., 2005; Khan & Turowski, 2016; Raymond & Uwizeyemungu, 2007; Zangiacomi
et al., 2018). They prefer to focus on short-term strategies with a quick return on investment
(Buonanno et al., 2005; Moeuf et al., 2018; Stonehouse & Pemberton, 2002). Finally, they lack
the level of processes and organization management maturity associated with large organizations
(Laforet & Tann, 2006; Smallbone et al., 1995). Because of that, multiple studies, mainly based
on case studies, have focused on how the characteristics of manufacturing SMEs would translate
as part of their digital transformation, the challenges they would face, potential opportunities, and
a set of best practices (Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Moeuf et al., 2018; Piccarozzi et al., 2018).
The lack of readily available resources and talents within the manufacturing SMEs to execute and
manage their digital transformation has been described as one of the main challenges faced by
manufacturing SMEs, as with the acceptance of Industry 4.0 within the employees and clear
strategic vision (Moeuf et al., 2019; Stentoft et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). This situation
forces them to either hire new employees or consultants to manage their digital transformation
(Moeuf et al., 2019), properly plan the introduction of new processes through their project (Moeuf
et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2018), and invest in the training of their current workforce (García
de Soto et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2018).
Since manufacturing SMEs are short-sighted in terms of strategy, they prefer to establish high-
level objectives for their Industry 4.0 transformation and use their flexibility and adaptiveness to
navigate through their digital transformation, adjusting their portfolio of projects as they progress
(Wank et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2017). Because of these characteristics, most manufacturing
SMEs will bring forward their digital transformation through a set of several small technology
implementation projects and try to minimize the impact on the organizations by being proactive
on the process changes needed to support the new technology (Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, J. M.,
Buliga, et al., 2018; Zangiacomi et al., 2018).
The literature encompassing the different organizational changes part of, or following, the
introduction of Industry 4.0 technologies has not been sufficiently explored (Charalambous et al.,
2017). However, human-centric organizational changes and organizational aspects, such as
43
Research on the impact of Industry 4.0 technologies on SMEs' organizational development has
also been recently published. A case study with ten manufacturing SMEs established that
implementing Industry 4.0 technologies impacted these organizations' structure, jobs, and
competencies (Cimini et al., 2020). The researcher concluded that the technology and organization
should co-evolve, allowing the organization to leverage Industry 4.0 technologies to make itself
capable of adopting new processes.
More recently, Konopik et al. (2021) performed a comprehensive literature review on the concept
of organizational capabilities for digital transformation. They divided the organization's
capabilities into six themes (Strategy and Ecosystem, Innovation Thinking, Digital Transformation
Technologies, Data, Operations, Organizational Design, and Digital Transformation Leadership)
and referenced each of these themes with Teece's (2007, 2014, 2018) dynamic capabilities model
of organizational transformation composed of sensing, seizing and transforming mechanisms.
Konopik et al. (2021) argue that organizations need to integrate these organizational capabilities
through organizational changes to support their digital transformations.
Finally, the introduction of multiple Industry 4.0 technologies has been shown to impact multiple
SMEs' processes, like planning and logistics (Chen et al., 2018; Ghadge et al., 2020), resulting in
the introduction of organizational changes as part of the technology implementation projects.
Industry 4.0 transformation has also pushed forward the implementation of project and portfolio
management processes to support their Industry 4.0 initiatives (Isikli et al., 2018; Schuh et al.,
2014; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). Case studies on integrating Industry 4.0 technologies into business
44
processes and their impact on performance have been published to bring potential application cases
with existing processes to light. (Moeuf et al., 2018).
Several case studies have also studied the impact on SMEs' employees. They have shown that
Industry 4.0 will not only change how employees work within the company (Cimini et al., 2020;
García de Soto et al., 2019; Gölzer & Fritzsche, 2017), but also the type of profile employers will
seek in the future (Halse & Ullern, 2017; Ludwig et al., 2016; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). Acceptance
of these changes from employees, managing expectations, and navigating through these changes
has been highlighted as one of the main challenges to Industry 4.0 transformation in manufacturing
SMEs (Chen et al., 2018; Singla, 2010; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). These changes also impact the
SMEs' organizational culture, pushing their management to consider organizational change
processes to support their Industry 4.0 transformation (Mohelska & Sokolova, 2018).
The link between organizational change and Industry 4.0 is starting to be established in the
scientific literature, principally when considering the impact of introducing Industry 4.0
technologies on manufacturing organizations. More than once, it has been established that
organizational change management is considered one of the main success factors for a successful
digital transformation in manufacturing SMEs (Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Moeuf et al., 2019;
Shinohara et al., 2017).
However, most of the research has focused on potential organizational changes through conceptual
frameworks, highlighting the importance of organizational changes during digital transformation
or proposing changes to be adopted by manufacturing SMEs. There is still a gap in the literature
to detail these changes' timing, impact, characteristics, and triggers and to determine how and when
manufacturing SMEs can introduce and manage these organizational changes before and during
their digital transformation. To fill this gap, this study aims to characterize, through a preliminary
set of longitudinal empirical data, the organizational changes introduced during a manufacturing
SME digital transformation and propose an approach to implement and manage these changes
before and during its transformation processes.
45
4.3 Methodology
Given the nature of this research, it seems essential to perform this study in close relationship with
a manufacturing SME over a significant period. A qualitative interaction research method appears
appropriate for this purpose. As such, a research-intervention methodology allows the researcher
to actively participate in the day-to-day operations of a partner company, allowing the researcher
to observe daily the events and processes of his research subject (Baskerville & Myers, 2004;
Baskerville & WoodHarper, 1996; Johansson & Wallo, 2019; Patton, 2014). It aims to solve an
organization's problem, be it by developing a model or an approach based on the literature and the
organization's characteristics, and to understand the phenomenon and the relations between the
problems, the potential solutions, and the context of the subject. This methodology allows to test
and optimize theoretical models and mechanisms on the subject and observe how these models
and mechanisms are received and evolve within the research subject. As such, intervention
research is the most appropriate method for developing the required knowledge to theorize
professional practice made from a rigorous observation of facts and improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of managerial decisions (Rousseau, 2006).
For these reasons, the intervention research method was chosen. It was initially necessary to
perform a literature review on organizational changes that could facilitate digital transformation
management and determine which organizational changes are needed at the beginning of the
manufacturing SME digital transformation based on its characteristics. Then, the research team
was able to embark on the digital transformation journey of the SME to identify subsequent
organizational changes, analyze their characteristics, and to design, implement, and refine an
approach to identify and implement them. The research project was performed between January
2018 and March 2020 in collaboration with a manufacturing SME specialized in aerospace parts
manufacturing. The researcher joined the department in charge of their Industry 4.0 project
portfolios and managed both the technological projects and the introduction of processes and tools
to facilitate the company's digital transformation.
As seen in Figure 4.1, we first started by analyzing the initial context of the manufacturing SME
to determine the initial organizational changes needed to manage and execute its Industry 4.0
projects. We then implemented these organizational changes and launched the Industry 4.0
46
transformation. The second stage of the methodology allowed us to deploy and analyze multiple
organizational changes during the Industry 4.0 transformation and characterize them based on the
analytical framework detailed in Figure 4.2. Analyzing these organizational changes allowed us to
better understand their nature, creating enough knowledge to design and propose an initial
organizational change management approach in the third stage of this research. This approach has
then been tested in the field and improved based on feedback from the projects team and
brainstorming with the Industry 4.0 transformation stakeholders of the manufacturing SME.
Finally, the result section will present the completed transformation approach deployed.
The following analytical framework, as seen in Figure 4.2, was used to detail and analyze the
observed organizational changes.
First, we have detailed every event that triggered an organizational change related to digital
transformations within the manufacturing SME. These events could have been internal or external
to the organization, such as establishing new processes to support the organization in its Industry
4.0 transformation or the success or failure of an Industry 4.0 project. Then we looked at the
organizational changes through three dimensions that will be detailed later. Finally, we looked at
the scoped objectives for the organizational changes. If the organizational change trigger
represents the current situation in need of a change, the objectives represent the desired situation
aimed by the organizational changes. The objectives and the triggers of the organizational changes
will allow us to understand the events responsible for the organizational changes and the
company's element to improve to answer this event.
The changes have been described following three main dimensions: the type, the level of
responsiveness, and the magnitude of the organizational changes.
Several types of organizational changes have been defined in the literature. However, we decided
to use the types from Cao et al. (2003) since it has been developed to analyze SMEs' organizational
changes Cao, G. et al. (1999); (Cao, G. M. et al., 2003); Flood (1995). The types are the following:
48
- Cultural: change in values, beliefs, and human behavior in terms of relationship to social
rules and practices; and
- Political: Change in Power distribution and the way organizational issues are influenced.
Responsiveness represents the level of proactivity of an organizational change and its level of
planning (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999; Lewin, 2016; Miji, 2017; Pasmore & Fagans, 1992). As
part of this study, we will classify the organizational changes in two ways:
- Proactive: Planned by the organization as part of an industry 4.0 project or as part of their
strategic planning; and
Magnitude represents the impact of the change on the organization. It can range from introducing
a new process to constructing a new manufacturing plant (Brynjolfsson & Hitt, 2000; Levinthal &
March, 1981; Levy, A. & Merry, 1986; Orlikowski, 1996; Romanelli & Tushman, 1994). As part
of our study, we will divide the magnitude in two ways:
Using these dimensions, we could position the company's different types of organizational changes
related to its Industry 4.0 transformation and compare how the enterprise managed its
organizational changes with the literature's best practices.
49
Data acquisition has been performed throughout observation as part of the researcher's research-
intervention project with the enterprise (Saunders et al., 2009). The researcher managed and
developed the Industry 4.0 portfolio of company projects, accompanying them throughout the
research. Observations have been made daily over 27 months, and data was validated with follow-
up questions and informal interviews with the company's management and employees during that
same period.
Through the observations, the following elements have been noted within multiple mediums, such
as hand-written and electronic notes:
- The dates the company realized its need for every organizational change;
- The dates the objectives of the organizational changes have been discussed and approved;
Many observations also came from emails, meetings, minute-of-meetings, project documentation,
and ad-hoc discussions with employees and the company management. Notes were taken daily
about events and observations linked to the researcher's study and interpretations of the cause of
different events. They were used to produce a timeline of his 27 months' stay with the
manufacturing SME. Understanding and interpreting the organizational changes have been
deduced through sensemaking techniques (Suddaby, 2006) to differentiate the level of each
dimension.
The intervention researcher acted as the digital process manager of the company. He managed the
digital transformation projects’ portfolio 32h/per week for 27 months, participated in critical
50
meetings, interacted with employees and management at every level, and planned and executed
the organizational changes linked to the Industry 4.0 projects.
4. Planned and managed the majority of industry 4.0 projects of the company.
Being part of the project management team in charge of the digital transformation of the
manufacturing SME, the researcher was able to influence the definition and implementation of
organizational changes. As such, many organizational changes could have been facilitated by the
implications of the researcher within the manufacturing SME. These influences are expected and
even encouraged when using an intervention-research methodology to bring a higher level of
understanding of the subject (Baskerville & Myers, 2004; Baskerville & WoodHarper, 1996;
Patton, 2014; Shannak & M Aldhmour, 2009).
As part of the research, the researcher identified multiple organizational opportunities, reported
them to the company's high management, and implemented the ones approved by the company
management. Not all organizational change opportunities reported by the researcher were
approved nor implemented. Other organizational changes not reported by the researcher, but
identified by the management and employees, were implemented. Participating in implementing
the organizational changes and managing the company's digital transformation projects allowed
the researcher to understand better the relation between the manufacturing SME's characteristics,
its digital transformation, the event leading to the organizational changes, and the organizational
change characteristics.
51
The subject of the case study is an aerospace manufacturing SME in the region of Montreal
(Quebec), Canada. The company has between 200 and 300 employees divided into four sites in
Canada, specializing in manufacturing small and complex aerospace components. It generates
around 75 and 90 million dollars (CAD) per year.
At the start of the study, the enterprise was in its third year of sustained growth, with an average
of 30% yearly revenue growth. An Industry 4.0 transformation was planned as the next strategic
step to support future growth. The strategic plan included the company's digital transformation and
the development of new products, new manufacturing technologies introduction, and strategic
acquisitions.
The company was also in the middle of a new ERP implementation project that started 18 months
before the research project and was expected to be completed in May 2018. This project planned
and triggered several organizational changes, as discussed in Chapter 4.4.
The company is divided into four departments: Finance, Human Resources, Operations, and
Innovation & Infrastructure, with Operations managing several departments such as Production,
Quality, Engineering, and Maintenance. Innovation & infrastructure manages IT, R&D, and digital
transformation projects.
Historically, organizational changes were triggered following initiatives within the Operations
department (introducing new production lines or introducing lean manufacturing practices in
industrial engineering), or projects from the Innovation & Infrastructure department (introducing
new manufacturing technologies, ERP change, IT infrastructure change). All the departments were
coordinated to manage the needed organizational change triggered by these initiatives, with
support from internal and external resources.
The SME also uses several project management and governance processes and a formal Project
Management Office (PMO) committee that supervises ongoing project progress, reviews and
52
approves project scope changes, and reviews new project submissions by the different
departments. The PMO comprises all vice presidents and directors and is held every three weeks.
As part of it, project managers would present their project's status and issues and seek support and
counsel. When technology implementation projects are presented, project managers are expected
to present an employee’s training plan to the PMO and coordinate with their director and the human
resource department.
The company's organizational culture aims to develop innovation and improvement at every level
of the company. It has multiple innovation and R&D projects to explore new services and support
its current business while exploring the implementation of new manufacturing and automation
technologies on the shop floor with its employees' help. They encouraged them to submit
continuous improvement suggestions weekly, and a few of them were launched monthly.
The company's management communicates the company strategy, performance, and potential
change at the end of each financial quarter through a general assembly meeting with every
employee. They present the status of different KPIs, new initiatives, the financial status of the
companies, and new training programs. They also use this general assembly to let employees ask
different questions about strategic decisions, specific initiatives, or the impact of the changes
occurring in the industry. The company's management noted any suggestions or questions, and
follow-ups were performed through specific meetings or during the next general assembly.
4.4 Results
During the first stage of the study, organizational changes were performed as part of the digital
transformation of the company. These organizational changes have been analyzed to understand
their characteristics better and to develop and test, in the second stage of the study, an approach to
manage the organizational changes needed to facilitate the management of the company's digital
transformation.
A total of 14 organizational changes linked to the company's digital transformation were observed
and analyzed during this research, as presented in Table 4.1 and 4.2. These organizational changes
53
had different objectives: to facilitate the propagation of Industry 4.0 principles within the company
or facilitate the management of Industry 4.0 projects. These changes also had different triggers
and covered the entire spectrum from reactive to proactive and adaptive to transformative changes.
54
Introduction of a new KPI on the production Lack of KPIs at the operations level to
Introduction of the utilization rate in production
#1 Q2 2017 floor to measure the utilization rate of correctly measure the company's production Process Proactive Adaptative
performance measurements
equipment performance
Modification of the production follow-up Ensures better integration and appropriation of Introduction of a dashboard to display the
#2 Q3 2017 Process Reactive Adaptative
processes to focus on the utilization rate the KPI by plant teams usage rate in real-time.
Table 4.2- Organizational Changes during the Industry 4.0 transformation (cont’d)
# Date Organizational Change Objective Trigger Type Preparedness Magnitude
Ensure management of the quality of the data The power bi platform project demonstrated
#8 Q4 2018 Introduction of data governance that will be used for business intelligence gaps in data management in the various Political Reactive Adaptative
purposes departments operating the ERP system
Lack of internal expertise readily available to
Creation of the role of software architect and Acquiring in-house expertise to carry out
#9 Q4 2018 support various Industry 4.0, bi platform, and Structural Reactive Adaptative
the role of superuser ERP Industry 4.0, it and ERP projects
ERP projects.
Divide the infrastructure, IT, and innovation
teams into separate teams to facilitate the
Overhaul of the innovation and infrastructure The initial structure did not adequately support Proactive &
#10 Q1 2019 management of the department's growing Structural Transformative
department the growing team. Reactive
internal resources and the allocation of
budgets.
Optimize the quality assurance department's
processes following the integration of new
Changing the processes for acquiring and Project to automate the acquisition and
#11 Q1 2019 equipment allowing the acquisition, Process Proactive Adaptative
processing quality data processing of company quality data
processing, and transfer of quality data
automatically.
Facilitate communication with team leaders A problem of project visibility at different
Introduction of the notion of "team lead" in the and managers throughout the company, as well levels of the company and a lack of allocation
#12 Q2 2019 Process Reactive Adaptative
governance of industry projects 4.0 as manage the allocation of floor resources for and cooperation of operations and engineering
Industry projects 4.0 resources to support Industry projects 4.0
Misperception and misunderstanding of
Facilitate the acceptance of the integration of
projects and Industry 4.0 principles put at risk
#13 Q3 2019 Industry 4.0 training Industry 4.0 technologies in the plant and Cultural Proactive Adaptative
the company's various projects and the
obtain the company's employees' support.
retention of operation employees
The technological solution selected for the
Enable the capture and assignment of machine
project did not provide all the necessary data,
#14 Q4 2019 Manual production data capture process and attendance data as part of a project to Process Proactive Adaptative
forcing manual data acquisition in the
automate the acquisition of production data
production process.
