Procesos Cognitivos Modelos y Bases Neurales
Procesos Cognitivos Modelos y Bases Neurales
Procesos Cognitivos Modelos y Bases Neurales
Directora
AGEING, COGNITION,
AND NEUROSCIENCE
ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN
Y NEUROCIENCIA
© UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL
DE EDUCACIÓN A DISTANCIA. Madrid
WWWUNEDESPUBLICACIONES
)3".ELECTRÆNICO:
%DICIÆNDIGITALJUNIODE
CONTENIDOS
CONTENTS
PREFACIO.............................................................................................. 11
PREFACE ............................................................................................... 15
AGRADECIMIENTOS............................................................................ 17
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................... 19
CONTRIBUTORS................................................................................... 21
PART I
BIOLOGY AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
OF AGEING
PART II
COGNITION AND AGEING
PART III
MEMORY AND DEMENTIA
PART IV
APPLIED ISSUES
The Editor and Organizers would like to thank the invited speakers
and the participants at the First International Conference on Aging,
Cognition and Neuroscience for the knowledge they shared at the Meeting
and for contributing to this book.
We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the Spanish Ministry
of Science and Technology (Dirección General de Investigación) (Grant:
BSO2002-11724-E). We are also very grateful to IMSERSO (Ministerio de
Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales) and to the Universidad Nacional de Educación
a Distancia (UNED) – The Vice-Rectorate of Cultural Affears and the Faculty
of Psychology.
We are indebted to the Director of the Research Institute at UNED, Dr.
Santiago Segovia and the Dean of Psychology, Dra. Encarnación Sarriá
for their support in preparing the Conference.
The Chair of this Conference is also indebted to the Members of the
Advisory Committee, Drs. Beatriz García Rodríguez, Ana Julia Garriga-
Trillo, Herminia Peraita Adrados, José M. Reales Avilés, Carmen Sandi Pérez
and César Venero Núñez for their help in organizing the Meeting. Finally,
the organization of the Conference was possible thanks to the help of our
Local Committee, Montserrat González Encinas, Natalie Lainsa, Julia Mayas
Arellano, Laura Ponce de León and Beatriz Rodríguez Fúnez.
CONTRIBUTORS
Heiner Ellgring*
REFERENCES
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SCHERER, K. R. (12001): «Appraisal considered as a process of multi-level sequential
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TEASDALE, J. D., & BARNARD, P. J. (1993): Affect, Cognition and Change: Re-modelling
Depressive Thought. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum.
3. EFFECTS OF BRAIN LESION, PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND AGEING
ON INHIBITORY PROCESSING: EVIDENCE FROM ATTENTION
ORIENTING TASKS
ditional evidence for IT has come from studies combining IOR with the
Stroop task. Vivas and Fuentes (2001) found that Stroop interference (in-
congruent minus neutral condition) was reduced or even eliminated when
the target stimulus (e.g., the word RED printed in green) fell at a cued
location relative to an uncued location. It is important to note that in the
Stroop task, the task-irrelevant response (word naming) is the prepotent
response (e.g., greater strength due to automatic activation or overlearning
of the reading response). Thus, IOR and IT are two inhibitory mechanisms
that seem to co-operate to help the organisms to explore novel locations
and/or objects (see Fuentes, 2004, for a more detailed explanation).
Here we present evidence that shows that the two forms of inhibition
are differentially affected by brain lesion, psychopathology, and the aging
process. For those studies we used a similar procedure to that employed in
the Vivas and Fuentes’ (2001) study, combining a IOR procedure with the
Stroop task. That procedure allowed us to measure the two forms of
inhibition in a single task. Inhibition of return was observed when RTs at
cued locations were longer than at uncued locations, and IT was observed
when Stroop interference was reduced at cued compared with uncued
locations.
Vivas, Humphreys and Fuentes (2003) asked whether the parietal lobe was
involved in these forms of inhibition. The results with the aforementioned
procedure revealed that the patients showed normal IOR when cue and target
were presented contralateral to the side of the lesion, but no evidence of IOR
was found when presented at the ipsilateral side of the lesion. Concerning IT,
the reduction of the effect was observed when cue and target were presented
at the contralateral side of the lesion (that is, where IOR was observed), but
not at the ipsilateral side, where IOR was not observed. These results suggests
that the parietal lobe plays a fundamental role in modulating IOR but it did
not affect directly IT.
Fuentes, Boucart, Vivas, Alvarez and Zimmerman (2000) used the above
procedure with schizophrenic patients. Contrary to parietal patients,
schizophrenics showed intact IOR effects but they did not show reduced
Stroop interference at cued locations. These results suggest that schizo-
phrenia is associated with a deficit in the higher form of inhibition, maybe
related to deficits in executive attention depending of the frontal lobe.
Finally, Langley, Vivas, Fuentes and Bagne used the combined Stroop-
IOR paradigm to simultaneously examine age effects in the two forms of
inhibition: IOR and IT. Whereas older adults showed intact IOR effects, IT
was compromised in this group. They showed intact Stroop interference but
the reduction of the effect at cued locations was not observed. These
findings are consistent with two models of aging and inhibition (that them-
selves may be compatible). One model argues that location-based inhibition
is more resistant to age than object-based inhibition; the other model argues
that inhibition mediated by non-frontal brain areas is more resistant to
EFFECTS OF BRAIN LESION, PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND AGEING... 33
REFERENCES
In one of the first studies of aging and selective attention, Rabbitt (1965)
asked young and older participants to sort packs of cards into two piles
according to whether the letter A or B was present among varying numbers
of distractors. The older adults were slower than the young adults and both
age groups took progressively longer as the number of irrelevant items on the
cards increased. Importantly, there was also an interaction such that this
increase was steeper for the older adults. This result was interpreted as
indicating «an age-decrement in the ability to ignore irrelevant information»
(Rabbitt, 1965, p. 233) and can be regarded as a forerunner of the inhibition
deficit hypothesis of cognitive aging (Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Hasher, Zacks,
& May, 1999). However, an alternative account is in terms of generalised
slowing (e.g., Birren, 1965; Brinley, 1965; Salthouse, 1985) such that, regard-
less of the specific cognitive processes required by the task, older people are
slower than young people by a constant proportion. Thus Rabbitt’s study has
been an important influence on current theories of cognitive aging and also
the subject of debate concerning how to interpret cognitive aging data.
In our own work, we have been exploring age-related differences in the
effects of irrelevant distractors in visual search and enumeration tasks. The
first study examined the effect of perceptual load on age differences in selective
attention (see Maylor & Lavie, 1998). The main task was a computerised
version of Rabbitt (1965) in which young and older adults indicated which of
two target letters was present among varying numbers of central items in a
display. We successfully replicated Rabbitt’s interaction between age and set
size and this was consistent with generalised slowing. However, in addition,
there was a larger distractor letter either to the left or right of the main display
and this peripheral distractor (which was either incompatible or neutral with
respect to the target letter) had to be ignored. When the central set size was
small, the adverse effect of the incompatible distractor was much greater for
the older adults than for the young adults. With larger central set sizes, this
was no longer the case, with the distractor effect decreasing for older adults
at lower set sizes (i.e., lower perceptual load; see Lavie, 1995) than for young
adults. Thus older adults may not always be less able to «ignore» irrelevant
information — at least one factor that should be considered is perceptual
load. In other words, when the main task is demanding, irrelevant
information may not even be perceived by older people because of an age-
related reduction in perceptual capacity.
Our second study investigated the ability to selectively facilitate the
processing of new visual information by ignoring old irrelevant stimuli al-
ready present in the field, a capacity-limited process termed visual marking
(Watson & Humphreys, 1997). In three experiments (Watson & Maylor, 2002),
we assessed the effects of aging on visual marking using both stationary and
moving items. For young adults, we observed visual marking in all cases
whereas for older adults, visual marking was observed with stationary but not
moving stimuli. The data were not consistent with any simple account of
generalised slowing. This inability to ignore irrelevant moving objects in old
age raises some concern because objects in the real world are rarely stationary
for long and it is perhaps in such complex scenes that successful time-based
selection may provide the greatest benefit.
Finally, we compared age decrements in the ability to ignore irrelevant
information in visual search tasks (cf. Rabbitt, 1965) and in enumeration
tasks, which require the processing and keeping track of multiple targets
in a display in order to determine as quickly as possible how many targets
are present. In the absence of distractors, contrary to generalised slowing,
enumeration performance was unusually spared by normal aging (e.g.,
Watson, Maylor, & Manson, 2002), with young and older adults showing
similar rates for both subitizing (the fast and accurate enumeration of 1-3
items) and counting (the slower and less accurate enumeration beyond the
subitizing range). This contrasts with the effects of abnormal aging (see
Maylor, Watson, & Muller, in press), with Alzheimer patients showing re-
duced subitizing ranges and slower counting rates in comparison with age-
matched controls.
For the enumeration of targets in the presence of distractors, older
adults’ overall responses were disproportionately slowed (Watson, Maylor,
& Bruce, in press (a), illustrating again a marked age deficit in the ability
to ignore irrelevant information. However, counting rates remained un-
affected by old age, despite significant age differences in visual search rates
for finding a single target among distractors. We argued that enumerating
beyond four items requires frequent eye movements whereas visual search
does not (see Watson, Maylor, & Bruce, 2004). Moreover, the reliance of
AGING AND THE ABILITY TO IGNORE IRRELEVANT INFORMATION... 37
REFERENCES
BIRREN, J. E. (1965): «Age changes in speed of behavior: Its central nature and
physiological correlates». In A. T. Welford & J. E. Birren (eds.), Behavior, aging
and the nervous system (pp. 191-216). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
BRINLEY, J. F. (1965): «Cognitive sets, speed and accuracy of performance in the
elderly». In A. T. Welford & J. E. Birren (eds.), Behavior, aging and the nervous
system (pp. 114-149). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
HASHER, L., & ZACKS, R. T. (1988): «Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A
review and a new view». In G. H. Bower (ed.), The psychology of learning and
motivation (vol. 22, pp. 193-225). New York: Academic Press.
HASHER, L., ZACKS, R. T., & MAY, C. P. (1999): «Inhibitory control, circadian arousal,
and age». In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance XVII.
Cognitive regulation and performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp.
653-675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
LAVIE, N. (1995): «Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention».
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 451-
468.