56
Four types of organizational changes were identified. Process changes were the majority,
followed by Structural changes. Very few Cultural and Political changes happened
throughout the research. Process changes were performed to integrate new management
and operation processes as part of projects or facilitate the management of the Industry 4.0
portfolio of projects. The Structural changes were mainly performed to add new talents
and resources to the team and change the department's organizational structure triggered
by adding new expertise and employees.
Organizational changes were split in half between Proactive and Reactive changes.
Proactive changes were planned as part of the different Industry 4.0 projects. They covered
several changes, such as introducing new roles and processes or modifying existing
processes during Industry 4.0 projects. On the other hand, Reactive changes were
performed in reaction to an opportunity, identifying issues within a project, or the
transformation 4.0 management process. These changes were quickly performed to remedy
these issues and mitigate potential additional risks.
Some changes were part Proactive and part Reactive. These changes were planned as part
of the strategic plan of the department. However, these changes were modified to adjust to
new opportunities stimulated by the newly implemented Industry 4.0 technologies.
Most organizational changes were Adaptive, with only two Transformative changes that
altered twice the company's Innovation and Infrastructure department's organizational
structure. The first was creating a new center of expertise and reorganizing the department.
The second was to divide the department into sub-departments several months later. The
adaptative changes had less impact but addressed shortcomings and opportunities linked to
the company's digital transformation, such as creating new roles within an existing team or
introducing new processes as part of an Industry 4.0 project.
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Based on the characteristics of the organizational changes observed, two approaches have
been introduced and optimized to manage them. The first approach is a proactive
organizational change management approach to facilitate the adoption of Industry 4.0
technologies as part of the digital transformation projects. The second approach is a
reactive approach to introduce and improve the tools and processes needed to manage the
digital transformation.
We saw that multiple organizational changes were proactively performed during the
different Industry 4.0 projects. These organizational changes aimed to facilitate the
adoption of the technology by the department employees in which the Industry 4.0
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3. Training: Training on the new technologies and processes was given to the
Superusers and users as part of the project. Training materials were also produced
and made available for the employees to refer to.
The introduction of these five elements within the organizational change management
approach facilitated the adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies by involving the stakeholders
within the digital transformation process. As such, it allowed for better communication of
the project's objectives and progress to the stakeholders and employees and ensured that
their questions and suggestions could be addressed. The opportunity to suggest
improvement and designing superusers within each department also ensured continuous
support to the employees and an improvement path to the systems, consolidating the
adoption of the technologies by the employees.
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As described in section 4.4.1, most organizational changes were introduced to facilitate the
management of the digital transformation by introducing new processes, tools, or
resources, performed retroactively based on lessons learned from the Industry 4.0 projects
or based on the identification of new needs. These changes were introduced to improve
how the digital transformation team managed the company's digital transformation in
response to management issues they encountered during the Industry 4.0 projects. To
manage these organizational changes, we introduced an iterative reactive approach, as
shown in Figure 4.3, which includes five elements.
Following each Industry 4.0 project, a post-mortem is performed to identify the elements
of the digital transformation management process that could be improved. These changes
can affect the company's project management process, the digital transformation
governance, the management tools, or the resources needed to execute the project. These
changes are then implemented and validated by the company's management and introduced
within the management process of the following Industry 4.0 projects. After each project,
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changes to the management process of the digital transformation are introduced, facilitating
the delivery of the projects and the digital transformation management.
This approach also allows the digital transformation team to improve its current processes
and tools, bringing forward a continuous improvement approach to the management
process of the company's digital transformation. Consequently, the digital transformation
team was able to start with simpler management tools and processes and introduced
complementary tools and processes over time based on their needs and the issues they faced
during past projects.
4.5 Discussion
Multiple elements came to light as we studied the organizational changes introduced by the
manufacturing SME and developed the management approaches.
It has been shown that SMEs prefer smaller and quicker Industry 4.0 projects to suit their
limited resources, shorter implementation time, and faster return on investment (Gamache
et al., 2017; Moeuf et al., 2018; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). Since the SME studied did not
have the resources or capabilities to overhaul its business during its Industry 4.0
transformation, it preferred implementing small incremental changes with small
technology projects to help it mature and transform itself over time. Focusing on smaller
incremental projects to implement Industry 4.0 technologies leads to the smaller adaptative
project organizational changes we observed within the company. We did not observe any
transformative project organizational changes during this study.
Following the implementation of these technologies, reactive changes also took place at
different company levels. These changes were triggered by these technologies'
opportunities and facilitated by the adaptiveness, flexibility, and innovation culture of the
company we studied. Again, these reactive changes were not transformative but rather
adaptive changes that affected only one department or a single process.
of an Industry 4.0 project within which a proactive adaptative organizational change will
take place to support the implementation of an Industry 4.0 technology. Once the
technologies are implemented, improvement opportunities will appear, triggering reactive
post-implementation organizational changes within the SME. Once these changes are
implemented, new business needs will appear, and thus the cycle will start again.
Figure 4.4 - Cycle of SME Organizational changes during Industry 4.0 projects
As we saw in the result section, organizational changes took place to facilitate the
implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies, capitalize on improvement opportunities
following the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies, and better manage and support
the digital transformation of the SME. These organizational changes were both proactive
and reactive and were put into place to bring the required expertise, optimize their project
62
management processes and governance, and support a growing team to digitally transform
the company.
These organizational learning capabilities and the SME characteristics also contributed to
that dual transformation since it used flexibility and adaptiveness to quickly implement
these new structures and processes. When the need for process optimization was identified,
the Industry 4.0 project team simply designed and implemented the new process
immediately to test it. For the more important changes like the overhaul of the innovation
and infrastructure department in charge of the digital transformation, the company used
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existing internal processes and justified the changes with the need to optimize their
processes and structure to facilitate and support their digital transformation.
As we described earlier, the company studied was recognized by its peers for its innovative
culture fostered at every level of the company. This innovation culture helped the
employees of every level to suggest innovative improvements to current processes using
the company's available technologies and resources. Once Industry 4.0 technologies started
being introduced, the company's employees and management started perceiving
opportunities from the new technologies to improve specific processes and their overall
productivity performance. Acting on these improvement opportunities pushed the adoption
of organizational changes at different levels of the company, triggering even changes in
the organization's strategic objectives. This company's innovation culture was one of the
main factors behind the post-implementation organizational, reactive and adaptive changes
witnessed. These changes solidified the Industry 4.0 technologies within the company to
the point that the updated process would become assimilated into the company operations.
The company's innovation culture also had an impact beyond organizational changes. As
Industry 4.0 technologies were introduced, several employees and managers could find
new ways to use these technologies to solve additional operation issues and business needs,
which would trigger additional Industry 4.0 projects, generating additional proactive
process organizational changes and reactive post-implementation organizational changes,
thus fueling the cycle in Figure 4.4. Further research is needed to better understand the
interaction between the company's innovation culture and the creation of Industry 4.0
projects.
4.6 Conclusion
This paper aims to facilitate the management of the Industry 4.0 transformation of
manufacturing SMEs by identifying and analyzing the organizational changes introduced
and proposing an approach to manage these organizational changes. An intervention-
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research methodology was used to detail the different dimensions of these changes, their
link to the Industry 4.0 transformation process, and the company's characteristics over 27
months.
In terms of theoretical implications, we observed that the manufacturing SME must manage
the organizational changes triggered by the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies
and the multiple organizational changes it will introduce to improve its digital
transformation management processes. As such, not only the manufacturing SME will need
to properly plan and manage the proactive changes within the Industry 4.0 projects, but it
will also need to manage the reactive changes needed to facilitate the management of its
digital transformation. Another contribution is the link between these proactive and
reactive changes. As we observed, proactive and reactive organizational changes happened
as part of a cycle of organizational changes in which proactive changes would be part of
the Industry 4.0 projects. However, the Industry 4.0 projects would trigger improvement
opportunities, resulting in reactive organizational changes.
This study's findings have practical implications that may benefit managers and consultants
approaching Industry 4.0 transformation in manufacturing SMEs. First, understanding the
characteristics of the expected organizational changes can help to better plan them. Second,
this study underlines the importance and number of reactive changes that can and will
happen during an Industry 4.0 transformation and the role of the SME's innovation culture,
adaptiveness, and internal processes in facilitating these changes. Finally, we introduced
two approaches to manage the proactive and reactive organizational changes that the
management of manufacturing SMEs can use.
This study has an important limitation worth mentioning. This study was conducted with
only one aerospace manufacturing SME, limiting the finding's generalization (Yin, 2014).
Accordingly, one suggestion for further research would be to analyze if the four patterns
identified in the results and the cycle of organizational changes in Figure 4.4 can be
recreated in other manufacturing SMEs during their digital transformation. Another
suggestion for future research would be to investigate how innovation culture can impact
65
Rédigé par:
Jonathan BRODEUR
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Robert PELLERIN
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Isabelle DESCHAMPS
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
67
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to propose a collaborative approach model developed based on
observations of two aerospace manufacturing SMEs pursuing their digital transformation
toward Industry 4.0.
Research limitations – Research using the case study method has a limitation in the
generalization of the model. The CADT model generated in this study might be specific to
the aerospace manufacturing industry and collaboration patterns between manufacturing
SMEs. Results could vary in different contexts.
5.1 Introduction
Many experts view a transformation toward industry 4.0 as the next step for manufacturing
SMEs to better position themselves within their supply chain (Ghadge et al., 2020; Xu, L.
D. et al., 2018). It is particularly true in the Canadian aerospace manufacturing industry,
for which digital transformation will shape aerospace SMEs' future interaction (Benyouci,
2017). However, a lack of resources and talent readily available (Khan & Turowski, 2016;
Zangiacomi et al., 2018) slow down the manufacturing SMEs' digital transformation
worldwide (Gamache et al., 2017). A collaboration between similar SMEs on industry 4.0
projects has been pointed out as a potential solution (Moeuf et al., 2019; Shinohara et al.,
2017; Zangiacomi et al., 2018).
To answer this question, a research-intervention project with two collaborating SMEs has
been performed, allowing us to develop a model of a collaborative approach for digital
transformation and its mechanisms. This paper aims to present our results, i.e., our
proposed CADT model, which encompasses the multiple dimensions, stages, and
mechanisms for collaboration between SMEs in the context of a mutual digital
transformation portfolio of projects.
This paper is divided into five sections: a literature review of the collaborative approach
and proposed mechanisms, the research methodology, the research results, a discussion on
these results, and a conclusion.
Project collaborations are happening between two or more enterprises. They can
encompass several mechanisms at the strategic, tactic, and operational level (Andres &
Poler, 2016) that can be used for product and technology development (Chu et al., 2006;
Drossel et al., 2018; Kuehnle & Wagenhaus, 2007; Solesvik, 2008; Yea-Huey et al., 2004)
or even to support a third-party project (Wang et al., 2007). The collaboration mechanisms
are defined when creating a project's governance and defining each party's roles and
responsibilities (Project Management Institute, 2013).
The objective of the collaboration is to offer a specific value at one or both parties or even
at a third party in the context of a joint product development or technology development
project (Andres & Poler, 2016; Chu et al., 2006; Jie et al., 2011; Kazantsev et al., 2018).
The value sought by the two collaborators in our context was to understand how different
solutions can be applied to their specific context and choose the solution that better fits
their needs while reducing the exploration cost and risk.
Project collaborations can use a "leader and collaborator" approach in which, for each
phase of a project, one of the collaborators becomes the "leader" of that phase. In contrast,
another becomes the "collaborator", the role changing between the collaborators after each
phase based on the collaborators' expertise and resources to execute that phase (Chu et al.,
2006). Project-based collaboration can also happen under a buyer-supplier relationship
where the technology supplier will lead the development of a product, a service, or a
technology for a specific buyer (Wang et al., 2007). This collaboration happens more often
between companies in the same supply chain, with the buyer being higher up in this supply
chain (Andres & Poler, 2016; Wang et al., 2007).
Multiple studies within the industry 4.0 and SMEs research domain have focused on how
the characteristics of manufacturing SMEs would translate as part of their digital
transformation, the challenges they would face, potential opportunities, and a set of best
practices (Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Moeuf et al., 2018; Piccarozzi et al., 2018). Two of
the main characteristics of manufacturing SMEs affecting their industry 4.0 transformation
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are their lack of available resources and talents to support (Khan & Turowski, 2016;
Zangiacomi et al., 2018) and their focus on short-term strategies that prevent long-term
investment (Moeuf et al., 2018).
The lack of readily available resources and talents within the manufacturing SMEs to
execute and manage their digital transformation have been described as one of the main
challenges faced by manufacturing SMEs, as with the acceptance of industry 4.0 within the
employees and clear strategic vision (Moeuf et al., 2019; Stentoft et al., 2019; Zangiacomi
et al., 2018). This situation forces them to seek new resources to execute their digital
transformation (Moeuf et al., 2019), to properly plan the introduction of new processes
through their project (Moeuf et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2018), and to invest in the
training of their current workforce (García de Soto et al., 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2018).
In order to overcome their short-coming, studies have suggested that one way for
manufacturing SMEs to progress through their industry 4.0 transformation was to pursue
collaborative projects (Moeuf et al., 2019; Shinohara et al., 2017; Zangiacomi et al., 2018).
Indeed, a lack of collaboration between SMEs has been identified multiple times as one of
the main barriers to their industry 4.0 implementation (Ali & Aboelmaged, 2022; Mittal,
Khan, et al., 2018; Stentoft et al., 2019; Veile et al., 2019).
It was also showed that the utilization of inter-firm collaboration within a supply chain was
necessary to facilitate the industry 4.0 transformation of the whole supply chain (Cisneros-
Cabrera et al., 2021; Culot et al., 2019; Ghadge et al., 2020; Müller, J. M. et al., 2020),
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Overall, collaborations have been shown to facilitate industry 4.0 transformation by sharing
complementary resources, reducing financial risks associated with exploring new
solutions, and discovering new opportunities for the partners (Della Corte, 2018; Lazarova-
Molnar et al., 2018; Veile et al., 2019; Zacharia et al., 2019).
Collaboration on industry 4.0 projects between manufacturing SMEs has been studied and
has been identified as a way for manufacturing SMEs to facilitate their industry 4.0
transformation. However, these studies fail to present how the collaboration occurs
between these companies. They also fail to explain how the context of their industry 4.0
transformation and these SMEs' characteristics affected their collaboration. Finally, they
fail to establish the limits of collaboration when used to facilitate the industry 4.0
transformation of competing manufacturing SMEs.
5.3 Methodology
The case study methodology is also used and is particularly useful for researchers who
want to study in-depth an event or process within a specific research context (Morris &
Wood, 1991). During case study research with only one subject, the results cannot be
generalized, limiting our findings to that particular case (Ahlskog et al., 2017). It will,
however, provide the in-depth information needed to properly illustrate how collaboration
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can be performed between two manufacturing SMEs during their industry 4.0
transformation (Yin, 2014). This methodology has been used far and wide for qualitative
research in the manufacturing industry (Flores-Garcia et al., 2021; Lavikka et al., 2015).
This research's objects were two enterprises in the aerospace manufacturing industry
positioning themselves at the same supply chain level, specializing in manufacturing small
structure and engine components. The two enterprises started their industry 4.0
transformation around six months before their collaboration. They shared similar IT
architecture, business processes, customers, and culture, enabling them to understand each
other and identify several collaboration opportunities for industry 4.0 projects.
The two subjects of the case study are aerospace manufacturing SMEs in the region of
Montreal, Canada. Both enterprises are part of an industrial cluster named "Aero-Montreal"
that regroup aerospace SMEs around Montreal's regions. This cluster is similar to other
aerospace clusters found in France and the United States (Benyouci, 2017). It can be
compared to other manufacturing clusters worldwide (Halse & Ullern, 2017; Sheen &
Yang, 2018; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). Characteristics of both companies can be found in
Table 5.1 and subsequent sections.
These companies have been selected because they are part of the aerospace manufacturing
industry in the province of Quebec. The aerospace industry in Quebec is the third-largest
globally, involving more than 60,000 workers, with 43,000 in the manufacturing sector
alone. This industry also includes five international aerospace OEMs, 15 Tier two partners,
185 Tier three and below suppliers, all SMEs in Montreal alone. Aerospace is also the most
crucial export sector in Quebec, with 12% of the overall manufacturing exportation of the
province (Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, 2019; Howe &
Dumitru, 2017). Because of the importance of this sector and the fact that this industry
heavily relies on manufacturing SMEs as suppliers, we decided to select two companies in
this industry.
Also, Gamache et al. (2017) evaluated the level of industry 4.0 readiness and maturity of
148 manufacturing SMEs in Quebec. They determined that most of them were still at the
beginning of their industry 4.0 transformation. Since our objective was to establish how
two SMEs could collaborate for their industry 4.0 transformation, we needed to select two
SMEs with the same level of industry 4.0 maturity and with a level similar to the industry
average.