MAYLOR, E. A., & LAVIE, N. (1998): «The influence of perceptual load on age dif-
ferences in selective attention». Psychology and Aging, 13, 563-574.
MAYLOR, E. A., WATSON, D. G., & MULLER, Z. (2005): «Effects of Alzheimer’s disease on
visual enumeration». Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 60, 129-135.
RABBITT, P. M. A. (1965): «An age-decrement in the ability to ignore irrelevant in-
formation». Journal of Gerontology, 20, 233-237.
SALTHOUSE, T. A. (1985): A theory of cognitive aging. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
WATSON, D. G., & HUMPHREYS, G. W. (1997): «Visual marking: Prioritizing selection
for new objects by top-down attentional inhibition». Psychological Review, 104,
90-122.
WATSON, D. G., & MAYLOR, E. A. (2002): «Aging and visual marking: Selective deficits
for moving stimuli». Psychology and Aging, 17, 321-339.
38 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
WATSON, D. G., MAYLOR, E. A., & BRUCE, L. A. M. (2004): «The role of eye movements
in subitizing and counting». Manuscript submitted for publication.
WATSON, D. G., MAYLOR, E. A., & BRUCE, L. A. M. (2005a): «Effects of age on searching
for and enumerating targets that cannot be detected efficiently». Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1119-1142.
WATSON, D. G., MAYLOR, E. A., & BRUCE, L. A. M. (2005b): «Search, enumeration and
aging: Eye movement requirements cause age-equivalent performance in
enumeration but not search tasks». Psychology and Aging, 20, 226-240.
WATSON, D. G., MAYLOR, E. A., & MANSON, N. J. (2002): «Aging and enumeration: A
selective deficit for the subitization of targets among distractors». Psychology and
Aging, 17, 496-504.
5. IMPLICIT MEMORY AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION: EFFECTS ON AGING
AND DEMENTIA
attention deficit. This may explain the lack of perceptual priming when
selective attention is compromised at encoding. In contrast, significant
priming was found when visual encoding was performed under full attention
conditions, in the visual as well as in the haptic modality (Mayas et al., this
volume).
REFERENCES
Lars-Göran Nilsson*
S5). Three waves of data collection have been completed (T1, T2, and T3), a
fourth wave in in progress (T4) and a fifth wave is planned. Participants were
randomly selected from the population of Umeå, a city of about 100.000
inhabitants in northern Sweden.
In a recently completed longitudinal analysis of changes in memory
performance from T1 to T3, it was observed that the decline in episodic
memory may appear at a later stage than has been indicated in cross-
sectional analyses (Rönnlund et al., in press). Whereas the cross-sectional
data suggest that episodic memory declines in a linear fashion from age 35,
the longitudinal data indicate stability up to age 60.
Lövdén et al. (2004) demonstrated, when applying cluster analysis to
memory data obtained at T1 for S1, that one of the six clusters that emerged
contained data from only those individuals, who, at T3, had become
diagnosed as demented. This is an important new finding in that it implies
that memory data might be used as one component in detecting early signs
of dementia.
During the past decade, a number of studies have highlighted that the
neuropathological changes associated with Alzheimer’s disease affect regions
of the brain involved in olfaction. For example, both the hippocampus and
the enthorinal cortex receive direct input from the olfactory bulb and
represent structures that show an early involvement in the disease (e. g.,
Braak & Braak, 1997). Betula offers a unique possibility to further explore
the relationships between olfactory functioning, genetic variation, and neuro-
degenerative disorder.
Recently, Nilsson et al. (2004) examined whether dementia was
associated with levels of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure,
and pulse pressure 10-years prior to clinical diagnosis. This is the first study
to examine this issue in a sample of middle-aged and older men and women
using a long (10-year) preclinical period. Using linear regression, blood
pressure at T1 was used to predict dementia status at T3. Systolic and
diastolic blood pressures and pulse pressure (systolic minus diastolic blood
pressure) were entered as continuous variables. Evidence for the long-term
effect of elevated levels of systolic blood pressure and pulse pressure on
dementia in a sample of middle-aged and older adults was demonstrated.
Persons who were to be diagnosed with dementia 10 years later had higher
systolic pressure and greater pulse pressure at baseline assessment. Further
research on this topic is planned when a 15-year frame has elapsed at T4.
Within the Betula Study, we have demonstrated strong associations
between episodic memory in non-demented individuals and immune-response
related markers Complement C3 and Haptoglobin (Nilsson et al., 1996),
between episodic recall and executive functions in non-demented individuals,
and the e4 allele of ApolipoproteinE (Nilsson et al., 2004), and again between
episodic recall and executive functions in non-demented individuals, and the
COMT gene related to dopamine (de Frias et al., in press).
MEMORY, GENES AND BRAIN IMAGING 45
REFERENCES
LIND, J., NYBERG, L., PERSSON, J., NILSSON, L.-G., & INGVAR, M. (2004): «Brain activity
in carriers and noncarriers of APOE4». Submitted.
LÖVDÉN, M., BERGMAN, L., ADOLFSSON, R., LINDENBERGER, U., & NILSSON, L.-G. (2004):
«Studying individual aging in an interindividual context: Typical paths of age-
related, dementia-related, and mortality-related cognitive development in old
age». Submitted.
NILSSON, L.-G., BÄCKMAN, L., NYBERG, L., ERNGRUND, K., ADOLFSSON, R., BUCHT, G.,
KARLSSON, S., WIDING, G., & WILBLAD, B. (1997): «The Betula prospective cohort
study: Memory, health, and aging». Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 4,
1-32.
NILSSON, L.-G., SIKSTRÖM, C., ADOLFSSON, R., ERNGRUND, K., NYLANDER, P.-O., &
BECKMAN, L. (1996): «Genetic markers with high versus low scoring on episodic
memory tasks». Behavior Genetics, 26, 555-562.
NILSSON, L.-G., ADOLFSSON, R., BÄCKMAN, L., CRUTS, M., NYBERG, L., SMALL, B. J., &
VAN BROECKHOVEN, C. (2004): «The influence of APOE status on episodic and
semantic memory: data from a population-based study». Submitted.
PERSSON, J., NYBERG, L., LIND, J., LARSSON, A., NILSSON, L.-G., INGVAR, M., & BUCKNER,
R. (2004): «The prefrontal cortex and aging: Functional significance of altered
brain activity». Submitted
RÖNNLUND, M., NYBERG, L., BÄCKMAN, L., & NILSSON, L.-G. (2005): «Stability, im-
provement, and decline in adult life-span development of declarative memory:
Cross-sectional and longitudinal data from a population-based sample».
Psychology and Aging, 20, 3-18.
SCHAIE, K. W. (1965): «A general model for the study of developmental problems».
Psychological Bulletin, 64, 92-107.
SCHAIE, K. W. (1977): «Quasi-experimental research designs in the psychology of
aging». In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging
(pp. 39-58). New York: Van Nostrand.
7. REGIONAL BRAIN CHANGES IN ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE:
THEIR MODIFIERS AND COGNITIVE CORRELATES
Naftalí Raz*
REFERENCES
RAZ, N. (2000): «Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance:
Integration of structural and functional findings». In: Craik, F. I. M., & Salthouse,
T. A. (eds.), Handbook of aging and cognition, II, pp.1-90. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
RAZ, N. (2004): «The aging brain observed in vivo: Differential changes and their
modifiers». In: Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L., & Park, D.C. (eds.), Cognitive Neuroscience
of Aging: linking Cognitive and Cerebral Aging, pp. 17-55. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
RAZ, N., GUNNING-DIXON, F. M., HEAD, D. P., DUPUIS, J. H., & ACKER, J. D. (1998):
«Neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive aging: evidence from structural MRI».
Neuropsychology, 12, 95-114.
RAZ, N., RODRIGUE, K. M., & ACKER, J. D. (2003): «Hypertension and...». Neuro-
psychology, 17, 1169-1180.
RODRIGUE, K. M., & RAZ, N. (2003): «Shrinkage of the entorhinal cortex over five years
predicts memory performance in healthy adults». Journal of Neuroscience, 24,
1169-1180.
8. NEURAL DEDIFFERENTIATION AND COMPENSATION
IN OLDER ADULTS
Denise C. Park*
Lars-Göran Nilsson*
Maria Larsson*
Äke Wahlin*
Cindy de Frias*
INTRODUCCIÓN
Receptores
Ligandos
de Quimioquinas
CXCR2 Il-8, GRO alfa, betta, gamma, NAP-2, ENA 78, GCP-2
CXCR4 SDF-1
CXCR5 BCA/BLC
CC-R3 MCP-1/2/3/4
CC-R8 I-309
CX3C-R1 Fractalkina
mXC-R1 Linfotactina
OBJETIVO
MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS
Animales
Se utilizaron exclusivamente ratas macho de la cepa Wistar (Ratus nover-
gicus albinus) de 20 meses de edad (n=10) y animales controles p80 de
edad adulta joven (n=10); adquiridos a la empresa Harlan Ibérica y man-
tenidas en el animalario del Dpto. de Psicobiología de la UNED. Las ratas
que pesaban entre 180 a 195 g a su llegada al estabulario se mantuvieron
a 22 ± 2 ºC de temperatura, con ciclos de 12 horas de luz y de 12 horas
de oscuridad con agua y comida ad libitum.
Las ratas se estabularon en grupos de 3-4 animales por caja (n=10 ani-
males envejecidos) y ratas jóvenes de 80 días –p80– (n=10), aproximada-
mente de 3 meses de edad. Las ratas se manipularon según las directrices
del Consejo de la Comunidad Económica Europea (directiva 86/609/EEC)
PROCEDIMIENTOS BIOQUÍMICOS
TABLA 1.1
Anticuerpos empleados para determinar las quimioquinas
CXCR4/SDF1 y CX3CR1/Fractalkina
Anticuerpo
Quimioquina Antígeno Primario Anticuerpo Secundario
(CXC)
TNF a
(mediador 10 mg/ml 1: 500 Anti Rabbit Biotinilado 1: 500
proinflamatorio)
68 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
Imnunoblots
RESULTADOS
Absorbancia
800
(492 nm)
(492 nm)
800
700
700
600
600
500 500
Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej.
Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej. CX3CR1 Fractalkina TNF a
CXCR4 SDF1 total SDF1 a
* p<0,05 vs ratas controles p80
Absorbancia 800
(492 nm)
(492 nm)
800 700
700 600
600 500
Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej.
Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej. CX3CR1 Fractalkina TNF a
CXCR4 SDF1 total SDF1 a
* p<0,05 vs control p80
Absorbancia
1.300
(492 nm)
(492 nm)
1.200 1.000
1.100 900
1.000
900 800
800 * *
700
700
600 600
500 500
Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej. Control Envej.
CXCR4 SDF1 total SDF1 a CX3CR1 Fractalkina TNF a
* p<0,05 vs control p80 * p<0,05 vs control p80
FIGURA 1.1
Expresión del sistema de quimioquinas CXCR4/SDF1 y
CX3CR1/Fractalkina de ratas envejecidas comparados con los de ratas
de edad adulta joven (p80)
CONCLUSIONES
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MODULACIÓN DE LA EXPRESIÓN DE MEDIADORES PROINFLAMATORIOS... 73
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74 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
FIGURA 1.3
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76 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
GLOSARIO DE TÉRMINOS
ABREVIATURAS
BSA: Albúmina
n.s.: No significativo
p.: significación estadística
p80: Ratas postnatales de 80 días de edad (ratas adultas jovenes)
PVDF: Tipo de membrana hidrofóbica sobre la que se realiza la transfe-
rencia del gel a la membrana
TNF alfa: Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa
Vs.: versus o en comparación
H2SO4: Ácido sulfúrico
2
GLUCOSE, AGEING AND COGNITION:
THE HIPPOCAMPUS HYPOTHESIS
Leigh Martin Riby*, and Deborah Michelle Riby**
INTRODUCTION
The 2001 UK government census found for the first time more people
over 60 years of age than children. This is primarily due to improvements
in living standards and health care provision. It is predicted that ultimately
there will be a transformation of the dynamics of the world population,
with an increase from 600 million to 2000 million persons over the age
of 60 years by 2050. Life expectancy is likely to rise from approximately
66 to 77 years of age (Pérez, 2002). The changing face of our population
can be associated with a large rise in illnesses related to ageing, including
cognitive decline and its’ impacts on living. In particular memory deficits
are one known consequence of cognitive decline that impacts substantially
upon quality of life and has important social and clinical implications
for elderly individuals (White, 1998). However, declines in cognitive
functioning are not inevitable and interventions utilising everyday
substances may be beneficial. Particularly relevant here is the contribution
of nutritional factors in alleviating cognitive decline which has received
considerable research attention (Charlton, 2002). There is, therefore, a
great need to explore the utility of everyday substances which may improve
the quality of life associated with cognitive decline.
1990). Indeed, rodent studies have found that moderate increases in blood
glucose are directly related to acetylcholine synthesis in the hippocam-
pus (Ragozzinnio, Unick, & Gold, 1996). In fact, Hall, Gonderfrederick,
Chewning, Silveira, and Gold (1989) note that the glucose action mimics
that of a cholinergic agonist. For example, glucose eases pharmacologically
(via scopolamine) induced memory deficits in mice. Notably, Scholey, Harper,
and Kennedy (2001) suggest that it is unlikely that the cholinergic system
is solely involved in the glucose effect. Moreover, researchers have suggested
interactions with other neurotransmitter substances (e. g., dopamine; Saller
& Kreamer, 1991).
The second proposed mechanism operates as a consequence of a rise
in insulin. Specifically, a change in insulin levels stimulates glucose uptake
in the brain and in particular the hippocampus since this area is densely
populated with insulin receptors (Craft, Murphy, & Wemstrom, 1994). In
a similar vein, insulin has been found to influence hippocampal firing
rates in a dose dependant manner (Palovcik, Phillips, Kappy, & Raizada,
1984). Notably, the dose-response curve is very similar to the inverted U
shaped dose response relationship of glucose effects on memory in an elderly
population (Parsons & Gold, 1992).
(AD). In that study, the cognitive tests included recall and recognition of
words, narrative prose and face recognition. Since AD is associated with
cholinergic deficits there is great promise for the use of glucose as an
intervention aimed at minimising cholinergic impairments.
Riby (2004) further investigated whether facilitation was solely restricted
to memory tasks and the importance of the hippocampus by carrying out
a detailed meta-analysis. In addition, the author sought to substantiate
whether older adults are particularly sensitive to glucose intake. Greater
facilitation in an elderly population would be consistent with the fact that
hippocampal function declines in ageing (Morrison & Hof, 2003); the
hippocampus is a key structure supporting memory (Mayes & Roberts,
2001) and glucose has a selective impact at this site (Winocur, 1995). The
main finding was greater facilitation for memory tasks but unexpectedly
there was no evidence for greater enhancement in an elderly population.
Figure 2.1 summarises the effect sizes for task groups with medium to
large effect sizes across age groups. Hedges and Olkin (1985) describes
effects of d = 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 as small, medium and large, respectively.
Note this summary contains memory tasks only since other cognitive tasks
failed to produce a glucose effect. For example, no effects of glucose
treatment were found for attention, executive functioning, motor or visuo-
spatial processing tasks. Consider first the effects sizes for younger adults
outlined in Figure 2.1. Across all measures of memory functioning glucose
boosted performance. This is particularly evident for verbal episodic recall
and difficult working memory tasks. The finding of memory specific effects
for younger adults is consistent with the hippocampus hypothesis.
Unexpectedly, for older adults the only notable finding was for episodic
memory recall. The older participants’ data should be treated with caution
for two reasons. First, there have been a disproportionate number of
studies investigating the glucose effect in younger adults. Consequently,
for a number of the task types examined the n was low and the data therefore
unreliable. This alone has identified a gap in the ageing research. A second
issue that may have influenced the magnitude of the effects for older adults
is large individual differences in a person’s ability to effectively utilise this
additional glucose resource. This will be discussed further as the full
potential of glucose as a memory enhancer may only be realised after taking
into account individual differences in GRC.
At this point it is worth noting that the hippocampus hypothesis is not
the only theory. The overall demands of the task may be critical. Indeed
this chapter has already noted that for younger adults task difficulty may
play a vital role in glucose facilitation for non-memory tasks (as concluded
by Donohoe & Benton, 1999). Kennedy and Scholey (2000) noted an
important association between performance levels and participants’
subjective assessments of task difficulty. Explicitly, when participants
viewed a task as particularly difficult, greater levels of glucose facilitation
84 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
1.2
0.8
Effect Size d
0.6
Young
0.4 Old
0.2
–0.2
Verbal Verbal Visuospatial Semantic Working Working
–0.4 Episodic Episodic Episodic Retrieval Memory Memory
Recall Recognition Easy Hard
Task Domain
FIGURE 2.1
A Summary of 104 Effect Sizes across Age Group and Memory Tasks
Extracted from 23 Studies
9
Blood Glucose Levels (m mol/L)
3
Pre-drink Pre-test Mid-test Post-test
FIGURE 2.2
Changes in blood glucose levels over time (0, 8, 25 and 45 mins)
as a function of glucose dose (placebo, 25g and 50g)
and glucose regulation index group (good, poor)
86 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
TABLE 2.1
Pearson Product Moment Correlations Coefficients
(one-tailed) Between Memory/Cognitive Performance and Change
in Blood Glucose from Baseline
blood glucose level at time point 2 (17 minutes mid-test) predicted task
performance. Interestingly GRC also predicted performance in the sac-
charin condition. A novel finding in this study was the observed relationship
between digit symbol substitution, digit span backwards and glucose level.
So, not only did GRC indicate a decline in episodic memory but two other
factors known to decline in ageing. To summarise the essential aspects of
Table 2.1, it is important to note that GRC could be an important indicator
of cognitive decline as indexed by episodic memory, speed of processing
(i. e. digit symbol substitution) and executive functioning (i. e., digit span
backwards). Aside from the impact of GRC on the magnitude of en-
hancement, there is a great need to assess the utility of glucose measures
across the adult life span with the ultimate aim of developing interventions
for improving gluco-regulatory efficiency. Such interventions may ultimately
take the form of implementing low fat diets or encouraging regular exercise
(Donohoe & Benton, 2000).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Valerie Gunn for her helpful comments.
Table 2.1 reproduced with permission. Riby, L. M., Meikle, A. & Glover,
C. (2004). The effects of age, glucose ingestion and gluco-regulatory control
on episodic memory. Age and Ageing, 33 (5):483-487. Copyright Oxford
University Press, 2004. Figure 2.2 reproduced with permission. Meikle, A.,
Riby, L. M., & Stollery, B. (2004). The impact of glucose ingestion and
gluco-regulatory control on cognitive performance: a comparison of
younger and middle aged adults. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical
and Experimental, 19: 523-535. Copyright John Wiley & Sons Limited,
2004.
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GLUCOSE, AGEING AND COGNITION: THE HIPPOCAMPUS HYPOTHESIS 91
FIGURE 3.1
Under-activation of frontal regions by older adults
(panels A & B), but the under-activation is eliminated with an appropriate
strategy (panel C)
Reprinted from Neuron, vol. 33, Logan, J. M., Sanders, A. L., Snyder, A. Z., Morris, J. C.,
& Buckner, R. L., «Under-recruitment and non-selective recruitment: Dissociable
neural mechanisms associated with aging», 827-840, Copyright (2002), with permission
from Elsevier.
96 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
FIGURE 3.2
Additional compensatory prefrontal activation for high performing elderly,
relative to young and low performing elders
Reprinted from Neuroimage, vol 17, Cabeza, R., Anderson, N. D., Locantore, J. K.,
& McIntosh, A. R., «Aging gracefully: Compensatory brain activity in high-performing
older adults», p. 1399, Copyright (2002), with permission from Elsevier.
98 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
Left parahippocampal - Left inferior frontal Left parahippocampal - Right inferior frontal
2.00 2.00
r = .42
r = .28
1.00 1.00
Left parahippocampus
Left parahippocampus
0.00 0.00
r = .60
–1.00 –1.00
r = .65
Young Young
Old Old
–2.00 –2.00
–1.50 0.00 1.50 3.00 –1.50 0.00 1.50 3.00
Left inferior frontal Right inferior frontal
Right parahippocampal - Left inferior frontal Right parahippocampal - Right inferior frontal
2.00 2.00
r = .66
r = .44
Right parahippocampus
Right parahippocampus
1.00 1.00
0.00 0.00
r = .57 r = .50
–1.00 –1.00
Young Young
Old Old
–2.00 –2.00
–1.50 0.00 1.50 3.00 –1.50 0.00 1.50 3.00
Left inferior frontal Right inferior frontal
FIGURE 3.3
Correlations between frontal and medial temporal regions
for young and elderly
Figure from Gutchess, A. H., Welsh, R. C., Hedden, T., Bangert, A., Minear, M., Liu, L., &
Park, D. C., «Aging and the Neural Correlates of Successful Picture Encoding: Frontal
Activations Compensate for Decreased Medial Temporal Activity». Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 17:1 (January, 2005), pp. 84-96. Copyright 2005 by the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.