Both companies are seeking collaboration to explore industry 4.0 solutions to accelerate
their respective digital transformation. At the beginning of their collaboration, both
companies agreed to collaborate to allow them to negotiate a better price for proof-of-
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concept with the solution provider and the opportunity to explore several solutions for
shared problematic and business needs. This led the two companies to collaborate on a
shared portfolio of projects composed of exploration projects for the different digital
solutions that can address their multiple business needs.
Both companies' business model is based on long-term contracts with Tier 2 and OEM
aerospace companies to manufacture and assembled small aerospace components for
aircraft structure and engine. The two companies are part of the same supply chain for
several of their customers and have been considered competitors on several contracts until
recently. Today, each company specializes in manufacturing different niche aerospace
components based on its expertise and strategic objectives. This specialization allowed
them to become leaders in their respective niche markets while keeping similar business
and operation processes. It is to be noted that both enterprises are heavily involved in the
Montreal aerospace cluster and have been known to collaborate on solving issues arising
in their businesses to find solutions that would benefit all cluster members. Thus, we can
assume that the two collaborators share a similar position within the same supply chain.
5.3.1.4 Resources
The project team of both companies can be found in Table 5.2. Both project teams
used several external resources for their industry 4.0 projects.
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Both companies have a simplified project and portfolio management process. It involves
creating a project charter at the beginning of a project detailing the scope, resources, high-
level schedule, and justification behind the projects. They also managed their projects
mainly in terms of schedule and milestones, cost management being performed only on
strategic projects, or when the project falls under financial incentives requiring information
on project cost and efforts.
Both companies possess project governance aimed at reporting project status and decisions
taken. In both cases, the project managers report to a member of their respective company's
high management weekly for decision-making. They need to report on the project status
monthly at a high management meeting composed of senior directors and VPs of all
departments.
As part of this case study, five industry 4.0 projects part of a collaborative digital
transformation portfolio were included in this research. All five projects were technology
exploration projects aiming to solve shared business and operation issues between them.
Details of these projects can be found in Table 5.3.
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• MTConnect and
1 Production The project aimed to automatically acquire data October 2018
FOCAS II Protocol
data automated from several sources and triggers (CNC sensor • Production – March 2020
Management
acquisition data and human presence and identification)
Software
regarding the duration of several steps of the • MES
company manufacturing processes to perform an • Middleware
• IIOT
accurate cost analysis of production. • UHF RFID
• ERP Scheduling
2 Advanced The project aimed to integrate an advanced June 2019-
module
planning and planning and scheduling software solution to • MAS scheduling September
module
scheduling generate detailed scheduling on a work shift 2019
• Cloud-based APS
basis automatically.
• IIOT
3 Material The project aimed to track raw materials in October 2018
• Middleware
tracking different manufacturing floor zones while • UHF RFID – March 2020
evaluating how long each batch of raw material
stays in each zone.
• IoT measurement
4 Quality Data The project aimed at automating the acquisition September
device
automated transfer of quality data from CMM and hand- • Bluetooth 2019 – March
measurement device
Acquisition measuring devices to an aerospace quality 2019
• Middleware
management software able to perform quality
analysis and transfer the analytics report to their
customers.
• Digital traveler
5 Digital traveler The project aimed at introducing digital traveler November
software
and digital work instruction to replace paper • Middleware 2019 – March
traveler and instruction on the manufacturing 2020
floor
Data acquisition was conducted as part of a research-intervention project with one of the
two enterprises (Saunders et al., 2009). The researcher joined Company A as part of its
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digital transformation team for 18 months and participated in developing and optimizing
the collaborative approach and mechanisms presented in this paper.
Observations on the collaborative approach, the projects' development, and the two
companies' characteristics were made during the research by the intervention-researcher.
He participated in developing the initial collaborative approach and its optimization with
the help of the project coordinator and the project manager of company B. He used the
characteristics of the two companies and the context of their portfolio of industry 4.0
projects to suggest and implement incremental changes to the approach and its
mechanisms. As part of Company A, the intervention-researcher also acted as the project
manager of their industry 4.0 projects. In addition to the observations, internal documents,
e-mail, presentation, minute-of-meeting, and discussion with the two companies
management and industry 4.0 teams were used to analyze and understand the impact of the
companies characteristics on the development of its collaboration and map the final
collaborative approach.
The research was conducted in three stages as detailed in Figure 5.1, the first and second
stages ending after several cycles of analysis were performed.
- Evolution and observation: Once the initial approach and mechanisms have been
created and validated by the collaboration steering/pilot committee, we let the two
subjects use these mechanisms and adapt them based on events happening during
the project, the relation between them, and evolving characteristics in each of them.
We observed this evolution until the mechanisms stabilize themselves.
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The validation of the initial and the final collaborative approach was performed by the pilot
committee composed of the sponsors (VP and General Manager) of the industry 4.0
projects, the two project managers (including the intervention-researcher), the project
coordinator, and two independent observers from the organization responsible for
overseeing and approving the government financial aid for the collaborative projects. More
information on the pilot committee can be found in section 5.4.1.1.
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5.4 Results
5.4.1 Stage 1: Initial approach and mechanisms creation (CADT Model,
version I)
5.4.1.1 Governance model for decision-making and project coordination
- Independent advisors from the aerospace cluster in charge of financing the projects
were present to ensure that the collaboration benefits both enterprises and that the
collaborative projects are receivable for government financing.
The governance model for decision-making, as shown in Figure 5.2, is divided into three
levels:
Included in this collaborative governance are three different governance levels and two
flows of communications between these governance levels:
- Project team – The project team meeting of each company happens daily and
discusses what was done the day before, what will be done today, and if any issues
need to be addressed during the day. This meeting is prepared and managed by the
project manager of each enterprise. Low-level planning is performed;
The flow of information presents the information being passed through the different
governance layers.
As shown in Figure 5.3, the project portfolio creation started with a business needs analysis
of both companies and architecture design. The business needs analysis was performed by
the project manager and sponsor of each company individually. It highlighted the
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company's main business processes to improve, optimize, or transform with Industry 4.0
technologies.
Once the business needs analysis was performed, a system architecture design was
performed by the project coordinator and the project managers to establish a standard
system and process architecture that would encompass all the business needs of both
companies. The architecture was then presented to the sponsor and advisor during a pilot
committee and approved.
Once the standard architecture was created, the portfolio scope was defined as a set of
projects to evaluate and test Industry 4.0 technologies to select the best solutions for each
partner. The team divided the different needs into architecture components and defined the
portfolio projects. The project portfolio focused mainly on proof-of-concept projects for
both collaborators to explore different solutions to their business needs.
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Project execution is solely managed by each company's project manager, adjusting the
project's execution mechanisms based on the scope, resources, and type of project.
Execution is performed by both companies' internal resources, external resources hired by
each Company, and shared external resources.
Based on both companies' internal project management processes described before, the
projects are followed solely on a deliverables and schedule basis. Both project managers
mainly planned tasks weekly to reach one of the project's collaborative milestones and
deliverables. Budget management is performed by comparing the total actual cost of the
projects to the overall project budget. Internal costs are estimated with an average hourly
wage and the total number of hours spent on each project. External costs are measured only
in terms of paid invoices.
The projects are approaching a dual-exploration type of project as shown in Figure 5.4:
The project scope aims to explore two different technologies for similar processes shared
by the partners. The schedule, budget analysis, and technology selection are made in
collaboration between the two companies. The preliminary analysis and the selection of
the two technologies are performed in collaboration between the two companies. Once it
is done, the proof-of-concept execution is performed individually with a weekly update on
the project status and progress. Once both projects are completed, a proof-of-concept
analysis and post-mortem of each project are performed. A final selection on which
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Using this mechanism, the two collaborators were able to test and observe two different
solutions in parallel while minimizing cost and risk compared to testing both solutions
individually. It also allowed the collaborators to observe the solution working in slightly
different manufacturing environments and ensure that the solution would be flexible
enough to adapt to their processes and infrastructure.
As the collaboration progressed between the two companies, several events and
opportunities occurred, forcing the two companies to react accordingly by modifying and
optimizing the initial mechanisms and approaches. These events have been divided into
three categories: Strategic decision and change, Project coordination and communication,
and Project scope evolution.
Strategic decision-making in both companies will affect the scope of the different projects
and the expectation of the management of both companies regarding the collaborative
project portfolio. As observed, unilateral decisions by the management of one of the
partners can happen and impact the project's scope, allowed resources, and schedule.
Over the 18 months of the collaboration, each company's unilateral strategic decision
impacted the shared project portfolio. New stakeholders joined the project on each side,
initial resource allocation was revised, and project scope for some projects changed. As
these unilateral decisions occurred in each company, the governance model of the
collaboration had to evolve to consider each company's decision-making process. The
evolved model will be presented in the next section.
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As time passed, both companies started sharing more information regarding their project
execution and improved their collaboration to solve problems in their exploration projects.
As they shared more information over time, communication between the two project
managers at the operational level started happening weekly and then daily. This ad hoc
communication ensured better coordination between the two enterprises as they could
adequately coordinate their efforts at the operational level on collaborative tasks. These ad
hoc communications also allowed for a more efficient problem-solving process, allowing
both companies to share solutions they created on similar problems they encountered.
This element also contributed to the governance model's evolution by adding ad hoc
communication at the operational level between the two project teams.
As the project portfolio's different projects advance and finish, new opportunities arise for
the two companies following the post-mortem of this project. By the end of their execution,
some projects cost less than budgeted, allowing the two companies to define and start a
second phase for the project with the remaining budget. For another project, unequal
spending between the two companies happened, resulting in one of the two partners paying
for nearly 95% of this project's expense. To correct the situation and reach a fifty-fifty
spending division between the two partners on the project, they created a second phase.
The second company will cover 95% of the project's spending with support from the first
company. This project execution mechanism will be presented in detail in the next section.
with the other company. The two companies still agreed to share their exploration progress,
creating a new project execution mechanism presented in section 4.3.
Eighteen months after the initial creation of the collaborative approach model and
mechanisms for digital transformation and their evolution following several events, the
collaboration concludes with the following model and mechanisms. We will cover in this
section the changes that took place to the different mechanisms and schematize the final
collaborative approach.
The governance model used for decision-making has evolved during the case study. Ad
hoc communication at the operational level has been included for decision-making and
governance meetings in each enterprise. The evolved governance model is presented in
Figure 5.5.
- PMO (Project Manager's Office) – One of the enterprises has a monthly PMO
meeting involving all its vice-presidents and director. The PMO meeting scope
presents the progression of the company's different projects and project portfolio.
It takes strategic decisions such as starting a project and overall budget allocation,
changing a project or a portfolio scope, and officially ending a project. The
decisions are taken based on the overall strategy and situation of the company; and
- High Management – This meeting is similar to the PMO meeting but happens in
the second enterprise. It is a monthly meeting used to review all its projects and
project portfolio at a high level with all its VPs and directors. Strategic decision-
making is performed during this meeting, such as project approval, budget
allocation, scope change, and project suspension.
The flow of information between the governance meeting presents the information being
passed through the different governance layers. For the final governance model, we will
only focus on the additional flow of information that was not part of the initial model.
▪ Projects Status
▪ Projects Cost
▪ Projects plan and deliverables
▪ Issues
• (b) From Department to Project team
▪ Resources and budget allocation
▪ Priority change between project
5. (a) From Department to PMO / High management
▪ Projects Status and realizations
▪ Projects Cost
▪ Issues
• (b) From PMO / High management to Department
▪ Scope change of the projects
▪ Strategic decision on projects
▪ Budget approval
▪ Project termination
During the collaboration duration, uneven spending between the two companies on some
projects led to the need to change the scope and how some projects would be executed. To
better coordinate and split the efforts and budget between both enterprises and make sure
that both companies' spending was even on each project, budget management, earned
value, and expenditures were added to the project coordination and pilot committee
meeting.
The external project coordinator introduced these mechanisms with the assistance of the
project managers of both companies. The project managers would manually gather the
budget and spending information on each of their projects and report the actual spending
monthly to the project coordinator. The project coordinator would then consolidate both
companies' information and present them to the pilot committee member.
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Based on the events and evolution discussed in the past section, two additional project
execution mechanisms have been introduced to manage the collaborative projects, bringing
the number of project execution mechanisms to three. The additional project execution
mechanisms will be named "staged" and "Observe & Share" project execution
mechanisms.
The "Staged" project execution mechanism, as shown in Figure 5.6, is characterized by the
fact that it is a single exploration project divided into stages. For each of these stages, one
of the collaborators will act as the leader and cover most of the project's effort and expense,
with the other collaborator supporting the leader's effort. It is very similar to the approach
seen in other case studies of product development where one of the companies acted as a
leader and the other as a follower (Chu et al., 2006). Like the initial project execution
approach, the two collaborators will define and plan the project and select the best solutions
to explore. However, the project will be divided into the execution phase, with each partner
selecting the phase that it will lead. The phase leader is selected based on the resources
available and knowledge of the solution at that phase.
This mechanism was used on a single project in which both collaborators chose a single
solution to solve the same business needs. This solution was selected because the solution
was an industry standard with an interface to send data directly to their customers, thus
using another solution was not an option for this project. The project was divided into
exploration phases around one or several features of the solution and aimed at exploring
how to integrate these features with their respective processes and infrastructure. A leader
between the two collaborators was chosen for each phase based on their available
resources, expertise, and experience with similar features and their integration. This
collaborator would cover most of the effort and expense for this stage, while the other will
act as a supporter if needed.
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This mechanism allowed the two collaborators to explore the different features of this
single solution in depth while testing how to integrate it within their processes and
infrastructure. It also allowed both collaborators to fully exploit each other's expertise and
experience during each stage, accelerating the exploration with a smaller learning curve of
the features.
The "Observe & Share" project execution mechanism, as shown in Figure 5.7, was
developed following a change of scope for one of the projects, resulting in the exploration
of two different solutions not compatible with the other company processes and
infrastructure. The two collaborators shared a vision around the automation of their
scheduling process. However, significant differences in their respective manufacturing
cell's process and infrastructure forced them to look at individual solutions specialized for
their specific process and infrastructure. Nonetheless, both collaborators wanted to observe
and learn from each other's exploration.
Figure 5.7 - " Observe & Share " Project execution approach
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5.5 Discussion
This study's objective was to present a collaborative approach and mechanisms for a mutual digital
transformation portfolio of projects. To do so, we divided our main objective into three sub-
objectives: to develop an initial collaborative approach and mechanisms based on best practices
and the two SMEs characteristics, monitor the evolution of the approach and mechanisms over 18
months, and propose a final collaborative approach and mechanisms. As we followed this
collaboration and created the approach and mechanisms, several elements came to light.
The collaborative approach designed and used by these two enterprises focused on exploring
several Industry 4.0 technologies to solve shared business needs with a similar vision and
architecture. These needs and similar architecture became the foundation of a shared industry 4.0
exploration project portfolio, with each project scope addressing a specific business need. Since
the two companies could not see any benefits for them to collaborate on a full-scale deployment of
this architecture, they decided to focus their collaboration on finding the best industry 4.0 solutions
fitting this architecture, their needs, and their business processes and IT infrastructure. They then
decided that the scope of the projects and the collaboration scope would be to explore solutions to
support their shared business needs.
Industry 4.0 transformation in manufacturing SMEs can be performed through a cycle of small
projects and bring multiple opportunities to solve a business needs by combining different
technologies (Moeuf et al., 2019; Moeuf et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). Thus, scoping the
portfolio and its projects on their business needs and architecture instead of a particular set of
technologies allowed the two companies to explore together different technologies and processes
within each company as part of the same collaborative project. This approach also gave them the
flexibility needed to explore industry 4.0 solutions tailored to their business processes, equipment,
and IT infrastructure. As these exploration projects concluded, they were able to verify if the
solutions they tested would fit their business processes and infrastructure and ultimately decide
which solution should be deployed.
The two companies did not collaborate on the implementation phase since they perceived it would
not bring them any advantages and could expose trade secrets. After evaluation by the two
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companies' management team, they agreed that they could not afford to let their employees spend
time implementing similar technologies in the other company. So, in terms of cost and competitive
advantage, actively collaborating on the implementation was not worth it. However, both agreed
to keep sharing information on how they managed to implement their selected solutions on an
informal basis. As such, the collaboration was limited to exploring industry 4.0 solutions, limiting
the potential use of the CADT model.
Since one of the main elements preventing SMEs from performing their digital transformation
toward industry 4.0 was the lack of specialized resources and talents (Khan & Turowski, 2016;
Zangiacomi et al., 2018), the collaboration was used to share expertise between the two enterprises.
The two companies shared their complementary expertise and experiences by having their
employees perform joint workshops and present past and current projects at each other's
headquarters. It is essential to mention that employees could not work directly on the other
company's solutions and spend time and effort at the other company's exploration site. They did,
however, openly shared information and insight on each other's projects when asked for help.
External resources, like solution providers and independent experts, were shared between the two
collaborators. The project coordinator supervising the shared portfolio of projects was one of these
external resources, working in parallel for both companies at a fifty-fifty divided rate. Solution
providers' resources and experts were also shared between the two companies when needed. This
division of external resources allowed the two collaborators to split the risk and cost of a potential
solution between them and ensured that the industry 4.0 solution would be flexible enough to
support slightly different IT architecture and processes.