102 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Preparation of this chapter was supported by funding from the National
Institute on Aging (R01 AG006265-15; Denise C. Park, principal investigator).
I gratefully acknowledge Randy Buckner and Roberto Cabeza for use of their
figures.
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PART II
COGNITION AND AGEING
4
LA INHIBICIÓN COMO UNA FUNCIÓN
MULTIFACTORIAL:
DATOS NEUROPSICOLÓGICOS
Y PSICOGERONTOLÓGICOS
Pilar Andrés*
INTRODUCCIÓN
bitorios dependen de una red neuronal difusa, más que de una región fron-
tal particular (ver Andrés, 2003 para una descripción detallada de esta
visión teórica). La segunda parte del capítulo se dedicará a ilustrar el frac-
cionamiento de la inhibición a través de la distinción entre mecanismos
automáticos y controlados. Con este fin, presentaremos los resultados de
una serie reciente de experimentos que hemos llevado a cabo en nuestro
laboratorio sobre los efectos del envejecimiento sobre diferentes tareas de
inhibición.
ban ciertos procesos de inhibición (Canavan et al., 1985; Hecaen & Albert,
1978).
De hecho, se han publicado muy pocas descripciones anatómicas de
pacientes con desinhibición o «síndrome frontal» (el equivalente de lo que
Baddeley preferirá llamar «síndrome disejecutivo»; Baddeley & Wilson,
1988). Sin embargo, en una de ellas, Luria, Pribram y Homskaya (1964)
mostraron claramente que estos pacientes presentaban lesiones cerebra-
les que se extiendían a las regiones posteriores. Un examen histológico
post-mortem del cerebro de uno de los pacientes reveló
«... una patología difusa del hemisferio izquierdo y una patología limi-
tada del hemisferio derecho. El límite anterior del tumor restante se
encontraba a 4-5 cm del polo frontal, el diámetro de la lesión era de 7
cm en la región anterior-posterior, de 4 cm transversalmente y de 2-8
cm en la dirección dorsoventral. El hemisferio entero estaba conside-
rablemente edematoso, la circunvolución cingulada y el cuerpo callo-
so estaban distorsionados, y la cabeza del núcleo caudado estaba com-
primida. Además, los dos giros hipocámpicos estaban comprimidos en
el plano medio, cortados por una hendidura profunda con marcas de
presión en el límite de la tienda del cerebelo, y el cuerno posterior del
ventrículo lateral derecho estaba dilatado» (citado por Canavan et al.,
1985, p. 1050).
TABLA 4.1
TR medio (DS) en segundos en el test de Stroop correspondientes
a las condiciones de lectura, denominación, interferencia y priming
negativo y a los participantes jóvenes y mayores en el Experimento 2
TABLA 4.2
TR Medio (DS) y eficacia en las tareas de PN y stop signal
(ensayos go y stop) correspondientes a los dos grupos de edad
en el Experimento 3
Ensayos No go
Control NP Ensayos Go
(SSRTs)
Jóvenes - TR (ms) 509.76 (60.02) 516.77 (60.03) 582 (98.3) 306.45 (76)
Mayores - TR (ms) 609.37 (76.32) 618.78 (78.98) 762.7 (159) 408.29 (113.3)
Jóvenes - eficacia (%) .91 (.03) .90 (.04) .91 (.09) .56 (.14)
Mayores - eficacia (%) .97 (.05) .96 (.03) .95 (.1) .68 (.18)
122 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
CONCLUSIONES GENERALES
AGRADECIMIENTOS
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124 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
David Katz (1984-1953) was a pioneer in the study of visual and tactual
perception. In the study of touch he was more interested in the perception
of texture (microstructure, the fine structure of the surface) than in the
perception of shape (macrostructure). More recently, Hollins and his col-
laborators have conducted pioneering work directed to determining the
perceptual dimensions of tactile surface texture (Hollins, Bensmaïa,
Karlof, & Young, 2000; Hollins, Faldowsky, Rao, & Young, 1993). They
used multidimensional scaling techniques (MSD) to determine whether
subjects´ categorizations of tactile surfaces on the basis of texture can
be described in terms of a perceptual space and which dimensions exist
in this space.
Hollins and collaborators (1993) presented a series of ecological
surface textures, one by one across the index finger of the participants
and asked them to sort the stimuli into categories based on the basis of
the perceived similarity. They identified two robust and orthogonal
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OF HAPTIC TEXTURES SPACE BY YOUNG... 129
freely. In the first two studies, young adults explored the ecological textures
by touch alone (study 1) or by vision and touch simultaneously (study 2).
The question we asked was about the dimensionality of the haptic texture
space and whether the dimensionality would change when both modalities,
vision and touch, are used to explore the stimuli. The question is important
as sighted explorers use multiple modalities (specially vision and touch)
to explore textures in the world. However, the blind and the visually
impaired use the haptic modality as the normal way to explore texture
surfaces. We used convergent methods (free classification and spatial
arrangement) to investigate the dimensional space of texture perception
by touch and the interaction between touch and vision when adult
perceivers were allowed to use both modalities to explore everyday surface
textures. The second question we asked was whether the perceptual space
would change as we aged. It is well established that tactual acuity decreases
with age (Stevens & Patterson, 1995) but would the textural dimension
space change from young adults to older perceivers?
In our texture studies we used ecological textured surfaces and allowed
participants to explore them freely one by one. In the study 1 and 2
participated different groups of young adults, in one case using just touch
without vision and in the other using both touch and vision simultaneously.
In study 3 participated older adults and they explored the 20 surface
textures by touch only.
In the studies, we used in touch a method used previously by Goldstone
(1994) in vision to obtain similarity data. The procedure is based on the
idea that if a display has n stimuli, then after subjects have rearranged
them, n (n-1)/2 pairwise similarities can be recorded. In this similarity
measure participants were given a random configuration of stimuli with
the instruction to rearrange them so that the distances would be
proportional to their perceived dissimilarity. Another important goal of
the research was to investigate whether the perceptual space changed
when perceivers explored the materials bimodaly; that is, using vision and
touch. The question was whether the perceived space would be similar
when perceivers used not only touch but also vision to explore the textured
surfaces.
In our first study sixteen right handed adults students at the Universidad
Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) aged between 19 and 40 years
with a mean of 30 years participated voluntarily in the experiment. They
were not allowed to see the stimuli at any time as they were blindfolded
before entering the laboratory. The stimuli were 20 ecologically valid
materials selected from a larger set to cover a wide range of surfaces and
subjective impressions (see Figure 5.1). The stimuli were:
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OF HAPTIC TEXTURES SPACE BY YOUNG... 131
FIGURE 5.1
The 20 ecological surface texture stimuli used in the study
(1) tile
(2) soap
(3) adhesive type
(4) harsh sponge
(5) soft sandpaper
(6) dishcloth
(7) hard sandpaper
(8) spherical plastic packing
(9) bubbling plastic packing
(10) plastic
(11) cork
(12) plastic packing material
(13) synthetic plastic packing
(14) coarse foam rubber
(15) foam
(16) foam rubber
(17) leather
(18) synthetic fur
(19) angora wool
(20) acrylic fabric.
FIGURE 5.2
Example of a participant’s performance in the spatial arrangement task*
* The arrows indicate the distance in cm from the center of the stimulus to each
coordinate. (Modified from Ballesteros, Reales, Ponce de León, & García, 2005,
IEEE Computer Society, p. 636).
FIGURE 5.3
An example of the arrangement produced by a participant
in the free classification task
134 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
2,0
19 18
1,5
1,0 9 14
8
3 10 2 20
Dimension 2
0,5 1 16
0,0
–0,5 6 4
17 11
–1,0 7 15
15 13
12
–1,5
–2,0 –1,5 –1,0 –0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
Dimension 1
FIGURE 5.4
Multidimensional scaling solution of the haptic data obtained from
the spatial arrangement method.
Haptic 2-D space. Spatial Arrangement Task*
* Only two dimensional coordinates of the stimuli are shown. The numbers correspond
to those that appears above related to the stimuli.
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OF HAPTIC TEXTURES SPACE BY YOUNG... 135
0,7
0,6 5 12
7
0,5
0,4 6 11
4 13
0,3 3 17
0,2
Dimension 2
15
0,1
10
0,0
2
–0,1
–0,2 1
8
–0,3 16
14 9
–0,4
20
–0,5
–0,6 18
–0,7
–0,8 –0,6 –0,4 –0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
Dimension 1
FIGURE 5.5
The 2-D haptic texture space obtained by young adults
in the classification task. Haptic 2-D space. Free Classification Task*
* Only two dimensional coordinates of the stimuli are shown. The numbers correspond
to those that appears above related to the stimuli.
136 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
The third and last task consisted of rating in a 5-point scale the
pleasantness of each texture haptically explored. The mean for each
individual stimulus corresponding to each haptic perceiver was calculated
and the results were subjected to a regression analysis. The analysis showed
that the hedonic haptic ratings correlated negatively with the first two
dimensions.
3,0
2,5
4
2,0 6
7
1,5 5
Dimension 2
1,0
11 12 8
0,5
9
0,0 20 17
13 15 3
–0,5 14 16
2
1 10
–1,0 19
18
–1,5
–2,0 –1,5 –1,0 –0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,0 2,0
Dimension 1
FIGURE 5.6
Textural space in the spatial arrangement task performed visually
and haptically
A good match was found in the spatial solution obtained in the two
different tasks, the spatial arrangement and the classification tasks.
The 2D spatial solution is shown in Figure 5.7. The fit is similar in both
tasks and it is better when the exploration is multimodal than when only
touch was used in the exploration. We interpreted the first dimension as
the rough/smooth dimension and the second dimension as the slippery/
adherent dimension. The dimensional space is similar at the space obtained
in the haptic exploration in the spatial arrangement task and with the bimodal
classification task.