Since one of the challenges facing SMEs during their industry 4.0 transformation is the initial cost
of technologies (Mittal et al., 2019; Moeuf et al., 2019), the two companies secured lower
technology costs through their collaboration. By acting as a single entity when meeting with
potential Industry 4.0 solution providers, the collaborators demonstrated a higher negotiating
power when discussing terms of use and cost with them. They did it by exposing the nature of their
collaboration, explaining their project execution approach and how they would evaluate the
solutions to push them to compete on price, solution performance, and added value. It allowed the
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two collaborators to test different solutions at a lower price with a higher level of support for
integrating and testing the providers' solutions and finding the right external resources to support
both of them on their projects.
As we discussed in this article, several events influenced the proposed collaborative approach from
its initial stage to its final, showing that the collaboration and the relationship between these
companies evolved over 18 months. During that period, these companies learned to work together.
They developed ways to improve their collaboration by making incremental changes to their
approach and mechanisms in reaction to situations and opportunities from realizing their industry
4.0 projects, bringing us this final approach.
One way these events influenced the collaboration was by adding more mechanisms and
complexity when it was needed. Therefore, we saw the creation of two additional project execution
mechanisms and the modification of the collaborative governance model. The additional project
execution mechanisms resulted from the collaborators' decision to scope the projects on their
shared business needs rather than on particular industry 4.0 solutions. It allowed them to adapt how
they approached each collaboration project following the progression of the industry 4.0 projects
and the results of their industry 4.0 technology exploration.
These events also influenced the approach by adding each enterprise governance as part of the
collaborative governance to consider unilateral decisions in both companies. Governance played
an essential role in the collaborative approach, both in decision-making and shaping the approach
and the different mechanisms, since all changes to the initial mechanisms needed to be approved
by the pilot committee. The initial decision-making process was simple. The collaborators would
make strategic decisions during the pilot committee based on available information reported by the
independent project coordinator and recommendations by both the project coordinator and project
managers. However, as we discussed earlier, internal events and unilateral decisions in both
enterprises influenced the collaborative decision-making process, forcing it to evolve to consider
these decisions. This new governance allowed information and decision from the pilot committee
to be reported to each company and vice versa. It ensured a link between each company's unilateral
decision-making process and the collaboration.
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5.6 Conclusion
This paper's objective was to understand how two manufacturing SMEs could collaborate to
perform their respective industry 4.0 transformation. To do so, an intervention-research
methodology was used to develop, test, and evolve an industry 4.0 collaborative approach and
mechanisms over 18 months, the Collaborative Approach to Digital Transformation (CADT)
model. This study highlighted how the initial approach was developed based on both partners'
characteristics, studying how the approach and its mechanisms evolved following different events
during the collaboration and describing the two partners' final collaborative approach and
mechanisms.
In terms of theoretical implications, the collaboration between SMEs has been pointed out as one
of many ways to facilitate the industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs (Moeuf et al.,
2019; Shinohara et al., 2017; Zangiacomi et al., 2018). However, even if industry 4.0 collaborative
projects between SMEs have been observed (Benitez et al., 2020; Cisneros-Cabrera et al., 2021;
Moeuf et al., 2018; Zangiacomi et al., 2018), none of them explained how that collaboration took
place, how the projects were managed or even the limits of these collaborations.
Thus, this study proposes a collaborative approach between manufacturing SMEs to explore
industry 4.0 solutions based on a longitudinal case study. The proposed approach and mechanisms
showed the multiple ways to execute industry 4.0 collaborative projects based on the partners'
resources, expertise, and context, showing how manufacturing SMEs can collaborate as part of
their respective industry 4.0 transformation. The governance model developed for decision-making
and coordination also highlighted how both companies' governance and internal decision-making
process would impact the collaborative decision-making process and portfolio coordination.
This study also explains that collaboration between two similar companies for their digital
transformation, and therefore the CADT model, can be limited to exploration and prototyping
projects when they are part of the same supply chain. It has been explained by the fact that none of
the companies perceived any gain in actively collaborating on the implementation phase compared
to the potential cost and trade secret leakage that could result from this collaboration.
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This study's findings also have direct practical implications that may benefit managers and
consultants looking to explore industry 4.0 solutions in a collaborative matter. First, the different
mechanisms and approaches will give them insight into how to structure and execute their
collaboration to explore industry 4.0 solutions and pilot their digital transformation. These
mechanisms and approaches can be applied as a foundation for developing a similar type of
collaboration approach. Since best practices, approaches, and management mechanisms need to be
adjusted based on the enterprise's characteristics and context (Brodeur et al., 2017), this study also
analyzed how the two partners' different events and characteristics influenced the initial and final
collaboration approach. It gave managers and consultants insight into how these characteristics and
events can influence these mechanisms' evolution over time, allowing them to correctly adjust them
to their context. Finally, this study underscores the importance of tailoring the approach and
mechanisms of collaboration over time, allowing the collaborators to start with a less than
optimized approach, testing it, and adjusting it until it suits both parties.
This study has a significant limitation worth mentioning. It was conducted with only one
collaboration between two aerospace manufacturing SMEs, limiting the generalization of the
CADT model (Yin, 2014). The current model shall remain as a preliminary foundation for a more
complete collaborative approach which would take into consideration different variables that may
influence its final form, such as the SMEs profile, the projects’ nature, or the relationship of the
partners. Accordingly, one suggestion to generalize the findings would be to test and analyze the
collaborative approach with other industry 4.0 collaborations between manufacturing SMEs within
the same industry. Another suggestion for future research is to investigate if and how collaboration
between SMEs improves or accelerates their respective industry 4.0 transformation compared to
an individual transformation approach. Such research could help determine which approach is the
most efficient to support industry 4.0 transformation projects.
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Rédigé par:
Jonathan BRODEUR
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Robert PELLERIN
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
Isabelle DESCHAMPS
Département des mathématiques et génie industriel
École Polytechnique de Montréal
[email protected]
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Abstract
As an increasing number of manufacturing small and medium enterprises (SMEs) tackle their
digital transformation toward Industry 4.0, the need for a methodology to manage this trans-
formation, tailored to their particular context, becomes apparent. Since recent studies have iden-
tified critical success factors (CSFs) for the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs,
this paper aims to operationalize these CSFs and propose an Industry 4.0 transformation
management methodology. This research is based on an extensive literature review on CSFs for
Industry 4.0 transformation, followed by a Delphi–Régnier survey with a panel of Industry 4.0
experts. For each CSF, specific actions to perform at different stages of the Industry 4.0
transformation were defined and validated by experts. Based on a proposed Industry 4.0
transformation process, not all CSFs have to be managed at every phase and step of the
transformation process. Each CSF must be supported by different actions positioned within each
Industry 4.0 transformation process step. The results of this research are particularly relevant for
manufacturing SME managers and consultants managing Industry 4.0 transformation. By
performing these actions, they can ensure the achievement of multiple CSFs during their digital
transformation projects and, thus, ensure their success. This research combines the academic and
professional domains by proposing a way for theoretical findings to be translated into clear actions.
The proposed model allows all the actors involved in manufacturing SMEs’ digital transformation
projects to understand the actions needed to achieve a successful transformation.
Keywords
Industry 4.0; Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises; Manufacturing Industry; Critical Success
Factor; Project Management.
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6.1 Introduction
As we move toward evolving needs for manufactured goods and constant change in the global
supply chain, manufacturing SMEs become increasingly relevant since they represent 99% of
manufacturing companies in Canada and hire 84.7% of the manufacturing industry workforce
(Institut de la statistique du Québec, 2012; Statistique Canada, 2015). Their past, present, and future
performances highly affect the country’s manufacturing industry and socioeconomic sustainability.
Since they need to find ways to adapt and improve their performance and capabilities, one way to
do so is by digitally transforming themselves toward Industry 4.0 practices (Ghadge et al., 2020;
Xu, L. D. et al., 2018). Industry 4.0 is defined as “the 4th Industrial Revolution,” which “represents
a set of initiatives aimed at improving processes, products, and services by allowing decentralized
decision-making based on real-time data acquisition through the introduction of digital
technologies at every level of manufacturing companies and their supply chain” (Ghadge et al.,
2020; Moeuf et al., 2018). It is characterized by multiple technologies: collaborative robots,
cyberphysical systems, big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, Internet-of-things,
augmented reality, simulations, and 3D printing (Moeuf et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018).
These technologies have been present in different industries for quite some time. However, the
integration of multiple technology groups together, and the capacity to exploit data in real-time to
improve manufacturing enterprises’ performance and collaboration, is one of the many
characteristics that set Industry 4.0 apart as an industrial revolution (Barratt, 2004; Ghadge et al.,
2020; Manavalan & Jayakrishna, 2019; Moeuf et al., 2018). Since Industry 4.0 is intimately linked
to the exploitation of real-time data, many have defined Industry 4.0 as the digital transformation
of the manufacturing industry (Lu, 2017; Moeuf et al., 2018; Oztemel & Gursev, 2020; Piccarozzi
et al., 2018; Xu, L. D. et al., 2018).
Digital transformation is defined as the changes occurring in organizations, societies, and industries
through digital technologies and information systems (Agarwal et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2021;
Majchrzak et al., 2016; Vial, 2019). As such, digital transformation has been positioned as a way
for enterprises to radically improve their performance and generate new value by implementing
multiple technologies affecting their infrastructures, competencies, processes, and business models
(Borangiu et al., 2019; Fitzgerald et al., 2014; Gamache et al., 2017; Majchrzak et al., 2016; Vial,
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2019; Xu, X. & He, 2022). Because of these similitudes, Industry 4.0 and digital transformation
have been used interchangeably through the literature when put into the context of the digital
transformation of manufacturing companies.
Many studies have shown that multiple smaller projects are required to achieve the desired digital
transformation. It is performed by introducing new technologies, exploiting existing technologies
differently, introducing new processes, or changing the structure and business model of the
company instead of a more traditional overhaul transformation that can take place through a few
more significant projects (Ali & Aboelmaged, 2022; Arcidiacono et al., 2019; Brodeur et al., 2021;
Wank et al., 2016; Zangiacomi et al., 2020). It is especially true for the digital transformation of
manufacturing SMEs (Ghadge et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2015). SMEs prefer this approach as it
allows them to counter many challenges and risks when deploying major digital technology
projects (Buonanno et al., 2005; Moeuf et al., 2019; Singla, 2010; Stentoft et al., 2019).
Multiple studies have analyzed the challenges of digital transformation faced by manufacturing
SMEs and identified potential solutions (Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, J. M., Kiel, et al., 2018;
Schröder, 2016). Some of the hurdles faced by manufacturing SMEs are elements such as data
security; internal bureaucracies and regulations; lack of corporate culture for Industry 4.0 concepts;
lack of skilled labor; lack of clarity, both on the economic benefits and on the vision of Industry
4.0, as well as on norms and standards; and overall inadequate infrastructure to support the
implementation of these technologies (Amaral & Peças, 2021b). Among the solutions to these
hurdles, some authors propose Industry 4.0 maturity and readiness models (Leyh et al., 2017;
Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Schumacher et al., 2016). Maturity models are tools used to assess the
level of maturity of manufacturing SMEs within multiple dimensions relating to the level of
technology they implement as well as their processes, system architecture, culture, strategy, and
people (Amaral & Peças, 2021a; Ganzarain & Errasti, 2016; Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018). Once an
SME’s maturity level is measured, these tools can identify the next step of its digital transformation
and elements, such as management processes and architecture, that the SME must implement to
reach the next maturity level (Amaral & Peças, 2021a, 2021b).
Other studies have also proposed critical success factors for implementing Industry 4.0
technologies and principles (Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Moeuf et al., 2019; Pozzi et al., 2021;
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Shinohara et al., 2017). These factors cover both technology and management elements that the
manufacturers must possess to perform their digital transformations successfully. Overall, these
studies provide generic guidelines to facilitate the digital transformation of manufacturing SMEs.
However, they are highly conceptual and do not provide sufficient details to operationalize their
recommendation in manufacturing SMEs.
Hence, this study aims to propose and validate a methodology to manage the digital transformation
of manufacturing SMEs by operationalizing critical success factors. More specifically, the study
aims to:
- Identify a list of actions associated with critical success factors to manage the digital
transformation of manufacturing SMEs;
- Position these actions within the different phases of a manufacturing SME digital
transformation process;
The remaining paper is divided into five sections: a literature review of the management of Industry
4.0 transformation within manufacturing SMEs and critical success factors, the research
methodology, the findings, a discussion, and a conclusion.
To answer this question, we first covered recent studies on the digital transformation of
manufacturing SMEs to understand better its characteristics and how it is managed. Research
papers on previously identified critical success factors for the digital transformation of
manufacturing SMEs are then summarized.
Studies on Industry 4.0 within manufacturing SMEs have gained steam in the past few years, and
are considered a distinguished cluster of studies (Piccarozzi et al., 2018). One of the reasons is that
manufacturing SMEs possess different characteristics compared to large manufacturing
companies, which affect their Industry 4.0 transformation processes, the challenges they face, and
how they can overcome them. Since most manufacturing SMEs tend to have a flatter management
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structure and an absence of overarching bureaucracy, their managers and leaders can interact more
efficiently and daily to make decisions affecting the company (Gupta & Cawthon, 1996). This
result in a higher level of flexibility than larger companies have to react to external and internal
events (Brettel, M. et al., 2016; Laforet & Tann, 2006; Levy, M. & Powell, 1998; Zhang, Q. Y. et
al., 2003).
Unlike large companies, manufacturing SMEs do not always possess resources that can be
dedicated entirely to new technology implementation projects or rapidly hiring resources
specialized in the different technologies encompassed by Industry 4.0. As such, they tend to lack
readily available resources and talents to manage and execute their digital transformation projects
(Buonanno et al., 2005; Khan & Turowski, 2016; Raymond & Uwizeyemungu, 2007; Zangiacomi
et al., 2020). Contrary to large companies, who will define a long-term strategy and align short-
term strategies to it, manufacturing SMEs tend to focus on short-term strategies and objectives and
use their flexibility to review and realign their objectives and strategies based on new opportunities
and challenges (Buonanno et al., 2005; Moeuf et al., 2018; Stonehouse & Pemberton, 2002).
Finally, they lack processes and the organizational management maturity associated with large
organizations (Laforet & Tann, 2006; Smallbone et al., 1995). As such, multiple studies, mainly
based on case studies, have focused on how the characteristics of manufacturing SMEs impact their
digital transformation, the challenges they encounter, the gain and opportunities Industry 4.0 will
bring them, and the lessons learned after their transformation (Mittal, Khan, et al., 2018; Moeuf et
al., 2018; Piccarozzi et al., 2018).
Other studies have tried to understand how manufacturing SMEs can approach the management of
their digital transformation to Industry 4.0. Because they are short-sighted in terms of strategy and
possess more flexibility than large companies, manufacturing SMEs prefer to establish small and
rapidly attainable objectives for their Industry 4.0 transformations and use their flexibility and
adaptiveness to navigate through their digital transformations, adjusting their portfolio of projects
as they progress (Wank et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2017). Because of these characteristics, most
manufacturing SMEs will achieve digital transformation through a set of small technology
implementation projects to minimize the impact on their organizations in terms of the process
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changes needed to support the new technology (Brodeur et al., 2022; Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, J.
M., Buliga, et al., 2018; Zangiacomi et al., 2020).
Finally, some studies have shown that, in order to manage and execute digital transformation
through this set of iterative projects, some SMEs will define and implement basic project
management and portfolio management tools and processes (Brodeur et al., 2021; Richard et al.,
2021). These tools and processes tend to evolve over time as the manufacturing SMEs gain maturity
and complete more and more projects (Brodeur et al., 2021). The manufacturing SME will also
undergo multiple small organizational changes over time to support their digital transformations
by adopting new processes, hiring new resources, or changing the organizational chart and
hierarchy as needed (Brodeur et al., 2022).
Critical success factors (CSFs) have been thoroughly studied and translated into actions within
multiple contexts, such as the implementation of ERP systems in manufacturing companies
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(Françoise et al., 2009). More recently, multiple researchers have investigated the critical success
factors for the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs. These critical success factors
were identified through structured literature reviews (Pozzi et al., 2021; Shinohara et al., 2017;
Sony & Naik, 2019; Vrchota et al., 2021) as well as through Delphi methodologies with panels of
experts (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019) and case studies (Cimini et al., 2020). Moeuf et
al. (2019) identified a total of ten critical success factors through a Delphi study with experts in
digital transformation in manufacturing SMEs, ranging from the importance of “conducting a study
prior to embarking upon any Industry 4.0 project” to the importance of employee training. Sony et
Naik (2019) also identified ten critical success factors through a literature review to support
implementing cyberphysical systems. Finally, Françoise et al. (2009) operationalized 13 critical
success factors for managing ERP implementation projects. Overall, when looking at overlapping
CSFs identified for both digital transformation projects and within the context of manufacturing
SMEs, we can summarize them within the ten following CSFs.
Industry 4.0 does not only focus on manufacturing operations or supply chain management; it
encompasses every aspect of the organization (Brettel, Malte et al., 2014; Zangiacomi et al., 2020).
As such, the transition to Industry 4.0 starts with defining short-, medium-, and long-term
objectives. These objectives must support the short-, medium-, and long-term business strategy
objectives. It is thus essential to ensure that Industry 4.0 projects and strategies are correctly aligned
with the business strategy at every step of the Industry 4.0 transformation (Shinohara et al., 2017;
Sony & Naik, 2019).
Leadership
SMEs tend to have a short hierarchy where leaders are very close to their employees (Smallbone
et al., 1995). This proximity facilitates the Industry 4.0 transformation of the organization by
making the objectives and issues clearer and more transparent, making it possible to motivate the
employees and limit change resistance. It also promotes communication between employees
(Moeuf et al., 2019). As such, it is essential to align the objectives of manufacturing SMEs
vertically and horizontally to ensure the success of the Industry 4.0 transformation.
Communication management
Communication is critical in any project and takes different forms based on the company. As such,
an effective communication strategy for the Industry 4.0 transformation of the company at every
level is essential to ensure employees’ acceptance of the transformation process while also
facilitating coordination between the Industry 4.0 champion and the management team (Françoise
et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019).
For the Industry 4.0 transformation to succeed, the manufacturing SMEs need to implement a
transformation team composed of the right employees and consultants with the right skill sets
(Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019). Teamwork has been identified as one of the main
critical success factors in project management, including digital transformation projects (Müller,
R. et al., 2012; Müller, R. & Turner, 2007).
As manufacturing SMEs implement new technological solutions that will affect their employees’
internal processes and day-to-day work, it is necessary for a company to properly train the
employees on how to use and support the new solutions (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019;
Shinohara et al., 2017; Sony & Naik, 2019). The manufacturing company must also document how
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to use and support the implemented solutions properly and put in place knowledge-retention
processes and tools to facilitate the knowledge management of these solutions (Moeuf et al., 2019;
Shinohara et al., 2017).
The implementation of Industry 4.0 affects the organization’s structures due to its integration at
every level of the organization (de Sousa Jabbour et al., 2018; Sony, 2018). These changes can
become radical changes that need to be addressed and managed. Change management at different
stages of the transformation and through each project must be considered to ensure employee
participation and reduce resistance (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019; Sony & Naik, 2019).
Project management
Moeuf et al. (2019) have shown that “having a continuous improvement strategy promotes agility
among employees and their ability to adopt new tools and processes.” Considering that the Industry
4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs is performed through a succession of multiple projects
(Brodeur et al., 2021; Moeuf et al., 2019; Rojko, 2017), aligning the Industry 4.0 transformation
processes with the continuous improvement strategy has been shown to facilitate the adoption of
new technologies used by employees and ensure the alignment of the Industry 4.0 project with the
business strategy (Moeuf et al., 2019; Müller, J. M. et al., 2020; Shinohara et al., 2017; Zangiacomi
et al., 2020).
The list of critical success factors presented above provides essential elements to guide
manufacturing SME managers and consultants to identify areas where intervention is needed
during an Industry 4.0 transformation. However, these factors are generic and are rarely followed
by actions practitioners can perform to implement and support them.
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In order to manage its Industry 4.0 transformation, the manufacturing SME must operationalize
these CSFs. It needs to perform actions at different steps and phases of its Industry 4.0
transformation process to implement and support them. The identification of actions to manage and
support CSFs has been researched before in multiple contexts relating to digital technologies: ERP
implementation projects (Françoise et al., 2009), IT governance performance (Nfuka & Rusu,
2011), and the implementation of supply chain information systems (Denolf et al., 2015). However,
these studies do not address the context of Industry 4.0 transformation within manufacturing SMEs.
As we discussed earlier, the context of Industry 4.0 transformation in manufacturing SMEs
involves a succession of small, short-term iterative projects. As such, manufacturing SMEs must
manage an ever-changing portfolio of projects aligned with their Industry 4.0 vision and strategic
objectives. Past studies aimed at operationalizing digital projects in the manufacturing industry
focus mainly on single, large, transformative projects, such as implementing an ERP or a supply
chain information system. They identified actions to support CSFs within these single major
projects. The actions also stop at the end of each project, without any actions that could encompass
an iterative process. Even when these studies produced lists of actions to support each CSF, they
did not indicate at which steps and phases of their respective implementation methodologies these
actions took place. As such, it would be challenging for both researchers and practitioners to
transpose these actions as is to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs.
To fill this gap, this study aims to propose and validate a methodology to manage the Industry 4.0
transformation of manufacturing SMEs through the operationalization of CSFs.
To identify and position the actions, we created a general framework, shown in Figure 6.1,
highlighting the relation between the actions, critical success factors, and phases and steps for
managing the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs. This framework proposes that
knowledge about the CSFs of Industry 4.0 transformation generates actions at different steps and
phases of the Industry 4.0 transformation process that will make it possible to establish, support,
and manage these CSFs. It also proposes that different actions are required for each CSF depending
on the step and phase of the transformation process.
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We divided the Industry 4.0 transformation management process into three phases and nine steps
based on past case studies and Delphi research detailing the phases, steps, and overall best practices
used by manufacturing SMEs to manage their Industry 4.0 transformations (Arcidiacono et al.,
2019; Brodeur et al., 2022; Brodeur et al., 2021; Cimini et al., 2020; Moeuf et al., 2019; Zangiacomi
et al., 2020). These phases allow manufacturing SMEs to identify potential Industry 4.0 projects
able to solve business issues and support their strategic visions. They also allow the SMEs to
prepare themselves to launch their Industry 4.0 transformations by implementing the tools,
processes, and resources needed to execute and manage their transformations. Finally, they allow
SMEs to execute their transformations in an iterative matter. The three phases are the following:
Identification, Preparation, and Execution.
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In the Identification phase, the manufacturing SME identifies potential Industry 4.0 projects
before starting its Industry 4.0 transformation. Moeuf et al. (2019) identified that, for an Industry
4.0 transformation to be successful, the manufacturing SME needed to conduct a study to identify
Industry 4.0 projects that could support its Industry 4.0 vision and strategy. The manufacturing
SME has to create an Industry 4.0 vision aligned with its business strategy (Moeuf et al., 2019;
Pozzi et al., 2021; Sony & Naik, 2019), assess the current performance of its processes and
technologies (Moeuf et al., 2019; Pozzi et al., 2021; Shinohara et al., 2017), and determine its
capacity to deliver its Industry 4.0 vision and projects (Müller, R. et al., 2012; Pozzi et al., 2021;
Sony & Naik, 2019).
- Establishing a strategic vision for Industry 4.0: The manufacturing SME must first
properly define its Industry 4.0 vision and position it as part of its business strategy. The
SME will define strategic objectives that its Industry 4.0 strategy will support and position
them in time (Moeuf et al., 2019; Pozzi et al., 2021; Sony & Naik, 2019).
- Current situation evaluation: The manufacturing SME needs to evaluate its current
situation regarding digitalization. It must evaluate its processes, performance, current
technology architecture, resources, and capabilities (Moeuf et al., 2019; Pozzi et al., 2021;
Shinohara et al., 2017).
- Industry 4.0 project/opportunity identification: Based on its vision and current situation,
the manufacturing SME can identify potential Industry 4.0 projects that will enhance its
position to achieve its strategic goals (Demircan Keskin, 2019; Kaiser et al., 2015; Richard
et al., 2021).
Once the manufacturing SME Industry 4.0 vision and list of projects are determined, the
manufacturing SME has to provide itself with the means to manage and execute this
transformation. To do so, it needs to:
- Prioritize its Industry 4.0 projects to create an Industry 4.0 roadmap based on its objectives
and capacity (Isikli et al., 2018; Richard et al., 2021; Vrchota et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2014);
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- Define the tools, governance, and processes to manage its transformation (Brodeur et al.,
2021; Mohelska & Sokolova, 2018; Richard et al., 2021);
- Define the processes and tools it will use to manage and deliver each project (Brodeur et
al., 2021; Richard et al., 2021);
- Allocate resources to the transformation projects (Moeuf et al., 2019; Shinohara et al., 2017;
Sony & Naik, 2019).
We then encompass these elements into the Preparation phase and divide them into three steps:
- Industry 4.0 project prioritization: The manufacturing SME prioritizes its Industry 4.0
projects into a project portfolio based on its strategic vision and current situation to create
an Industry 4.0 transformation roadmap (Isikli et al., 2018; Richard et al., 2021; Vrchota et
al., 2021; Yu et al., 2014).
Once the projects are identified and aligned, and the manufacturing SMEs provide themselves with
the means to deliver them, they can start the Execution phase. The execution phase starts as an
iterative process in which the manufacturing SME delivers the project, assesses what it could have
done better, revises its processes and tools, and starts again with another project (Brodeur et al.,
2022; Brodeur et al., 2021; Moeuf et al., 2019). As discussed in the literature review, manufacturing
SMEs will approach digital transformation through iterative projects. It is then essential to divide
this phase into steps that can represent this iterative approach. Through this phase, the
manufacturing SME can constantly improve itself in managing and delivering its Industry 4.0
transformation (Brodeur et al., 2022; Rojko, 2017), revise its Industry 4.0 project portfolio
(Brodeur et al., 2021; Shinohara et al., 2017), and ensure that the company steadily adopts the
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changes brought by the technologies and processes (Brodeur et al., 2022; Hornstein, 2015;
Mohelska & Sokolova, 2018). This iterative process is again divided into three steps:
- Industry 4.0 project execution and management: The manufacturing SME executes and
manages its Industry 4.0 projects following the structure and approach it defined and put in
place (Brodeur et al., 2021; Richard et al., 2021).
- Industry 4.0 project post-mortem: The manufacturing SME reviews its Industry 4.0
projects by analyzing if their objectives were met, if issues happened during the project,
how it solved them, what it could have done to prevent them, and what it should do better
or differently on the following projects (Brodeur et al., 2021; Nelson, 2007).
- Industry 4.0 management and project delivery approach revision: The manufacturing
SME revises and implements changes to its management structure for Industry 4.0
transformation and its project delivery approach based on the project post-mortem analysis
and the impact of the Industry 4.0 projects (Brodeur et al., 2022; Brodeur et al., 2021;
Hornstein, 2015; Mohelska & Sokolova, 2018; Shinohara et al., 2017).
Within each phase, we will identify a list of actions to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation of
manufacturing SMEs influenced by well-established critical success factors (Moeuf et al., 2019;
Shinohara et al., 2017; Sony & Naik, 2019).
This framework will also serve as the foundation of a methodology relevant to practitioners, who
can easily integrate these actions within their own project management processes. This framework
makes it possible to identify the critical success factors that need to be supported and managed
through actions at each step. It is worth mentioning that this framework will also allow us to
identify if all CSFs need to be managed and supported at each step of the transformation process
based on the presence or lack of actions identified.
To identify and position the actions, we conducted an extensive literature review on CSFs, focusing
on the Industry 4.0 transformation process. We then validated the actions and their positions within
the process through a Delphi–Régnier survey with a panel of Industry 4.0 experts. As such, specific
actions to perform at different stages of the Industry 4.0 transformation for each CSF were defined
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and validated by experts. This methodology is explained in further detail in the following
subsections.
The Delphi methodology aims to obtain and organize the opinions of a panel of experts on a
particular subject. It can be used to explore complex subjects or to develop models. This
methodology is recognized for its ability to bring forward empirical evidence led by the consensus
or dissensus of a group’s opinion on a subject. It is defined as “an iterative process used to collect
and distill expert judgments using a series of questionnaires” (Linstone & Turoff, 1975; Rowe &
Wright, 1999; Skulmoski et al., 2007). This method is typically divided into expert recruitment and
multi-time data collection processes, called “iterations.” Each iteration refines the opinions and
data collected in the previous iteration and returns the responses to the experts (Rowe & Wright,
1999). Comparing the opinions of multiple experts on our subject will ensure we achieve our
research objectives. The iterative process stops when the research team considers its question
answered and its objectives met (Skulmoski et al., 2007).
To minimize the risk of bias and ensure the experts’ participation, they must remain anonymous to
each other, having access only to the other participants’ answers at the end of each iteration. Direct
communication between the experts is forbidden. It ensures an honest opinion on the element of
the questionnaire and that the opinions of other experts do not influence their own opinions at the
time of answer.
Skulmoski et al. (2007) noted that the Delphi methodology is flexible. Many adaptations on how
to operationalize it have been made in past research, with the two most variable elements being the
number of iterations and the methods used to collect data. Given our research topic and the need
to facilitate our data collection and analysis process, the Delphi method was combined with
Régnier’s abacus to create our exploratory data collection method. This method has been used
multiple times to collect and summarize expert opinions on Industry 4.0 technologies, risks,
opportunities, and impacts on manufacturing SMEs (Moeuf et al., 2019; Rosin et al., 2022).
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The abacus of Régnier is a technique that uses a panel of colours to collect experts’ opinions about
precise statements. Its main advantage is the speed at which it can summarize opinions thanks to
its colourful visualization of results that facilitate the identification of consensus and dissensus in
the experts’ opinions on each statement (Maleki, 2009). The experts must choose between seven
colours to express their opinion:
The experts’ opinions appear in a colourful visualization synthetizing the experts’ consensus and
dissensus on each statement, facilitating its analysis. This study used the platform Color Insight
(http://colorinsight.fr/ accessed May 31th 2022) to create the questionnaires, distribute them to
experts, collect the answers, and generate colour visualization ready for analysis.
The combination of these two methods and techniques will be referred to by the term “Delphi–
Régnier” in this article.
The Delphi methodology’s main characteristic is that it consults a group of experts, often described
as a “panel of experts,” where the “expert” is defined as an “actor with recognized skills in a field
and responsible for contributing to the elaboration of a judgment” (Linstone & Turoff, 1975;
Maleki, 2009). As such, the constitution of the expert panel must be based on the three following
criteria:
To include the perspective of multiple actors with experience in the subject, we created three
different categories of experts. For each category, the expert must meet the following criteria:
1. Must have analyzed, managed, or executed digital transformation projects over the past
three years;
3. Must have been involved in the starting phase of digital transformation within one or
multiple manufacturing SMEs.
The first criterion ensures that the expert has firsthand experience with digital transformation
projects. The second criterion ensures that their experience and expertise have been developed
within the context of manufacturing SMEs, the main subject of our study. Finally, the third criterion
ensures that their experience and expertise are related to the digital transformation management
aspect instead of the technical aspects. With these criteria, we ensured that our experts could
provide an informed opinion on actions to manage the digital transformation of manufacturing
SMEs.
The experts were divided into three categories, including practitioners and academic perspectives.
They are the following:
- Academic: Researcher or university professor who has conducted research on the digital
transformation of manufacturing SMEs;
The size of the experts’ panel can vary depending on the research. Mitchell (1991) and Ashton
(1986) suggest that around 10 and 11 experts participate in a Delphi Study. Recent studies using
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the Delphi-Régnier methodology were based on a panel composed of around twenty experts
(Moeuf et al., 2019; Riemens et al., 2021; Rosin et al., 2022). For our study, our panel was
composed of 19 experts distributed as follows: six industrials, six academics, and seven
independent consultants.
The initial questionnaire was created to validate actions to support CSFs at each phase and step of
the manufacturing SME Industry 4.0 transformation process. We identified multiple actions for
each step and critical success factor and asked the panel of experts to comment on the actions and
their positions.
The list of actions used in the initial questionnaire was identified following a literature review of
Industry 4.0 management in manufacturing SME case studies (Brodeur et al., 2021; Cimini et al.,
2020; Zangiacomi et al., 2020) and from past research on similar critical success factors for the
project management of IT and ERP projects (Françoise et al., 2009; Prifling, 2010). Following the
model in Figure 1, we positioned each action under different steps and used the Delphi method to
validate or invalidate the position of these actions within the model.
The initial questionnaire was validated by a small panel of integrator experts from the Center of
Industrial Expertise of Montreal, who work on supporting digital transformation projects in
manufacturing SMEs. This small panel of experts had minimal experience in Delphi surveys but
several years of experience working with industrial managers and consultants in digital
transformation. They identified potential misinterpretations of the questions and suggested ways to
make it easier for industrial and integrator experts to interpret them.
The experts first answered a questionnaire of 67 statements using the Color Insight platform. The
statements are shown in Appendix A. They gave their opinion by selecting different colours from
Régnier’s abacus. The experts were also asked to comment on their answers to justify them or add
more nuance to the statements. They were also invited to submit additional statements and opinions
at the end of each section of the questionnaire.
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Once the first round of statements was completed, the research team reviewed and analyzed the
votes and comments. Based on the results and comments, a second questionnaire of 19 statements,
provided in Appendix B, was created and submitted to the participants, who answered the first
questionnaire with both the results from their first questionnaire and a summary of their comments,
consensus, dissensus, and suggestions.
Complementary information necessary to interpret the experts’ opinions on the first questionnaire
was gathered during this second iteration. Following the analysis of this information, the research
team ended the study. All 19 experts participated in both rounds of the study.