0,9
8
0,8 9
0,7 3
0,6
0,5 10
0,4
0,3 18 4
Dimension 2
0,2 6
2
0,1 14 75
0,0 20 1
–0,1
–0,2
–0,3
–0,4 16
–0,5 17
13 12
–0,6 15 11
–0,7
–0,8 –0,6 –0,4 –0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
Dimension 1
FIGURE 5.7
The 2D spatial solution obtained in the free classification task
and bimodal exploration
4
Means (vision)
1
1 2 3 4 5
Means (touch)
FIGURE 5.8
Linear regression between tactual exploration and visual-tactual
simultaneous exploration of surface textures
1,5
0,5
–0,5
–1
–1,5
–2
FIGURE 5.9
The spatial arrangement task. Movements produced
in the texture perceived space when mode of exploration changes from touch
to bimodal exploration*
* The arrows start at the haptic exploration and end at the bimodal exploration (from
Ballesteros et al., 2005, IEEE Computer Society, p. 637).
142 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
Figure 5.10 presents the changes in space obtained in the free clas-
sification task when the modalities used to explore the textures varied. As
it is shown in the graph, the stimuli also moved in similar ways. Again, a
rotation of the perceptual dimensions is produced when vision is added
to tactual exploration.
0,75
0,5
0,25
–0,25
–0,5
–0,75
–1
FIGURE 5.10
The free classification task. Movements produced in the texture perceived
space when mode of exploration changes from touch
to bimodal exploration*
* The arrows start at the haptic exploration and end at the bimodal exploration. (From
Ballesteros et al., 2005, IEEE Computer Society, p. 637).
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OF HAPTIC TEXTURES SPACE BY YOUNG... 143
FIGURE 5.11
Left. Multidimensional Scaling Solution (MDS) for the Spatial Arrangment
Task by the older adults group.
Right. MDS for the Free Classification Task by the same group
lasted about an hour. As young adults, they performed the same three
tasks: the spatial arrangement task, the free classification task and the
hedonic task. The stimuli were the same as those used in the studies 1
and 2 with younger adults. Figure 5.11 (left) shows the results obtained
by the older adult group in the Spatial Arrangement Task. The right part
of the Figure shows the multidimensional solution corresponding to the
Free classification task.
As we did with the results obtained by the young adult group, the stimuli
were located in the perceptual space as a function of their perceived
dissimilarity. We choose a bidimensional space solution. We interpreted
the first dimension as roughness/smoothness. The textures that saturated
in this dimension were at one extreme: sand paper, hard sand paper,
dishcloth and harsh sponge while at the other they were fur, angora wool,
coarse foam rubber and acrylic fabric.
The second dimension was interpreted as slippery/adherent and the
stimuli located at one extreme of the dimension were: tile, soap, plastic,
and foam rubber while at the other extreme they were plastic packing,
cork, synthetic plastic packing, and foam.
144 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
DISCUSSION
The efficient spatial arrangement method used by Goldstone in the
visual domain was applied successfully to the tactual perception of surface
textures (haptic study) and to the bimodal (vision and touch) exploration
of the same materials (haptic + visual study) for young and older adults.
The technique has proven to be more efficient and faster than the traditional
method used to obtaining similarity data, allows for graded degrees of
similarity rather than binary similar/dissimilar judgments, and places each
similarity decision in context of other decisions.
As shown previously (Hollins et al, 1993; 2000; Picard et al., 2003a;
2003b), it is possible to represent in a perceptual space subjects´ perceptions
of surface texture of a wide variety of naturalistic materials. Our results
suggest that the goodness of fit of individual as well as group data and
the appearance of the materials, suggest a 2-dimensional solution when
the textures were explored using only haptics as well as when texture
perception is conducted simultaneously by touch and vision.
When only the haptic modality was used to explore texture materials,
the smooth/rough dimension was very salient not only for our young adult
group but also for the older group. Dimension 2 was interpreted as related
to the size of the textured materials that compose the actively explored
surface. On one side of the space were located stimuli composed by many,
very small elements (e. g., leather, foam rubber, rubber). On the other side
of the space were placed those stimuli formed by a small number of larger
and distinguishable elements (e. g., spherical plastic packing material, bubble
plastic material, adhesive tape).
Although a 2-dimensional space is also the best solution in the bimodal
exploration experiment, the descriptors of both dimension appeared
rotated in the texture space in such a way that dimension 1 is better
described as smooth/materials composed by a small number of big and
thin, distinguishable elements while dimension 2 is formed by surfaces
better described as rough/materials composed by many, very small, and
thin indistinguishable elements. The results can be interpreted in terms
of the frame of reference. Visuospatial experience tended to favour reliance
on external spatial frames of reference (Ballesteros et al., 1997; Ballesteros
et al., 1998). However, in the absence of visual experience as it happened
under haptic exploration, body-centred spatial reference frames provide
reference information for spatial location (Millar, 1994). As our study
with young adults suggests, individual as well as group data obtained
with young adults show consistent results in the haptic and the bimodal
exploration conditions of a wide and representative set of naturalistic,
ecologically valid textures. These results were obtained using an efficient
method developed earlier to obtain similarity data in vision. Even though
several stimuli varied in colour, this dimension did not influence the
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OF HAPTIC TEXTURES SPACE BY YOUNG... 145
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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6
CAMBIOS EN LA MEMORIA DE TRABAJO
ASOCIADOS AL ENVEJECIMIENTO
Raquel Rodríguez*, Patricia Recio*, Juan Manuel Muñoz-Céspedes**
y Javier González**
INTRODUCCIÓN
MÉTODO
Participantes
Procedimiento
de frases que debe leer en voz alta y, posteriormente, recordar la última pala-
bra de cada una de ellas. La prueba está formada por 40 frases no relaciona-
das, las cuales están distribuidas en dos listas (una ascendente y otra des-
cendente) de 20 frases cada una. Cada lista está compuesta por 5 grupos de
2 a 6 frases, cada una de las cuales compuesta, a su vez, por 15 palabras, para
igualarlas en longitud y anular posibles efectos de facilitación del recuerdo
de la palabra objetivo. Además, ninguna frase presenta signos de puntuación
como comas, puntos y comas, etc. Las palabras a recordar, todas ellas sus-
tantivos, fueron seleccionadas según la base de datos de Algarabel (1996) que
tiene en cuenta diversos índices objetivos: frecuencia de uso —según el dic-
cionario de Juilland y Chang-Rodríguez (1964)—, número de significados,
número de letras y número de sílabas. Se contabiliza el número de palabras
recordadas correctamente por el sujeto.
RESULTADOS
DISCUSIÓN
TABLA 6.1
Comparaciones múltiples en todas las pruebas aplicadas
para los tres grupos de edad
Nota: Los asteriscos indican que la diferencia entre las medias es significativa al nivel de 0’05.
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7
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY
AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING1
José Miguel Latorre Postigo*, Juan Pedro Serrano Selva*,
Laura Ros Segura* y María José Sancho Valero*
INTRODUCTION
1 This study was supported in part by a research grant given to the first author from
& Dristchel, 1992; Williams, 1996). Thus, subjects typically generate a spe-
cific memory by first accessing an extended or general event theme, «e.g., my
first year of university», and the cycle proceeds by a progressive narrowing
onto specific events and episodes «e. g., my first day of class» (Conway &
Rubin, 1993).
Research in autobiographical memory suggests that depressed people
use an overgeneral mode of retrieval. Several studies found that whereas
healthy individuals are able to recall specific memories easily, depressed
patients have considerable difficulties moving fluently through the memory
hierarchy. They retrieve fewer specific and more categoric memories
(Goddard, Dritschel, & Burton, 1996; Brewin, Watson, McCarthy, Hyman, &
Dayson, 1998; Kremers, Spinhoven, & Van der Does, 2004). Other studies
have suggested that not only depressed people, but also patients with Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder (McNally, Litz, Prassas, Shin, & Weathers, 1994;
McNally, Lasko, Macklin, & Pitman, 1995), Acute Stress Disorder (Harvey,
Bryant, & Dang, 1998), Borderline Personality Disorder (Jones, Heard,
Startup, Swales, Williams, & Jones, 1999) and bulimia nervosa (Laberg &
Anderson, 2004) show the same lack of specificity in memories. Although
overgeneral memory was originally described as a stable characteristic (Brit-
tlebank, Scott, Williams, & Ferrier, 1993), it may, in fact, be open to change
and to diminish with therapy and distraction techniques (Williams, Teasdale,
Segal, & Soulsby, 2000; Watkins, Teasdale, & Williams, 2000).
The vast majority of studies in this area have been used the
Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) developed by Williams and Broadbent
(1986). However, some of these studies report overgeneral memory scores
while others display autobiographical memory specificity scores. In all these
studies, patients had less specific memories than normal controls. The
findings on the effects of cue valence, on both specificity as well latency, do
not show the same consistency across studies. For example, Williams and
Scott (1988) and McNally et al. (1994) found patients to be less specific in
their memories in response to positive cues, whereas Jones et al. (1999)
found a reduction in specificity of memories in response to negative rather
than to positive and neutral cues (see also Mackinger, Pachinger, Leibetseder,
& Fartacek, 2000). Goddard, Dritschel, & Burton (1996) and McNally et al.
(1995) on the other hand found patients to be less specific in response to
both positive and negative cues. Similar results can be reported for latency
of recall. In some studies the responding time of patients to positive cues was
longer than to negative cues, whereas the reverse was true for control
subjects (Williams & Broadbent, 1986; Williams & Scott, 1988). Others, how-
ever, did not find any significant difference in latency to respond, or for
valence or for group by valence effects (Kuyken & Dalgleish, 1995; Scott,
Stanton, Garland, & Ferrier, 2000).
Furthermore, the comparability of the data may be questioned due to
differences in subject groups and differences in AMT procedures. Van
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING 161
METHOD
Participants
In the four studies have participated 222 older adults —130 depressed
and 92 controls— recruited from Social Services and from retirement
communities for active older adults in Castilla-La Mancha Region (Spain).
Criteria for inclusion in the final analysis were as follows: (a) the individual
had no show evidence of dementia (as determined by a score of 28 or higher
on the Mini-Mental State Examination (Mini Examen Cognitivo, MEC; Lobo,
Ezquerra, Gómez Burgada, Sala, & Seva-Díaz, [1979]), (b) subjects had to be
able to read and write, (c) Not received pharmacological treatment for
depression. The characteristics of older adults participants in the studies are
summarized in Table 7.1.
Measures
Mood Measures
Centre for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression. The CES-D (Radloff,
1977), translated into Spanish by Latorre and Montañés (1997), was used in
screening the participants. The CES-D is a short self-report scale designed to
measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. It consists of
20 items assessing depressed mood, feelings of guilt and worthlessness, help-
lessness, and hopelessness, and psychomotor retardation. The CES-D scale
is widely used in research with adults of all ages (Radloff, 1977; Radloff &
Teri, 1986) with high reliability, internal consistency, and discriminant and
construct validity (Radloff & Teri, 1986). A cut-off score of 16 is typically used
to indicate clinically significant symptoms. Validity studies find that there are
few false negatives although not everyone above the cut-off qualifies for major
depression (Turvey, Wallace, & Herzog, 1999). In this sense, the study of La-
torre and Montañés (1997) compares in elderly population the CES-D with a
scale that allows a clinical diagnose of depression: the Depression Scale
according to criteria of DSM-III-R. They find that both scales have a high
degree of coincidence in the evaluation of depression (68.7% of coincidence
and 16.8% of variance). This finding confirms the similarity in the appraisal
of depression between both scales (X2 = 67.3, p =.00). This study endorses the
utility and validity of CES-D in the assessment of depressive symptomatology.
Other studies (Gatz & Hurwicz, 1990; Hertzog, Van Alstine, Usala, Hultsch, &
Dixon, 1990) have found similar results.
TABLE 7.1
Background Data for the Participants in the Studies
Variables
Education (frequency)
Age
M Read & Elemen. Second. Univer- Gender
Studies (SD) Write School School sity Male
Study 1
Depressed 72.09
(n = 33) (7.8) 12.1% 84.9% 0.0% 3.0% 42.4%
Nondepressed 72.52
(n = 33) (5.6) 3.0% 81.8% 6.1% 9.1% 36.4%
Study 2
Depressed 78.06
(n = 34) (7.9) 20.6% 50.0% 26.5% 2.9% 20.6%
Nondepressed 70.46
(n = 39) (7.1) 0.0% 87.2% 12.8% 0.0% 71.8%
Study 3
Experimental 75.80
(n = 20) (8.1) — 73.9% 26.1% — 17.4%
Control 78.40
(n = 23) (7.3) 15.0% 60.0% 20.0% 5.0% 30.0%
Study 4
Depressed 75.80
(n = 20) (8.09) 20.0% 60.0% 15.0% 5.0% 30.0%
Nondepressed 73.35
(n = 20) (7.34) 10.0% 70.0% 20.0% 0.0% 50.0%
Memory Measures
Cognitive impairment
Mini Examen Cognitivo. The Mini Examen Cognitivo (Lobo et al., 1979)
is the adaptation and Spanish validation of the original Mini-Mental Status
Examination (MMSE) created by Folstein, Folstein and McHugh (1975). The
procedure consists of eleven items grouped into eight categories representing
a different cognitive domain of function. The maximum score is 35 with a
cut-off 28 reflecting cognitive impairment. The instrument obtained a
sensitivity of 92% and a specificity of 90% in medical patients (Lobo et al.,
1979), 96% and 100% in inpatient psychiatric patients, when those with
cognitive impairment were compared with none demented. All participants
in the four studies scored above the cut-off.
STUDY 1
Method
Participants
Materials
And if the recalled event was a generic memory that summarize a category
of events rather than selecting one (e.g., «times I have stood at bus stops»,
«going to parties», «arguments with my boyfriend»), it was coded as
categoric. Since the total number of stimulus words was 10, the maximum
score for either category was 10, and the sum of extended plus categoric plus
specific could not exceed 10.
Procedure
Participants were told that the study was investigating effects of mood on
memory recall and that the interviews were designed to evoke memories. The
participants who gave consent were included in the study. In the 1st week
they were orally administered a demographic questionnaire and completed
the mood measures. These measures were administered by two psychologists
blind to the purpose of the study. In the 2nd week, participants completed the
Autobiographical Memory Test. Assessment sessions were tape recorded and
were scored by three raters blind to the purpose of the study. Each response
was coded whether it was specific, categoric or extended. The coders also
determined that each prompting question was administered to each
participant. In addition, absence of unspecified components was confirmed.
With respect to the results, we present only data on specific and categoric
descriptions, extended category being irrelevant according to Williams
(1996).
Results
Autobiographical Recall
0,6
0,5
Proportion recalled
0,4
Categorical responses
0,3
Specific responses
0,2
0,1
0
Control Depression Control Depression
Positive Negative
Type of cue
FIGURE 7.1
Proportion of Retrieval of Specific and Categorical Memories in Response
to Positive and Negative Cue Words in the Non-Depressed
and Depressed Groups (Study 1)
Response Latency
Discussion Study 1
In conclusion, this study provides only support for the hypothesis that
depressed older adults show overgeneral memory in response to positive cue
words, compared to normal older adults. However, response latencies tended
to be longer for depressed participants, across both categoric and specific
memories. We suggest that changes in cognitive processing and in socio-
emotional functioning that accompany aging may attenuate findings of over-
168 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
3,5
Categorical responses
Specific responses
3
2,5
1,5
Control Depression Control Depression
Positive Negative
Type of cue
FIGURE 7.2
Latency of Retrieval of Specific and Categorical Memories in Response
to Positive and Negative Cue Words in the Non-Depressed
and Depressed Groups (Study 1)
STUDY 2
Method
Participants
The present study comprised two groups of participants. One group of
older adults was recruited from Social Services in Almansa, Spain (N= 34). The
inclusion criteria was that individuals were depressed, defined as scoring
above or equal to the clinical cutoff of 16 of the CES-D. A short form of the
Composite International Diagnostic Interview (Kessler, Andrews, Mroczak,
Üstun, & Wittchen, 1998) was used to evaluate whether participants met
criteria for major depressive disorder. Only those who met criteria for major
depression (N=17) or for dysthymia (N=17) were included in the study.
Nondepressed volunteers were recruited from retirement communities
for active older adults in Cuenca, (Spain). The inclusion criteria were that
individuals were nondepressed, defined as scoring below the clinical cutoff
of 16 on the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression [CES-D Rad-
loff, 1977], from this recruitment effort, 39 older adults were included (see
Table 7.1).
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING 169
Procedure
Participants were told that the study was investigating effects of mood on
memory recall and that the interviews were designed to evoke memories. The
subjects who gave consent were included in the study. In the 1st week they
were orally administered a demographic questionnaire and completed the
mood measures. The CIDI was completed only by the Almansa subjects.
These measures were administered by two psychologists blind to the purpose
of the study. In the 2nd week, participants completed the Autobiographical
Memory Test. Assessment sessions were tape recorded and were scored by
three raters blind to the purpose of the study. Each response was coded
whether it was specific or general. The coders also determined that each
prompting question was administered to each participant. In addition,
absence of unspecified components was confirmed.
Results
Autobiographical Recall
Response Latency
3,5
Mean Number of Memories
2,5
1,5 Control
Dysthimia
1 Mahor Depresion
0,5
0
General Specific General Specific General Specific
Positive Negative Neutral
FIGURE 7.3
Number of Specific or General Memories Recalled in Response
to Positive, Negative and Neutral Cue Words in the Non-Depressed
and Clinical Groups (Study 2)
Discussion Study 2
This study provides only minimal support for the hypothesis that
depressed older adults will show overgeneral memory compared to normal
older adults. However, response latencies tended to be longer for depressed
participants, across both general and specific memories. We suggest that
changes in cognitive processing and in socioemotional functioning that
accompany aging may attenuate findings of overgeneral memory in
depressives found in younger adults. Findings are similar in depressed non-
clinical groups (Study 1).
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING 171
3 Control
Dysthimia
2 Mahor Depresion
0
General Specific General Specific General Specific
Positive Negative Neutral
FIGURE 7.4
Latency of Retrieval of Specific and General Memories in Response
to Positive, Negative and Neutral Cue Words in the Non-Depressed
and Clinical Groups (Study 2)
STUDY 3
Method
Participants
One hundred twenty older adults’ volunteers who were clients of Social
Services in Almansa (Albacete), Spain, were recruited. Participants in the study
were receiving one hour of social services per day, five days per week from the
private corporation. The final sample, shown in Table 1, included 43 depressed
older adults (23 control and 20 experimental). There were no differences
between experimental and control groups in age, sex, or education. Ex-
perimental and control groups did not differ significantly at pretest on CES-D,
Beck Hopelessness Scale, Life Satisfaction Index, or number of specific me-
mories, either including or excluding the dropouts.
Procedure
Results
Discussion Study 3
The results showed that older adults who received the autobiographical
memory practice improved their mood state, with decreased depressive
symptoms and decreased feelings of hopelessness and improved the life
satisfaction, compared to a control group who did not show changes in
their mood state. The results also provide further evidence that over-
general memories in depression are modifiable over short time periods;
participants in a life review therapy protocol where they were trained on
autobiographical memory generated significantly more specific memories
at posttest than at pretest compared to those who did not receive life review
therapy.
TABLE 7.2
Means and Standard Deviations for the Main Dependent Variables
in the Study 3
Experimental Control
Variable Group Group Group Time Time X
(N=20) (N=23) Group
Specific
Recall
positive 1.60 3.25 1.95 2.17 0.64 8.87b 5.22a
specific (1.79) (2.07) (1.49) (1.80)
memories
STUDY 4
Method
Participants
One hundred and twenty-two older adults were recruited from Social
Services in Almansa and from retirement communities for active older adults
in Cuenca and Albacete (Spain). The remaining sample, shown in Table 1, of
40 participants was divided in two groups. The depressed group was formed
by subjects with a scoring above or equal to the clinical cutoff of 16 on the
Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D, Radloff, [1977]),
and the nondepressed group included individuals with a scoring below the
clinical cutoff of 16 on the CES-D. Both groups were matched according the
variables of age, gender and educational level.
Procedure
Participants were told that the study was investigating effects of mood on
memory recall and that the interviews were designed to evoke memories. In
the 1st week they were orally administered a demographic questionnaire and
3,00
*
Specificity of memories
2,00
1,00
0,00
Non depressed group Depressed group
FIGURE 7.5
Specificity degree of memories in response to positive cue words
in the non-depressed and depressed groups (Study 4)
Note: * p <.05.
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING 175
completed the mood measures. In the 2nd week, participants completed the
Autobiographical Memory Test.