As shown in Appendices C and D, the Color Insight platform generated an item matrix from the
expert votes on each statement. This matrix of items classified the statements from the “most agreed
to” to the “least agreed to,” helping us visualize and analyze the answers. The dissensus items
appear in the middle of the matrix. The matrix was automatically generated with the “classic mode”
of the platform Color Insight, and the colours were weighted from 5 for green (completely agreed
with) to 1 for red (completely disagree with). Based on past evaluation thresholds in similar
research (Moeuf et al., 2019; Richard et al., 2021; Rosin et al., 2022), it was decided that the experts
reached a consensus when 60% of their responses agreed (green) or disagreed (red) with the
statement.
During the first iteration of the study, the research team prepared the questions to validate actions
to support the critical success factors of the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs.
For the second round, the research team prepared a second set of questions to clarify the experts’
answers on two elements: The Industry 4.0 champion and the SMEs’ capacity to manage and
execute their Industry 4.0 transformation. After analysis of all the data, we summarized the experts’
opinions into three categories:
The following subsection summarizes the experts’ opinions and comments supporting these
categories. To reference the statement presented to the experts, we used the following formula:
QX-IY, where X references the questionnaire and Y references the item. For example, the reference
Q1-I1.4 references Item 1.4 in the first questionnaire, which would be “Designate a Digital
Transformation Champion.” The questionnaires can be referred to in Appendices A and B.
This section synthesized the experts' answers and comments at each step presented in Figure 6.1.
6.5.1.1 Establishing a Strategic Vision for Industry 4.0 (Q1-1.1 to Q1-1.9, Q2-
1.1 to Q2-1.13)
The experts’ answers allowed us to verify the actions needed to align the Industry 4.0 strategy with
the manufacturing SME business strategy. Even if the experts disagreed on reviewing the entire
business strategy to consider digital technology, they indicated that it was necessary for the SME
to align its Industry 4.0 objectives with the business strategy and to identify the business objectives
that the Industry 4.0 strategy will support. An IT architecture vision must also be defined to support
the company’s digital transformation.
To ensure that the strategy and vision are communicated and agreed upon at the different levels of
the hierarchical line, the strategy should be communicated to the manager of every department and
business unit. The experts also indicated that the company should obtain a commitment from the
managers and directors of these departments to support the Industry 4.0 transformation. Experts
suggested that “a steering committee should be created “at this step.
They also indicated that naming an Industry 4.0 champion was necessary for our experts as it
ensures that a leader will oversee the Industry 4.0 transformation. However, the experts disagreed
on the champion being part of the high management team of the company or the company’s CEO.
Instead, they indicated that the Industry 4.0 champion should be an official position given to a
manager under the SME high management or CEO. The champion should possess prior experience
in IT or digital transformation projects and be responsible for educating the SME’s management
and employees on the principles and technologies of Industry 4.0. Finally, the champion should be
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given the authority to identify and prioritize the Industry 4.0 projects and implement governance
to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation process.
The experts indicated that the manufacturing SME should evaluate the performance of critical
processes and technologies and evaluate its current IT infrastructure and business architecture.
They also suggested that the SME evaluate its capacity to execute and manage its Industry 4.0
transformation. To do so, it should assess its financial abilities, its employees’ expertise and
experience in Industry 4.0 technologies and projects, its internal project management and
continuous improvement processes, its employees’ and managers’ resistance to change, and any
external help available.
Finally, the experts agreed that the SME should involve the company’s management and key
employees in the evaluation process and communicate the evaluation results to the company’s
management.
Once the Industry 4.0 strategic visions and objectives are established and the current situation of
the manufacturing SME is assessed, it is now possible to identify Industry 4.0 projects that could
fill the gap between the current situation and the vision, leading to the creation of an Industry 4.0
projects portfolio. The experts indicated that the Industry 4.0 project objectives needed to be
aligned with the SME’s Industry 4.0 strategy and business strategy objectives. Industry 4.0 projects
should be able to solve business and operations issues, ensuring that some projects fit into the
continuous improvement strategy of the SME. While identifying the different Industry 4.0 projects,
the experts indicated that IT infrastructure and architecture projects supporting the Industry 4.0
projects should also be identified.
In this step, the SME should define each project’s scope and objectives and assess its technology
prerequisites, schedule, budget, and potential risks. The SME should identify the resources and
expertise needed for each project at this stage. Finally, many experts suggested that a steering
committee should be involved in identifying and validating the Industry 4.0 project portfolio.
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When prioritizing the project portfolio, the experts indicated that many elements should be
considered: the priority of the strategic objectives, the access to financial resources, the technology
prerequisite between projects, and the overall capacity of the SME to execute and manage their
projects. Some suggested that the SME should first identify quick-win projects to gain their
employees’ and management’s confidence in the transformation, that a steering committee should
be involved in the prioritization process, and that the champion should manage this process. Some
experts also suggested tools and techniques that support the prioritization process, such as the
impact vs. effort matrix and Industry 4.0 roadmaps.
Finally, the experts indicated that the prioritization should be validated with the company’s high
management team and communicated to managers and employees.
The Industry 4.0 management structure is defined by a set of processes used to manage and monitor
the Industry 4.0 transformation. The experts considered that the champion should have the
authority to implement the required management and governance structure. The experts also found
it necessary to implement a communication management plan and a formal change management
process.
When asked about what should be added to these elements, the experts indicated that a steering
committee should be part of the governance structure to ensure the commitment of the other
department of the company. They also suggested that SMEs should manage the changes generated
by the Industry 4.0 projects and perform organizational changes if needed. Finally, the experts
suggested that the SME implement tools and processes to manage the support function (helpdesk),
continuously improve the new solutions, and identify and gather new Industry 4.0 project
proposals.
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In parallel with establishing the Industry 4.0 management structure, the manufacturing SME must
decide how it will deliver its projects. The expert panel indicated that an Industry 4.0 project
manager role should be created. Furthermore, internal resources with the right expertise should be
identified and allocated to the projects. If not available within the company, they should be hired
as new employees or external integrators and consultants. They also indicated that the roles and
responsibilities of each team member and the project stakeholder should be identified and
documented to enhance teamwork. The SME should also implement tools and processes to
facilitate communication coordination and collaboration between the team members.
To ensure that the project management process is effective, the experts indicated that the SME
should introduce tools and processes to plan, monitor, and manage the project’s schedule, budget,
and risk plan. The inclusion of a communication plan for each project was also highly
recommended.
As for the delivery approach itself, the experts did not agree on which approach to use. Some
suggested using an iterative and agile approach, involving a quick succession of proof-of-concept,
prototype, validation, and deployment phases for smaller projects. Others preferred a cascade
approach for larger projects. Overall, they commented that the approach for delivering projects
depends on the specific characteristics of the projects considered.
To ensure that the Industry 4.0 projects are appropriately managed and executed, the experts
indicated that regular follow-up on the progress of the projects should be performed with the project
managers and the Industry 4.0 champion as per the established governance process. The experts
also highlighted that the budget and schedule should be revised and adapted based on the project’s
progress. The project manager should ensure coordination, communication, and collaboration
between the team members and the project stakeholders during the projects.
Knowledge management was also a considerable concern for the experts. They suggested that
changes to the IT infrastructure and architecture and the new processes and technologies
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implemented within the Industry 4.0 projects should be adequately documented. A support process
for the technology users should be implemented and documented. Of course, they also suggested
creating a training program and documentation for the employees on the new processes and
technologies implemented.
The experts disagreed on the need to validate the project stakeholders’ choice of the selected
Industry 4.0 technologies during project execution. As some experts mentioned, if the project scope
was defined as the “implementation of System X,” the technology validation or feasibility analysis
should be performed before the project starts. However, if the project scope is defined as a function,
for example, “measuring the efficiency of our CNC machines,” then the technology used to perform
the function must be identified and validated with the stakeholders in the first phases of the project
before being deployed.
The experts insisted that a post-mortem at the end of each Industry 4.0 project must be performed.
They indicated that the project’s stakeholders, the project team, and the employees and managers
of the department in which the Industry 4.0 project took place should all be involved. They also
indicated that the post-mortem activity was also the right moment to evaluate how the Industry 4.0
management structure and delivery approach positively or negatively affected the project.
In order to properly perform the post-mortem, the experts suggested evaluating the following for
each project:
- The gap between the estimated and actual budget and schedule;
- The performance of the project team members as per their roles and responsibilities.
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6.5.1.9 Industry 4.0 Management and Project Delivery Approach Revision (Q1-
I9.1 to Q1-I10.5)
Based on the results of the post-mortem, potential revision to the Industry 4.0 management
structure and project delivery approach could be needed. As such, the experts indicated that the
manufacturing SME should revise its communication plan, governance, project management tools,
and processes and suggested revising the role and responsibilities of the project team members, all
of them on a necessity basis instead of on a systematic basis.
The experts also suggested it was the right moment to evaluate new Industry 4.0 project proposals
and revise the project portfolio based on the completed project results. The experts also insisted
that a proper technological survey should be included when reviewing the project portfolio and
roadmap.
With each change to the tools, processes, and governance structure, proper project team training
might also be necessary. The experts indicated that with these revisions, some organizational
changes, such as revisions to the organizational chart and adding new tools and processes, might
be needed and should be identified and managed to ensure that the Industry 4.0 transformation is
adequately supported. Finally, the experts indicated that changes and revisions should be validated
by the stakeholder, communicated to the employees and managers, and documented.
The experts also commented on the overall management processes and actions needed to manage
the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs. One recurring theme was how each
manufacturing SME’s context differed from another and could affect the presence and position of
actions needed to support the CSF. Even if they highly suggested that the Industry 4.0 champion
should not be the company’s CEO, multiple experts claimed that, for smaller SMEs with a flat
hierarchy, the CEO could indeed act as the champion. In other contexts, the champion could also
be the project manager or supervise them.
Another element dependent on the context of the SME is the definition of the scope of the Industry
4.0 projects and the delivery approach to be used. We already discussed this element in Section
6.5.1.6. In addition, based on the experts’ comments, the scope could be defined in any way that
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suits the manufacturing SME’s objectives. The delivery approach could be created based on
existing project management processes. It also applies to the project prioritization process. Even if
the experts indicated multiple elements to analyze to help prioritization, one SME could decide to
prioritize based on only a subset of these mentioned elements. Another SME could decide to
prioritize based on other elements.
In summary, even if the experts indicated multiple actions that a manufacturing SME should
perform, how it interprets these actions and which actions it will perform will depend on its context.
Multiple experts mentioned that the Industry 4.0 transformation should be an iterative process.
How to manage it and the actions needed to achieve its critical success factors would change over
time. This led multiple experts to suggest that the SME should execute them more simply and then
use the revision process to expand it. For example, the steering committee created at the beginning
of the transformation could include only the champion, the CEO, and the director of operations.
However, the steering committee could be revised to include other departments and stakeholders
over time. The same recommendation could be applied to the project management tools and
processes: The SME could start with essential tools like a high-level schedule and budget and revise
them to include more advanced project management tools, processes, and techniques, such as
earned value calculation, in subsequent projects.
Some experts also mentioned that manufacturing SMEs should give themselves the tools,
processes, and means to explore solutions through a succession of small and fast proof-of-concept
projects. It would allow them to better understand Industry 4.0 technologies, gain maturity, and
identify how they could support their business strategies. Unfortunately, the experts did not provide
any specific practical actions on that matter. They commented that the elements put in place by the
identified actions of this research should reflect an iterative process.
This research’s main objective was to develop a methodology to manage manufacturing SME
Industry 4.0 transformation plans through the operationalization of CSFs. Based on comments from
and the results of a Delphi–Régnier study with a panel of experts in the digital transformation of
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manufacturing SMEs, we identified specific actions to be performed at different phases and steps
of the Industry 4.0 management process, as seen in Tables 1–3. Each action has been positioned
within its respective steps and phase.
As we can see, different actions are necessary to support the CSFs at the different steps and phases
of the Industry 4.0 transformation management process, and not all the CSFs are present within
each step. As seen in Table 6.1, the actions in the identification phases are mainly used to ensure
the alignment of the Industry 4.0 strategy with the business strategy and to establish the leadership
needed to manage the transformation. They are also used to align the hierarchical line of the
company, ensuring the Industry 4.0 projects are appropriately defined as ways to improve the
processes and operations of the company and ensuring that the strategy and the list of projects are
appropriately communicated at the different levels of the company.
The actions for the preparation phase in Table 6.2 are used to prioritize the list of projects based
on the manufacturing SME’s strategic objectives and capacity and to ensure a management
structure involving the right stakeholders, the tools and processes to manage the project portfolio
and organizational changes are implemented. Actions to support the management and execution of
each project are also present, as well as actions to ensure that the manufacturing SME puts together
a project team able to deliver the projects. Finally, actions to ensure the SME’s hierarchical line
alignment are implemented, as well as to ensure that the project roadmap, management tools,
processes, and governance are communicated.
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Organizational culture and change • Identify organizational change to better support the management
management of the Industry 4.0 transformation of the company.
For the execution phase seen in Table 6.3, nearly all the CSFs are involved except Conducting a
study prior to Industry 4.0 projects. Indeed, actions to ensure excellent communication and
collaboration between the project teams, external contractors, and the stakeholders of the Industry
4.0 projects are present in the Project execution and management steps. Actions to properly train
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the employees and manage the knowledge developed during the Industry 4.0 projects are also
present. Meanwhile, actions to review the performance of the implemented processes and tools to
support and manage the Industry 4.0 projects are presented in the Industry 4.0 project post-mortem
step. Finally, actions to revise and implement changes to the processes, tools, project portfolio, and
roadmap are presented in the Industry 4.0 management and project delivery approach revision step.
While past research on CSFs only identified a list of actions to support each CSF (Denolf et al.,
2015; Françoise et al., 2009; Nfuka & Rusu, 2011), within each step and phase, the proposed
methodology identifies and positions the actions needed to support the CSFs of Industry 4.0
transformation in manufacturing SMEs. It allows an SME to clearly identify the actions it needs at
its current Industry 4.0 transformation step and plan the following actions accordingly. It also
allows the SME to identify the CSFs it must implement at its current step, allowing it to gradually
and iteratively implement all the CSFs needed to successfully manage its Industry 4.0
transformation.
When comparing these actions to past studies, similarities can be found. For each CSF, actions
from other models that can be applied to the context of manufacturing SMEs could be found. For
example, all past models indicate the necessity of allocating resources to the project teams and
ensuring that tools and processes are implemented to manage the project scope, schedule, and
budget. The same actions can be found in our study and are aligned with best project management
practices. Similar actions can also be found within the Align the Industry 4.0 strategy with the
business strategy CSF, with actions to align the ERP and supply chain system implementation with
the business strategy. The Communication management CSF is also supported by similar actions
between our study and other studies on CSFs.
However, some differences, influenced by the context of the Industry 4.0 transformation process
of manufacturing SMEs, can be found, mainly within the Leadership and alignment along
hierarchical line CSF. While past studies indicated that the champion must be part of the
company’s top management (Denolf et al., 2015; Françoise et al., 2009), our results indicate that,
in the context of manufacturing SMEs, the champion should not be a top executive within the
company but rather a manager supervised by the top executives. Our results also indicated the
importance of creating a steering committee to supervise the Industry 4.0 transformation, while
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past studies did not. Finally, since the past studies aimed at identifying actions within a single
project, none considered actions aimed at reviewing the project portfolio, management structure,
and project delivery approach in an iterative manner. Our study also includes actions to support the
Continuous improvement strategy CSF, which is not part of past models since they were not
developed to be used in the context of iterative projects.
When looking at these actions, many of them were not specific to the context of manufacturing
SMEs and could be applied to larger organizations that decide to perform their digital
transformation through a set of iterative projects. Critical success factors like Align industry 4.0
strategy to business strategy or Leadership are not specific to manufacturing SMEs and are valid
for larger organizations. Thus, the actions to implement and support them will be similar between
large and small companies. However, the steps and phases within which the actions take place can
differ between large and small organizations, especially if the large company does not follow an
iterative approach to its digital transformation.
Moreover, these actions were primely identified in response to the challenges of manufacturing
SMEs, their context, and the critical factors identified to support their digital transformations. We
also validated these actions with a panel of experts with specific experience in manufacturing SMEs
and the managers of manufacturing SMEs. The actions have not been validated by experts
specialized in the digital transformation of large organizations.
The limitation of the presented methodology resides within the actions themselves. The actions
presented in this research are exclusively associated with the CSFs identified earlier. As such, this
research did not introduce actions linked to the creation and management of deliverables within
each step of the Industry 4.0 transformation process. This research also does not present the
sequence and dependencies of these actions within and between each step. Since the objective of
this paper is to propose a methodology to manage the digital transformation of manufacturing
SMEs by the operationalization of well-established CSFs, we did not test the performance of this
methodology within a manufacturing SME. Future research could present a complete and generic
model to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs by adding, sequencing,
and linking these actions with different deliverables and actions meant to execute and manage
Industry 4.0 projects. Future research could also evaluate the difference between this methodology
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and other methodologies specialized in large organizations. Finally, future research could also
validate and enhance this methodology by testing it within manufacturing SMEs.
6.7 Conclusion
This paper proposed a methodology to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation process of
manufacturing SMEs through the operationalization of CSFs. A literature review was performed
to determine the list of actions and position them within the steps and phases of an Industry 4.0
transformation process. These actions were then submitted to a panel of Industry 4.0 experts using
a Delphi–Régnier methodology. Based on the opinions of these experts, a methodology was
developed and proposed.
This study’s main theoretical contribution is the following: By proposing a list of actions
complementing the information already available in the literature with a study performed with both
practicians and academics, the study of CSFs in Industry 4.0 was enriched. In addition, by
positioning these actions into the different steps, we can identify the timely impact of CSFs in the
overall Industry 4.0 transformation process.
This study also has practical implications. The identified actions can serve managers and
consultants in digital transformation projects by helping them better plan and execute their Industry
4.0 transformation plans. Indeed, the methodology provides a list of specific actions facilitating the
occurrence of the CSFs needed for transformation.
This study possesses limitations worth mentioning. Since it was performed using a panel of experts,
this study involves a subjective bias related to the choice of experts from the researchers’ academic
and professional networks. It was difficult for the research to be completely free from this potential
bias despite the research team’s desire for neutrality and the attention paid to the complementarity
and coherence of the profiles when selecting the experts. Furthermore, a small number of
professionals validated the list of actions. We could have obtained more accurate results and
complementary information by performing the study with a higher number of experts.
Another limitation is that our research is mainly qualitative. Since we aimed to propose a
methodology to manage the Industry 4.0 transformation of manufacturing SMEs, the scope of our
study and its prospective aspect did not allow us to envision a more quantitative approach. On the
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other hand, our research methodology allowed us to collect empirical data from expert opinions to
identify the main actions to support the critical success factors needed to manage the Industry 4.0
transformation of manufacturing SMEs.
Future research could involve studying the presence of said actions within multiple manufacturing
SMEs and analyzing the impact of the presence or absence of said actions on the performance,
challenge, and risks linked to their Industry 4.0 transformation plans. Since most actions highly
depend on the specific context of the manufacturing SME, future research could identify which
specific elements of an SME context should be considered and how specific actions should be
performed in each case. Finally, since the model was not empirically validated in a manufacturing
SME, future researchers could test the methodology and enhance it with their results to assess its
effectiveness and generalize it.
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Ce chapitre revient sur les éléments importants qui ressortent des trois articles présentés dans les
chapitres 4 à 6. Tout d’abord, un sommaire des contributions de chacun des articles est présenté
afin de démontrer comment chacun répond aux objectifs de recherche. Ensuite, les liens entre les
articles et les contributions seront explorés au travers d’éléments communs entre ceux-ci.
Finalement, afin de mettre en pratique les éléments discutés, des recommandations sur les phases,
étapes et livrables de gestion de la transformation 4.0 en PME manufacturière, basées sur les
résultats des trois articles, sont élaborées.
L’article 2 démontre l’approche de réalisation, les processus, la gouvernance et les outils de gestion
de projet de portefeuille de projet qui ont été adoptés par le partenaire industriel afin de gérer sa
transformation numérique dans un contexte de collaboration avec une autre PME manufacturière.
L’article démontre comment les caractéristiques de la PME ont influencé l’adoption des approches,
outil, processus et règle de gouvernance et comment ces éléments ont évolué sur une période de 18
mois en réponse à différents facteurs interne et interne. Cet article démontre également comment
les approches, outils, processus et la gouvernance de gestion sont tout d’abord adoptés sous une
forme simple et fonctionnelle et se complexifient dans le temps au fur et à mesure que l’entreprise
exécute sa transformation et évolue avec elle. De ce fait, cet article permet de répondre à l’objectif
spécifique OS1 et à l’objectif spécifique OS3. Par le biais de cet article, les différentes phases et
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Le premier élément commun à l’ensemble des articles et à cette thèse est l’utilisation d’une
approche itérative pour lancer et gérer les projets de transformation numérique en PME
manufacturière. En effet, aussi bien par nos observations auprès du partenaire industriel que par les
commentaires recueillis des experts de l’étude Delphi-Régnier, les PME manufacturières semblent
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avoir beaucoup plus de succès dans leur transformation numérique si celles-ci effectuent leur
transformation au moyen d’une succession de « petits projets rapides l’un après l’autre ». La
réalisation de projets en successions permet d’aller chercher un certain momentum dans la
transformation numérique en assurant une livraison constante de solutions conduisant chacune à
l’obtention de gains distincts. Celle-ci facilite également l’acceptation et l’adoption des
technologies auprès des employés en assurant la mise en place de petits changements incrémentaux
qui seront beaucoup plus faciles à enseigner et implanter.
Les experts ont également mentionné l’importance de démarrer une transformation numérique par
des projets simples facilement atteignables avec les capacités actuelles de l’entreprise, et d’entamer
graduellement des projets de plus en plus complexes. À la suite de la mise en place et de l’adoption
de projets numériques plus simples et atteignables, il sera possible pour la PME manufacturière
d’apprendre à maitriser, pas à pas, ces nouvelles technologies et ainsi de progresser plus facilement
dans sa transformation numérique. En apprenant de l’implantation de ces technologies plus
simples, la PME manufacturière acquiert de nouvelles compétences numériques et est donc en
mesure d’identifier plus facilement la suite logique à sa transformation numérique et de gérer plus
efficacement ses prochains projets.
Bien entendu, l’utilisation d’une approche itérative affecte la façon dont la transformation et les
projets en tant que tels doivent être gérés. La PME manufacturière doit donc définir une vision de
sa transformation numérique pouvant être divisée en plusieurs petits projets. Ces projets doivent
être alignés non seulement à cette vision, mais également aux problématiques d’affaires et
opérationnelles de l’entreprise. Cet alignement permet donc à la PME de rapidement obtenir des
gains sur chacun des projets, peu importe la taille estimée de ces gains. La constance des projets
de transformation, plutôt que leur taille et impact, devient donc un élément important à considérer
et à gérer. Finalement, une gestion itérative signifie également que la PME manufacturière doit
mettre en place la gouvernance, les processus et les outils servant à établir un premier portefeuille
de projets numériques, gérer l’exécution de ces projets, en mesurer les résultats, et assurer une mise
à jour régulière de ce portefeuille.
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Le deuxième élément commun aux trois articles est l’évolution des outils et processus servant à la
gestion de la transformation numérique. L’article 1 démontre bien comment les outils, processus
et la gouvernance permettant de gérer le portefeuille de projets numériques collaboratifs ont évolué
sur une période de 18 mois. En effet, les outils et processus ont tout d’abord été implantés dans une
forme simplifiée et se sont ensuite complexifiés. L’article 2, quant à lui, a mis en évidence
l’ensemble des changements organisationnels effectués à la gouvernance, aux processus et à la
charte organisationnelle de l’entreprise, qui encore une fois se sont complexifiés au fur et à mesure
de la transformation numérique. Des commentaires du panel d’experts de l’article 3 ont également
fait mention de la nécessité d’introduire en premier lieu des outils et processus simples en
démarrage de transformation et de les ajuster ensuite au besoin.
De ce fait, démarrer avec la mise en place d’outils, de processus et d’une structure de gestion de la
transformation numérique simplifiés facilite le lancement de celle-ci et ainsi le démarrage rapide
des premiers projets de cette transformation. Au fur et à mesure que la PME exécute et complète
ses projets numériques, des besoins plus complexes de suivi, de gouvernance et de gestion des
projets, mais également du portefeuille de projets, vont apparaitre.
Par exemple, la gouvernance pourrait être révisée afin de faciliter la coordination entre l’équipe de
transformation numérique et les responsables des différents départements de l’entreprise, comme
ce fut le cas lors de la recherche-intervention. Cette gouvernance plus complexe aurait pu être
établie au lancement de la transformation numérique. Cependant, les besoins de coordination avec
les différents responsables de département sur une base régulière n’étaient pas nécessaires pour les
premiers projets numériques. L’absence de cette gouvernance plus complexe n’a pas empêché
l’équipe de transformation numérique de livrer les premiers projets numériques du partenaire
industriel, mais s’est avérée par la suite nécessaire lors du démarrage d’un projet numérique
impliquant une présence continue de l’équipe de transformation numérique sur le plancher d’usine.
L’évolution de ces outils et processus peut être réalisée de façon proactive aux projets, comme ce
fut le cas pour la gouvernance du partenaire industriel, ou encore réactive à l’apparition soudaine
de besoins ou de problématiques. Par exemple, lors de l’exécution d’un projet d’implantation d’une
plateforme et de rapport d’intelligence d’affaires au sein du partenaire industriel, la direction de
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l’entreprise a soulevé la problématique d’un manque de visibilité sur l’avancement du projet et sur
la création des rapports d’intelligence d’affaires. Afin de répondre à cette problématique, l’équipe
de transformation numérique a décidé de remplacer sa méthode de gestion de projet traditionnelle
par une méthode de gestion de projet agile, lui permettant de livrer chaque mois un volet des
rapports d’intelligence d’affaires. Cette méthode de gestion de projet a permis de donner plus de
visibilité à l’avancement des rapports d’intelligence d’affaires et à la mise en place de la plateforme,
ainsi que d’assurer une livraison continue de solution répondant aux besoins de la haute direction
du partenaire industriel.
Les outils et processus ont également évolué en réponse à l’apprentissage et à la montée en maturité
de l’entreprise partenaire dans la gestion de sa transformation numérique. Alors que l’entreprise
gère sa transformation à l’aide de ces outils, processus et gouvernance, celle-ci apprend à les
maitriser et prend en maturité. Alors qu’elle progresse dans son apprentissage, elle est en mesure
d’identifier des besoins en gestion et suivi non satisfaits par les outils et processus implantés. Elle
définit et implante donc des changements à ces outils et processus afin de répondre à ces nouveaux
besoins. Le cycle d’apprentissage et de maturité recommence avec ces nouveaux changements
amenant à l’identification de nouveaux besoins de gestion et de suivi de la transformation
numérique. La PME manufacturière peut donc mettre en place des outils et processus favorisant
l’évolution de ses outils et processus de gestion de la transformation numérique.
Nous recommandons donc les phases, étapes et livrables suivants afin de faciliter la gestion de la
transformation 4.0 tels que présentés dans la Figure 7.1. Un total de trois phases et de neuf étapes
permettant à la PME manufacturière de planifier, lancer et gérer la transformation numérique sont
présentées. Ces recommandations sont basées aussi bien sur la littérature que sur les observations
en entreprise de la recherche-intervention et sur les commentaires du panel d’experts de l’étude
Delphi-Régnier. Celles-ci débutent tout d’abord avec une phase d’identification dont l’objectif est
la création d’un portefeuille de projets alignés avec la stratégie d’affaires de l’entreprise. Vient
ensuite une phase de démarrage durant laquelle la PME manufacturière pourra prioriser ses projets
et mettre en place les outils, processus et la structure nécessaire pour la gestion de sa transformation
numérique. Suit finalement une phase d’exécution de la transformation numérique qui inclut des
étapes et livrables de rétroaction sur le portefeuille de projets numériques et sur les outils, processus
et la structure de gestion de la transformation numérique. Ces boucles de rétroactions sont basées
sur les éléments discutés dans les sections 7.2 et 7.2.2 et sont au cœur des recommandations
pratiques pour faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique des PME manufacturières.
La Figure 7.1 est composée de plusieurs éléments. Tout d’abord les rectangles représentent les
étapes incluses dans chaque phase, alors que les cercles représentent les extrants/intrants de ces
étapes. Un code de couleur est également appliqué. Les éléments en vert sont complètement
supportés par la littérature scientifique. Les éléments en jaune sont supportés de façon indirecte par
la littérature scientifique et confirmée par ce projet de recherche. Les éléments en bleu sont peu ou
pas supportés par la littérature scientifique et sont principalement basés sur les résultats du projet
de recherche.
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Figure 7.1 – Phases, étapes et livrables de gestion de la transformation 4.0 pour les PME
manufacturières
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La phase d’identification, présentée dans la Figure 7.2, a pour objectif d’identifier les projets qui
composeront le portefeuille initial de projets de transformation numérique de la PME et ainsi de
planifier cette transformation numérique. Tel que mentionné dans la littérature sur les échelles de
maturité et sur les facteurs critiques de succès en transformation numérique, il est nécessaire pour
la PME manufacturière de définir une vision stratégique claire de sa transformation numérique, de
l’aligner sur sa stratégie d’affaires et d’identifier des projets lui permettant de l’atteindre.
d’experts a suggéré qu’une vision de haut niveau soit établie sur un horizon de trois (3) ans et que
des objectifs spécifiques soient établis sur un horizon d’un an. Tel que décrit par Moeuf et al.
(2019), la PME peut également assurer que sa vision stratégique numérique soit alignée et supporte
sa stratégie d’affaires. Lors de cette étape, la PME peut également nommer un Champion de la
transformation numérique qui aura pour mission de mettre en œuvre cette stratégie et d’assurer la
présence d’un leadership constant autour de l’initiative (Françoise et al., 2009; Moeuf et al., 2019;
Pozzi et al., 2021).
La PME peut ainsi évaluer si elle possède les ressources (financières et humaines), les processus,
les outils, la culture et l’expertise nécessaire pour exécuter ses projets de transformation numérique.
Pour ce faire, celle-ci peut utiliser des outils d’échelle de « readiness » de la littérature (Basl, 2018;
Brozzi et al., 2018; Schumacher et al., 2016) ainsi que vérifier si elle possède déjà certains des
facteurs de succès critiques à la gestion de projets de transformation numérique (Moeuf et al., 2019;
Müller, R. et al., 2012; Shinohara et al., 2017; Vrchota et al., 2021).
Identification des projets 4.0 : Une fois les objectifs stratégiques définis et l’évaluation de la
maturité numérique des fonctions d’entreprises effectuée, la PME peut définir des projets et des
regroupements de projets numériques nécessaires pour combler les lacunes des fonctions
d’entreprise afin d’atteindre les objectifs. Ces projets pourront par la suite être introduits à
l’intérieur d’un portefeuille de projets numériques.
Pour chacun de ces projets, la PME établit convenablement les objectifs de chacun des projets,
évalue les ressources nécessaires pour leur réalisation et indique toutes les interdépendances
possibles entre eux et entre des systèmes existants et futurs. Afin de déterminer ces éléments, la
PME peut utiliser les pratiques décrites dans la littérature existante (section 2.3.3), se référer aux
conseils de praticiens ou encore à ses propres processus internes. Une fois cette étape complétée,
la PME possède donc un portefeuille de projets numériques pour atteindre ses objectifs
stratégiques.
La phase de démarrage a pour objectif la mise en place des outils, processus, règles de gouvernance
et structures qui supporteront la réalisation des projets numériques de l’entreprise. Le projet de
recherche ainsi que la littérature sur les facteurs de succès critiques ont démontré la nécessité de
mettre en place différents outils, processus et structure afin de faciliter la transformation numérique
de la PME manufacturière. Comme illustré dans la Figure 7.3, la phase de démarrage possède trois
étapes pouvant être exécutées en parallèle.
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Priorisation des projets et développement d’une feuille de route numérique : Cette étape
consiste à prioriser la liste de projets selon les interdépendances des projets, les objectifs de
l’entreprise ainsi que la capacité de la PME à réaliser ses projets. Plusieurs outils peuvent être
utilisés pour effectuer cette priorisation, tels que des feuilles de route ou encore des matrices effort-
impact. La priorisation et les critères pour y arriver vont varier entre les PME. Cependant les
experts de l’étude Delphi recommandent de prioriser en premier avec des projets simples
rapidement atteignables, les « low-hanging fruits », qui ne sont pas en fonction d’autres projets 4.0
et qui peuvent être réalisés avec les capacités actuelles de la PME. Cette approche de priorisation
a également été utilisée par le partenaire industriel. Il a également été recommandé que la
priorisation soit effectuée par le Champion de la transformation numérique ou encore un comité
aviseur. Une fois la priorisation effectuée, la PME obtient une feuille de route des projets de son
portefeuille de projets.
Définir et mettre en place une approche de réalisation des projets 4.0 : en fonction des projets
identifiés, le Champion de la transformation numérique définit et implante les outils et processus
pour planifier et gérer les projets de transformation numérique. Selon les projets du portefeuille,
une approche de réalisation par un processus de gestion de projet traditionnelle, dit Cascade,
pourrait être recommandée. Une approche de gestion de projet agile pourrait également être
recommandée. Peu importe l’approche sélectionnée, la PME peut s’assurer de mettre en place un
minimum d’outils et de processus permettant le suivi des projets 4.0 en fonction de l’approche de
prédilection. Si la PME possède déjà des outils et processus de gestion de projets, celle-ci peut les
utiliser. Le Champion pourra également assemblera une première équipe de projet et nommera un
gestionnaire de projet, et définira leurs rôles et responsabilités. Enfin, il pourra assurer la mise en
place d’outils et de processus favorisant la communication et la collaboration au sein de l’équipe.
Une fois que les projets sont priorisés et que la PME a instauré une première structure, une première
équipe et des premiers outils et processus de gestion de projets, celle-ci peut lancer sa
transformation numérique et démarrer l’exécution de ses premiers projets.