A new coding system was developed to rate the specificity and the
emotional intensity variables. Thus, each memory was coded by three
independent raters for amount of specificity and emotional intensity
(positive and negative). Interrater reliability of every kind of cue word
(positive, negative and neutral) across the three raters was assessed with
Kendall’s Concordance Coefficient. The interrater reliability was significant
in all cases, with values varying between 0.23 and 0.88, p < 0.01. Theses
results indicate general high agreement across the three scorers.
Results
Discussion Study 4
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The aim of studies 1, 2 and 4 was to compare the accessibility of auto-
biographical memory in depressed older adults compared to nondepressed
older adults. We expected that depressed older adults would produce more
categoric, or general, memories and fewer specific memories than non-
depressed older adults. The hypothesized pattern was supported only for
positive cues, for which depressed older adults retrieved fewer specific me-
mories when compared with non depressed older adults. We found no
differences in recall with negative cues.
Both depressed and non depressed older adults in this study tended to
respond with categoric memories, despite being instructed to give specific
memories. One possible interpretation for the lack of significant differences
is that age-related deficits for episodic information such as temporally
specific contextual details (e. g. McIntyre & Craik, 1987; Spencer & Raz,
1995; Zacks, Hasher, & Li, 2000) led both depressed and non depressed
to recall fewer specific memories than general memories. Semantic in-
formation, such as general knowledge and understanding of narrative
meaning, is preserved or even facilitated in older adults (Adams, Smith,
Nyquist, & Perlmutter, 1997). For example, Levine, Svoboda, Hay, Winocur,
and Moscovitch (2002) found that whereas younger adults were biased
toward episodic details reflecting happenings, locations, perceptions, and
thoughts, older adults preferred semantic memories not connected to a
particular time and place. This pattern persisted after conditional structured
probing for contextual details. A similar conclusion was obtained in an aging
study where episodic and semantic aspects of autobiographical memory
were probed using separate interviews (Piolino, Desgranges, Benali, &
Eustache, 2002). Accordingly, the age-relate reduction in the incidence of
flashbulb memories is consistent with research showing that the elderly are
impaired in memory for context, including the context in which a word was
previously presented, the context in witch an event was witnessed (Cohen,
Conway, & Maylor, 1994).
In this sense, research in cognitive aging generally indicates that
working memory explains a great deal of age-related variance on a range of
complex tasks, supporting both the fundamental role of working memory
in cognition hypothesized by Baddelely (1986), and Craik and Byrd’s (1982)
hypothesis that declining «mental energy» (operationalized as working me-
mory) explains age differences on a range of cognitive tasks (Park & Hed-
den, 2001).
The process of retrieval, which incorporates the cyclical retrieval strategy
described by Williams and Hollan (1981) is a more difficult process for these
patients who have naturally occurring restrictions in working memory
capacity (Williams, Watts, MacLeod, & Mathews, 1997). They are both slow
to generate mnemonic cues, and they produce more degraded cues with
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY AND DEPRESSION IN AGEING 177
Finally, the present studies have two principal limitations. First, in two of
four studies the samples of subjects, depressed and non depressed, were not
clinical subjects. Second, data were collected by three psychologists, so there
may been differences in procedure despite following the same protocol.
In conclusion, these studies provides only minimal support for the
hypothesis that depressed older adults will show overgeneral memory
compared to normal older adults. Furthermore, it extends earlier findings to
non clinical samples. However, response latencies tended to be longer for
depressed participants, across both categoric and specific memories. We
suggest that changes in cognitive processing and in socioemotional
functioning that accompany aging may attenuate findings of overgeneral
memory in depressives found in younger adults. Moreover, they provides
further evidence that overgeneral memory in depression can be modified by
brief cognitive intervention and that life review based on these principles can
be useful in treating depressed older adults.
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8
CREENCIAS DE CONTROL DE LA MEMORIA
EN LA VEJEZ
Rigoberto López Honrubia*, José Miguel Latorre Postigo*
y José Francisco Morales Domínguez**
INTRODUCCIÓN
MÉTODO
Participantes
En este estudio participaron 431 sujetos de tres generaciones diferentes,
jóvenes, adultos y ancianos. Las características de la muestra pueden verse
en la Tabla 8.1.
TABLA 8.1
Características de la muestra
Instrumentos
Procedimiento
RESULTADOS
TABLA 8.2
Factores e ítems del MCI y las ACS
TABLA 8.3
Comparación de medias en los ítems y factores del MCI y las ACS,
entre las tres generaciones
M DS M DS M DS
MCI FACTOR 1
(Habilidad Actual) 21.11 4.21 20.47 5.16 17.47 5.92 13.80 ***
02 5.17 1.50 5.06 1.58 4.73 1.73 1.95
08 3.00 1.64 3.23 1.79 4.54 1.96 19.31 ***
12 2.30 1.55 2.45 1.60 3.59 2.02 15.45 ***
16 5.27 1.41 5.07 1.69 4.92 1.72 1.51
MCI FACTOR 2
(Progreso Potencial) 16.45 2.71 15.06 3.29 13.06 4.16 29.88 ***
03 2.82 1.50 3.37 1.82 4.01 1.77 14.03 ***
10 5.74 1.17 5.31 1.51 4.39 1.74 23.69 ***
17 5.52 1.13 5.11 1.45 4.68 1.74 10.49 ***
MCI FACTOR 3
(Utilidad del Esfuerzo) 15.87 3.52 16.00 3.49 14.90 3.83 2.23
07 5.54 1.40 5.19 1.54 4.56 1.84 10.54 ***
09 5.57 1.47 5.66 1.49 5.34 1.48 1.03
14 4.74 1.49 5.15 1.53 5.08 1.60 3.44 *
MCI FACTOR 4
(Declive Inevitable) 9.25 3.25 12.52 3.78 15.43 3.54 90.22 ***
01 2.73 1.48 3.88 1.75 4.76 1.90 46.12 ***
04 3.19 1.56 4.42 1.88 5.43 1.79 50.00 ***
20 3.31 1.56 4.20 1.65 5.23 1.58 39.08 ***
ACS FACTOR 1
(Independencia
en la Vejez) 13.23 3.32 12.26 3.61 9.66 3.75 25.48 ***
06 3.72 1.56 4.21 1.63 5.25 1.66 22.89 ***
15 3.83 1.47 3.77 1.52 3.30 1.68 3.03 *
18 2.85 1.46 3.27 1.72 4.40 1.89 22.28 ***
ACS FACTOR 2
(Probabilidad
de Alzheimer) 10.58 3.67 11.87 4.68 14.48 4.96 20.67 ***
05 5.58 1.70 4.74 1.86 5.50 1.67 6.70 ***
11 1.79 1.23 2.21 1.53 3.11 1.98 19.57 ***
13 2.53 1.54 2.82 1.66 3.42 1.85 7.38 ***
19 1.69 1.18 2.12 1.56 2.62 1.70 11.75 ***
Nota: la numeración se corresponde con el número de ítem, tal como aparecen formulados en
la Tabla 2. *** p <.001 ** p<.01 * p<.05.
CREENCIAS DE CONTROL DE LA MEMORIA EN LA VEJEZ 191
DISCUSIÓN
REFERENCIAS
BANDURA, A. (1987): Pensamiento y acción. Barcelona: Martínez Roca.
BANDURA, A. (1989): «Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-effi-
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BERRY, J. M., WEST, L. R., y DENNEHEY, D. M. (1989): «Reliability and validity of the
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FERNÁNDEZ-BALLESTEROS, R. (1992): Mitos y realidades sobre la vejez y la salud. Barce-
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FINGERMAN, K. L., y PERLMUTTER, M. (1994): «Self-rating of past, present, and future
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GUIRADO, P. (1999): Análisis comparativo de metamemoria y memoria cotidiana en el
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194 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
INTRODUCCIÓN
EL ENTRENAMIENTO DE LA MEMORIA
miento tiene como objetivo estimular los procesos mentales que son la base
de la memoria.
Además, el entrenamiento en grupo suele ser más efectivo que el entre-
namiento individual porque favorece el aumento del rendimiento a través de
los mecanismos de la dinámica grupal. De esta manera se incide positiva-
mente evitando los efectos negativos de la ansiedad, se favorece la autoesti-
ma y se lucha contra los estereotipos que influyen negativamente en el fun-
cionamiento de la memoria (ver capítulos 7 y 8 en este libro).
En el envejecimiento normal existen diferencias interindividuales que
pueden llegar a ser bastante marcadas en el plano fisiológico, psicológico y
social, debido a los múltiples factores de tipo educacional, laboral, social,
familiar, económico... que están influyendo. En la actualidad, el objetivo
principal de los programas de entrenamiento de la memoria consiste en tras-
ladar los resultados de las investigaciones básicas en este campo a la solu-
ción de los problemas de memoria de la vida cotidiana.
Los trastornos de la memoria se incluyen dentro de los trastornos men-
tales. En la realidad clínica, los trastornos de la memoria en la vejez se aso-
cian fundamentalmente a trastornos orgánicos, sobre todo con la posibilidad
de padecer algún tipo de demencia, y a veces con trastornos psiquiátricos,
principalmente la depresión. Existe, además, una alteración producida por
múltiples cusas asociada al envejecimiento que es lo que se conoce como la
perdida de memoria asociada a la edad.
Una de las quejas más frecuentes de los mayores es la referida a la pér-
dida de memoria. Hay actualmente un amplio consenso en considerar que el
ejercicio y la estimulación del medio son dos elementos fundamentales para
conseguir una vejez saludable. En la actualidad existe suficiente evidencia
para poder afirmar que con la edad se produce una disminución de la habi-
lidad para realizar tareas que dependen del aprendizaje y la memoria. A par-
tir de los 60 años se observa, en la mayoría de la población un declive de las
funciones mentales, aunque no ocurre en todas las áreas. En el área verbal,
por ejemplo, puede haber incluso una mejora del rendimiento en las perso-
nas con la edad si se comparan con individuos jóvenes. Algunos hablan de
que hay un deterioro en la llamada inteligencia «fluida» o genética que sirve
para buscar soluciones nuevas y complejas, mientras que se mantiene la inte-
ligencia «cristalizada» que opera fundamentalmente con elementos que pro-
vienen del aprendizaje y la cultura (ver Ballesteros y Miembros de la UMAM,
2002).