La phase d’exécution et de révision, présentée dans la Figure 7.4, est une phase itérative dont
l’objectif est la réalisation des projets 4.0 ainsi que la révision des outils, processus et structures de
la gestion de la transformation numérique, tel que discuté dans les sections 7.2 et 7.2.2. Cette phase
contient en effet deux boucles itératives, une rattachée au portefeuille de projets et une autre
rattachée à la structure de gestion et aux approches de réalisation. Tel que discuté dans la section
7.2.2, les boucles d’itération permettant de mettre à jour la structure, les outils et les processus de
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Exécution des projets 4.0 : Comme son nom l’indique, l’étape d’exécution de projet représente
l’étape durant laquelle le projet 4.0 est géré et suivi en utilisant les outils et processus de gestion
de projet ainsi que la structure de gestion de la transformation numérique définie lors de la phase
de démarrage. La littérature en gestion de projet numérique est déjà très extensive, la PME peut
donc suivre les meilleures pratiques de l’industrie afin de gérer et de réaliser ses projets numériques
en fonction des outils et processus qu’elle a adoptés.
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Post-mortem des projets 4.0 : À la suite de chaque projet, un post-mortem de celui-ci est effectué.
L’objectif du post-mortem, une pratique reconnue et établie en gestion de projet, est de mettre de
l’avant les éléments qui ont favorisé la réussite du projet ainsi que d’identifier des pistes de
solutions aux problématiques qui ont nui au projet 4.0. Au cours de ce post-mortem, la PME
identifiera les éléments de la structure des outils et des processus de gestion de la transformation
numérique qui ont facilité et nuit à la réalisation du projet. Une analyse des causes fondamentales
de ces éléments peut être effectuée par la PME manufacturière.
7.4 Conclusion
Cette étude est porteuse de quatre contributions théoriques distinctes. Tout d’abord, celle-ci a
permis de décrire le processus de transformation numérique d’une PME manufacturière, permettant
ainsi de mettre de l’avant des données empiriques préliminaires sur la façon dont les PME lancent
et gèrent leur transformation numérique. Également, cette étude a permis de comprendre comment
le contexte d’une PME manufacturière affecte son approche de gestion et sa transformation
numérique, mettant de l’avant la nature évolutive de son approche au fur et à mesure que des projets
sont réalisés. Cette étude a également permis d’identifier les actions et livrables permettant de
faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique, le tout intégré dans une proposition d’approche
en phases et sous-étapes de gestion de la transformation numérique en PME manufacturière.
Cette étude amène également deux contributions pratiques importantes pour les gestionnaires et
praticiens responsables de la gestion de la transformation numérique en PME manufacturière. Tout
d’abord, puisque les PME manufacturières ne possèdent pas nécessairement une gouvernance, des
processus et des outils leur permettant de rapidement et efficacement mettre en œuvre une stratégie
de transformation numérique, cette étude permet de sensibiliser les praticiens à l’importance
d’adopter une approche itérative et évolutive. Elle propose également plusieurs recommandations
pratiques et détaille l’approche de gestion sous forme de phases, d’actions et de livrables sur
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lesquels les praticiens peuvent s’appuyer et prendre action lors de la gestion des projets de
transformations numériques et de l’implantation des outils et processus nécessaires pour son suivi
et sa gestion.
Finalement, cette étude comporte également deux contributions méthodologiques. Tout d’abord
elle met de l’avant une approche de recherche itérative entre recherche-intervention et revue de
littérature dans un contexte d’étude sur l’industrie 4.0. Les recherches-intervention en Industrie 4.0
sont encore très rares et sont utilisées généralement dans un contexte de description d’une étude de
cas. Lors de notre étude, nous avons effectué plusieurs boucles d’itération entre les éléments
observés en recherche-intervention et la revue de littérature. Ces itérations ont permis de mieux
comprendre les phénomènes observés permettant ainsi de mieux déterminer les éléments à
implanter et tester pour faciliter la gestion de la transformation numérique du partenaire industriel.
Également, cette étude met de l’avant une combinaison d’approche entre la recherche-intervention
et une étude Delphi-Régnier. Les deux méthodologies de recherche ont été utilisées à maintes
reprises dans la recherche sur l’Industrie 4.0 en PME manufacturière, cependant celles-ci n’ont pas
été combinées jusqu’à présent. Cette combinaison d’approches de recherche a engendré un
ensemble de données empiriques riches sur la transformation numérique du partenaire industriel,
nécessaires pour l’élaboration d’une première définition détaillée de l’approche de gestion de la
transformation 4.0, dont les éléments ont ensuite pu être soumis à un panel d’experts au cours de
l’étude Delphi-Régnier.
Cette étude comprend toutefois plusieurs limitations. Tout d’abord, la généralisation des résultats
de cette étude et des recommandations proposées reste restreinte par la nature de notre
méthodologie de recherche. Cependant plusieurs aspects restent transférables au sein d’entreprise
possédant un contexte similaire. Tel que discuté au Chapitre 7, le contexte de la PME affecte
grandement le détail des actions et des étapes que celles-ci suivront pour gérer le lancement et
l’exécution de sa transformation numérique. La pandémie de Covid-19 a également affecté
grandement les priorités et les processus du partenaire industriel, celui-ci ayant mis fin au projet de
recherche-intervention en début de pandémie après avoir mis en veille l’ensemble de ses projets de
transformation numérique et mis à pied son équipe. De ce fait, le projet de recherche-intervention
a pris fin plus tôt que prévu, forçant l’équipe de recherche à ne pouvoir utiliser que les observations
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entre janvier 2018 et mars 2020. Finalement, les données ont été analysées par un seul membre de
l’équipe de recherche. Cette limitation a été causée par la difficulté d’interpréter les données sans
une connaissance approfondie du contexte organisationnel du partenaire industriel. Afin de pallier
cette limitation, le chercheur principal a partagé et échangé à plusieurs reprises sur les éléments
observés en entreprises auprès de gestionnaires et d’employés du partenaire industriel ainsi
qu’auprès de l’équipe de recherche. En perspective et en évaluant les limitations rencontrées lors
de cette recherche, il serait possible d’augmenter la qualité de cette étude et d’enrichir les
résultats par l’implication de partenaires industriels additionnels. Inclure des partenaires industriels
additionnels à la recherche permettrait d’aider à la généralisation des résultats et ainsi de vérifier
si certains des éléments observés sont spécifiques au partenaire industriel ou communs aux
différentes PME. Une façon d’y arriver aurait été d’inclure un questionnaire et des entrevues avec
différentes PME manufacturières afin d’identifier comment celles-ci ont abordé leur
transformation numérique et comment leur contexte a impacté leur choix d’approche de gestion.
À la suite de ce projet de recherche, plusieurs avenues de recherche pourraient être poursuivies afin
de valider davantage les recommandations proposées vers une généralisation ou encore bonifier
son contenu. Tout d’abord, des recherches futures pourraient tenter d’identifier et d’analyser les
éléments spécifiques du contexte de la PME affectant son processus de gestion de la transformation
numérique. Considérant que le contexte d’une entreprise peut être divisé en plusieurs éléments,
notamment la culture de l’entreprise, sa taille et ses processus internes (Smallbone et al., 1995), il
serait important au cours de futures recherches de déterminer quels éléments affectent la capacité
d’une PME manufacturière à lancer et gérer sa transformation numérique et comment ces éléments
affectent son approche de gestion de la transformation numérique. Un autre projet de recherche
potentiel serait d’évaluer les recommandations pratiques proposées au chapitre 7, et de vérifier
leurs effets sur la facilité de gestion de la transformation numérique au sein de plusieurs PME
manufacturières.
Pour finir, cette thèse a permis de tisser un pont entre la pratique vécue par les PME et la théorie
développée par la recherche académique. Des recherches futures pourraient donc s’inspirer de cette
approche méthodologique afin de mieux comprendre les problématiques vécues par les PME et
leur fonctionnement et ainsi de développer des solutions tangibles à ces problématiques.
153
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Questionnaire #1
1.1 : Réviser sa stratégie d'affaires et son modèle d'affaires pour tenir compte des technologies
numériques
1.2 : Réviser ses objectifs stratégiques financiers et opérationnels afin d'assurer l'alignement de sa
stratégie 4.0 à sa stratégie d'affaires.
68% 26%
1.3 : Identifier les objectifs stratégiques et financiers qui seront supporter par la stratégie de
transformation numérique
74% 11%
53% 37%
1.7 : Obtenir un engagement de la part des directeurs et gestionnaires de tous ses départements
79% 16%
74% 16%
173
3.1 : Aligner les projets 4.0 avec les objectifs stratégiques 4.0 et de stratégie d'affaire de l'entreprise.
53% 42%
3.2 : Identifier pour chacun des projets 4.0 les changements potentiels d'infrastructure TI à mettre
en place pour les supporter.
47% 47%
3.4 : Effectuer une analyse des besoins en ressources et expertises pour chacun des projets 4.0.
3.5 : Définir les objectifs de chacun des projets, leur prérequis technologique, leur échéancier et
budget, ainsi que les risques potentiels.
53% 42%
3.6 : Identifier les projets 4.0 permettant de régler des problématiques opérationnelles afin de
supporter sa stratégie d'amélioration continue.
Groupe d'item 4 : "Lors de la priorisation des projets 4.0, la PME manufacturière doit:"
4.1 : Prioriser ses projets 4.0 en tenant compte de la priorité de ses objectifs stratégiques.
4.2 : Prioriser et de séquencer ses projets 4.0 en fonction de leurs prérequis technologiques.
174
4.3 : Prioriser et séquencer les projets 4.0 en fonction de la capacité de l'entreprise à exécuter ses
projets avec succès.
4.4 : Prioriser et séquencer des projets d'infrastructures TI qui permettront d'appuyer des projets
4.0.
68% 21%
4.5 : Valider la séquence et la priorisation des projets 4.0 auprès du champion et de la haute
direction de l'entreprise.
4.6 : Communiquer la priorisation et la séquence des projets 4.0 aux gestionnaires et employés de
l'entreprise.
42% 53%
4.7 : Former les employés sur les concepts généraux de l'Industrie 4.0 afin de faciliter la gestion du
changement.
32% 58%
5.1 : Déterminer le niveau d'autorité dont le champion possédera pour assurer la gestion de la
transformation 4.0.
68% 26%
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5.2 : Mettre en place une gouvernance permettant de faire le suivi des projets et d'escalader les
problématiques vers la direction de l'entreprise.
53% 42%
5.3 : Mettre en place un plan de communication aux employés et gestionnaires sur l'avancement de
la transformation 4.0 de l'entreprise.
5.4 : Mettre en place un plan de gestion du changement proactif et des processus de changement
réactif afin de faciliter la gestion du changement lors de la transformation 4.0.
5.5 : Allouer des ressources pour l'exploration de solution 4.0 et l'étude des projets avant leur
réalisation.
5.6 : Aligner la structure et les processus de la transformation 4.0 avec les structures et processus
internes de l'entreprise déjà existants.
Groupe d'item 6 : "Lors de la mise en place d'une approche de réalisation des projets 4.0, la
PME manufacturière doit:"
6.1 : Désigner un responsable de projet se rapportant au champion afin d'assurer la gestion des
projets 4.0.
53% 47%
6.2 : Identifier les parties prenantes des projets 4.0 et de mettre en place un plan de communication
avec eux.
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6.3 : Inclure une phase de prototypage ou de preuve de concept au début des projets afin de tester
les solutions 4.0 avant leur déploiement.
6.4 : Créer un processus de validation des solutions 4.0 avant leur déploiement en entreprise.
6.5 : Désigner et mettre sur pied une équipe en mesure de réaliser les projets 4.0.
6.6 : Embaucher ou sous-traiter les ressources manquantes identifier pour les différents projets 4.0.
32% 63%
6.7 : Documenter formellement les rôles, les autorités, les responsabilités et les compétences de
tous les membres de l'équipe.
6.8 : Inclure une phase de formation aux employés à chaque projet 4.0 et pour chaque solution 4.0
déployés.
58% 26%
6.9 : Inclure un plan de gestion du changement à l'intérieur de chacun des plans de projet 4.0.
47% 47%
6.10 : Mettre en place les outils et processus de gestion de projet permettant la planification, le
suivi et le contrôle des projets 4.0.
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42% 53%
6.11 : Mettre en place les outils et processus permettant la gestion des risques identifiés pour chacun
des projets.
42% 58%
6.12 : Mettre en place les outils et processus permettant la coordination et la collaboration entre les
membres de l'équipe de projet.
Groupe d'item 7 : "Lors de l'exécution des projets 4.0, la PME manufacturière doit:"
63% 37%
7.1 : Effectuer des suivis réguliers de l'avancement des projets 4.0 auprès du responsable de projet
et du champion.
26% 53%
7.2 : Valider les technologies 4.0 sélectionnées auprès des parties prenantes des projets 4.0.
53% 42%
32% 63%
7.5 : Créer une documentation et des processus de supports aux technologies 4.0 en déploiement.
63% 37%
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7.6 : Former les employés sur les nouvelles technologies et processus découlant des projets 4.0.
58% 37%
7.9 : Impliquer les employés dans la validation et la mise en place des technologies 4.0.
Groupe d'item 8 : "Lors des post-mortem des projets 4.0, la PME manufacturière doit:"
47% 53%
8.1 : Impliquer les parties prenantes des projets 4.0 lors du retour sur les projets.
53% 47%
8.2 : Obtenir un retour sur le projet par les employés et les gestionnaires des départements où ont
été implanté les technologies
42% 53%
8.3 : Identifier les éléments de la structure de gestion et de l'approche de réalisation qui ont
négativement impacté la livraison du projet 4.0.
9.1 : Réviser le portefeuille de projet en fonction des gains obtenus des projets réalisés sur les
objectifs stratégiques.
26% 68%
9.2 : Réviser le plan de communication en fonction des changements pouvant être apportés aux
parties prenantes
42% 53%
9.4 : Réviser les outils et processus de gestion de projets afin d'améliorer la planification, le suivi
et l'exécution des projets
9.5 : Identifier les changements organisationnels à apporter afin de supporter la mise en place des
projets 4.0.
47% 47%
9.6 : Encourager les employés à proposer des pistes d'amélioration aux projets 4.0 et à leur gestion.
Groupe d'item 10 : "Lors de la mise en place des révisions, la PME manufacturière doit:"
10.1 : Valider les révisions à la structure et aux approches de réalisation des projets 4.0 auprès des
parties prenantes.
10.2 : Valider les changements au portefeuille de projet par la haute direction de l'entreprise.
58% 37%
10.3 : Valider l'alignement du portefeuille de projet révisé avec les objectifs stratégiques de
l'entreprise.
21% 68%
A3. Questionnaire #2
1.1 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 joue un rôle informel au sein de la PME manufacturière
28% 61% 6% 6%
1.2 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 occupe une position officielle au sein de la PME
manufacturière
1.3 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 au sein d'une PME manufacturière doit être le PDG de
l'entreprise
1.4 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 au sein de la PME manufacturière doit être un membre
de la haute direction de l'entreprise, mais pas le PDG.
67% 33%
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56% 33% 6% 6%
1.10 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 est responsable de mettre sur pied une structure de
gouvernance permettant le suivi des projets d'Industrie 4.0.
6% 50% 39% 6%
1.11 : Le champion de la transformation 4.0 doit assurer le rôle de gestionnaire des projets 4.0.
1.12 : S'ils ne sont pas la même personne, le gestionnaire de projets 4.0 doit se rapporter
hiérarchiquement au champion de la transformation 4.0.
2.1 : Lorsqu'une PME manufacturière évalue sa capacité à réaliser des projets de transformation
4.0, celle-ci doit évaluer ses moyens financiers et déterminer un budget à accorder pour les projets
de transformation 4.0
67% 33%
2.2 : Lorsqu'une PME manufacturière évalue sa capacité à réaliser des projets de transformation
4.0, celle-ci doit évaluer la disponibilité et les compétences des ressources internes de l'entreprise
qui seront responsables de la mise en place de ces projets
56% 44%
2.3 : Lorsqu'une PME manufacturière évalue sa capacité à réaliser des projets de transformation
4.0, celle-ci doit évaluer comment ses processus et pratiques internes peuvent faciliter ou entraver
ses projets de transformation 4.0
44% 44% 6% 6%
2.4 : Lorsqu'une PME manufacturière évalue sa capacité à réaliser des projets de transformation
4.0, celle-ci doit évaluer le niveau d'ouverture et de réticence de ses gestionnaires et employés
envers les projets considérés.
56% 44%
2.5 : Une PME manufacturière doit considérer l'ensemble des aides-externes potentiellement
disponibles (subvention, consultants, intégrateurs, formateurs, etc.) lorsqu'elle évalue sa capacité à
entreprendre sa transformation 4.0.
2.6 : Lorsqu'une PME manufacturière évalue que sa capacité à entreprendre des projets de
transformation 4.0 est insuffisante, celle-ci doit identifier des projets (financement, embauche,
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changement organisationnel) lui permettant d'obtenir la capacité nécessaire pour réaliser ses projets
4.0.