Como ya hemos señalado, no existe un único tipo de memoria y no todos
los tipos de memoria de deterioran con la edad. Mientras la mayoría de las
investigaciones sugieren un declive de la memoria episódica, voluntaria y
consciente con la edad, existe un tipo de memoria que se mantiene práctica-
mente intacta durante toda la vida. Este tipo de memoria es la memoria
implícita. Se trata de un tipo de memoria inconsciente que se evalúa a partir
del priming perceptivo o de repetición; esto es, la facilitación producida
MEMORIA EPISÓDICA Y ENVEJECIMIENTO... 199
cuando los mismos estímulos se presentan por segunda vez (ver Capítulo 13
en este volumen). Los estudios realizados en este campo sugieren que las per-
sonas mayores muestran un robusto priming perceptivo en una amplia varie-
dad de tareas de memoria implícita (para una revisión ver Ballesteros et al.,
2002; Ballesteros y Reales, 2004; Fleischman y Gabrieli, 1998; La Voie y
Light, 1994).
Sin embargo, la mayoría de los autores coinciden en señalar que las dife-
rencias interindividuales en este área son muy marcadas y que al lado del de-
clive debido a factores biológicos, intervienen otros factores de tipo educati-
vo, laboral, social, afectivo, etc. Esto se comprueba en aquellos individuos
que continúan hasta edades muy avanzadas con trabajo intelectual intenso,
de modo que sus funciones no se deterioran en absoluto. Se habla de la
«plasticidad» de la inteligencia, es decir por una parte de que ésta es modifi-
cable y por otra que hay elementos «de reserva» que pueden ser desarrolla-
dos en cualquier momento de la biografía del individuo. Esto se puede apli-
car a todas las áreas del funcionamiento cognitivo, incluida la memoria.
Al estudiar los procesos de memoria, se ha observado que, en la fase de
adquisición de la información, las personas de más edad a veces no codifican
adecuadamente la información que desean retener en su memoria, ni emple-
an claves verbales o visuales que les ayuden en este proceso y que posterior-
mente podrían utilizar a la hora de la recuperación voluntaria de la infor-
mación. Cuando se proporciona a los mayores los materiales organizados, o
se les sugieren pautas eficaces de cómo organizarlos, su rendimiento en tare-
as de memoria mejora significativamente. Cuando no se codifica adecuada-
mente la información, el paso de la memoria a corto plazo a la memoria a
largo plazo no se realiza correctamente, por lo que la información se pierde
total o parcialmente. En este caso, existe un déficit en las «estrategias» o
habilidades de memorización utilizadas por las personas mayores. Algunos
autores hablan de la existencia del síndrome frontal, dado que los aspectos
organizativos y el control de la conducta dependen de los lóbulos frontales.
Cuando la codificación es libre, los jóvenes rinden más, pero cuando se
intenta que los mayores codifiquen la información de un modo adecuado, el
rendimiento suele ser semejante y no se aprecia el deterioro de la memoria
con la edad.
Los ancianos tienen menor rendimiento que los jóvenes en la memoria
episódica (recuerdo de hechos concretos), de este tema trata el capítulo que
nos ocupa. Los mayores rinden igual o a veces mejor que los jóvenes en las
pruebas de memoria semántica (conocimientos generales), excepto si se
introduce la variable «velocidad». En este caso se aprecia que los mayores
son más lentos que los jóvenes. Las personas mayores también obtienen peo-
res resultados que los jóvenes en el recuerdo de historias (por la dificultad de
organización antes apuntada). Sin embargo, apenas se aprecian diferencias
en las pruebas de recuerdo de dígitos (que miden la memoria inmediata). Los
mayores, comparados con los jóvenes muestran también problemas en las
200 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
EL PROGRAMA DE INTERVENCIÓN
MÉTODO
ESTRUCTURACIÓN DE LOS
MES CALENDARIZACIÓN
MÓDULOS
FIGURA 9.1
Esquema del Programa de Entrenamiento de Memoria
aplicado al grupo entrenado (G.1)
RESULTADOS
DISCUSIÓN
El tipo de memoria, objeto de las quejas de los mayores, es generalmen-
te la memoria episódica que es un tipo de memoria declarativa que se refie-
re a la capacidad para recuperar información de hechos y eventos concretos
que han ocurrido en un momento temporal previo y en un espacio dado. La
abundancia de resultados existentes sobre la actuación de personas mayores
que tienen un envejecimiento normal permite concluir que éstos presentan
un declive en la memoria declarativa. Existe una relación negativa entre edad
y actuación en pruebas de memoria episódica. Esto significa que a medida
que las personas envejecen, actúan peor en tareas que requieren la recupe-
ración voluntaria y consciente de la información previamente adquirida,
sobre todo cuando se evalúa dicha capacidad con pruebas de recuerdo libre.
También suele apreciarse un declive de la memoria episódica cuando este
proceso psicológico se evalúa con pruebas de reconocimiento, auque en este
caso el efecto es menor (La Voie y Light, 1994; Verhaeghen y Salthouse,
1997). La prueba de reconocimiento requiere que los sujetos identifiquen
como antiguos o nuevos una serie de elementos. Por tanto, el estímulo que
hay que reconocer como antiguo o nuevo está presente sin que el individuo
necesite generarlo mentalmente.
Aunque es un hecho bien comprobado que existe un declive en la actua-
ción en pruebas de memoria declarativa (explícita) con la edad, también es
MEMORIA EPISÓDICA Y ENVEJECIMIENTO... 205
14
12
10
8
PD
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Sujetos
PD pre PD post
FIGURA 9.2
Resultados pre-test (antes del entrenamiento) y post-test
(después del entrenamiento) obtenidos por las personas del grupo
que recibió entrenamiento (G.1)
14
12
10
8
PD
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Sujetos
4
0
PD pre PD post
FIGURA 9.3
Resultados pre-test (mes 1) y post-test (mes 4) obtenidos
por el grupo control G.2 (sin entrenamiento)
206 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
CONCLUSIONES
mejoras pudieran incluso aumentar. Sin duda, los próximos años permitirán
valorar la consistencia de datos y con ello la utilidad clínica de la interven-
ción cognitiva.
REFERENCIAS
ANDERSON, J. (2001): Aprendizaje y Memoria. México: McGrawlHill.
BALLESTEROS, S. (2000): Psicología General: un enfoque cognitivo para el siglo XXI.
Madrid: Universitas.
BALLESTEROS, S. (2001): Habilidades cognitivas básicas: Formación y deterioro. Ma-
drid: UNED.
BALLESTEROS, S. (2004): Gerontología. Un saber multidisciplinar. Madrid: UNED-Uni-
versitas.
BALLESTEROS, S., y MIEMBROS DE LA UMAM (2002): Aprendizaje y Memoria en la vejez.
Madrid: UNED.
BALLESTEROS, S., y REALES, J. M. (2004): «Intact haptic priming in normal aging and
Alzheimer´s disease: Evidence for dissociable memory systems». Neuropsycholo-
gia, 42, 1063-1070.
BALTES, P. B. (1987): «Theoretical proportions of life-span developmental psychology:
On the dynamics between growth and decline». Developmental Psychology, 23,
611-626.
BADDELEY, A. (1999): Memoria Humana: Teoría y Práctica. México: McGraw Hill.
COLEMAN, P. D., y FLOOD, D. G. (1987): «Neuron numbers and dendritic extent in
normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease». Neurobiology of Aging, 8, 521-545.
FERNÁNDEZ BALLESTEROS, R., IZAL, M., MONTORIO, I., GONZÁLEZ, J. L., y DÍAZ, P. (1992):
Evaluación e intervención psicológica en la vejez. Barcelona: Martínez Roca. Bar-
celona.
FLEISCHMAN, D. A., y GABRIELI, J. D. E. (1998): «Repetition priming in normal aging
and in Alzheimer´s disease. A review of findings and theories». Psychology and
Aging, 13, 88-119.
GABRIELI, J. D. E. (1998): «Cognitive neuroscience of human memory». Annual Re-
view of Psychology, 49, 87-115.
GOLDBERG, D. P. (1972): The detection of psychiatric illnes by questionnaire. University
Press. London Oxford.
ISRAEL, L. (1992): Método de entrenamiento de la memoria. Barcelona: Laboratorios
Semar.
GÓMEZ-ISLA, T., PRICE, J. L., MCKEEL, D. W., JR., MORRIS, J. C., CROWDON, J. H., y
HYMAN, B. T. (1996): «Profound loss of layer II entorhinal cortex neurons occurs
in very mild Alzheimer’s disease». Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 4491-4500.
LIGHT, L. L. (1991): «Memory and aging: Four hypothesis in search of data». Annual
Review of Psychology, 42, 333-376.
LA VOIE, D., y LIGHT, L. L. (1994): «Adult age differences in repetition priming. A
meta-analysis». Psychology and Aging, 4, 538-553.
MONTEJO, P., MONTENEGRO, M., REINOSO, A. I., DE ANDRÉS, M. E., y CLAVER, M. D.
(2001): Programa de Memoria. Método UMAN. Madrid: Díaz de Santos.
NYBERG, L. (2005): «Cognitive training in healthy aging. A cognitive neuroscience
perspective». En R. Cabeza, L. Nyberg y D. Park (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of
aging (pp. 309-321). New York: Oxford University Press.
210 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
INTRODUCCIÓN
OBJETIVOS
MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
TABLA 10.1
Características de la población
Sexo
Varones 444 26,4 60-64 153 9,1
Mujeres 1.235 73,6 65-69 796 47,4
Análisis estadístico
Para los estudios de comparación Pre-Post-Final se realizó un ANOVA
con medidas repetidas y para pruebas Pre-Post o Pre-Final la comparación
de medias mediante t de Student para muestras relacionadas. El estudio de
análisis de grupos se hizo con el método de Conglomerados Jerárquicos.
Para estudiar la correlación entre el orden de frecuencia de los olvidos y el
orden de magnitud de cambio utilizamos la tau-b de Kendall. Para medir el
tamaño del efecto del Entrenamiento se utiliza la «d» de Cohen y el estadís-
tico Mejoría Global pre final [(RBMT Global Final-RBMT Global Pre)/ (12-
RBMT Global Pre)] (es decir, mejoría conseguida / mejoría total posible).
Dado que la población tiene una procedencia multicéntrica, en algunos
variables faltan los datos de algunos sujetos; cuando sucede esto en cada aná-
lisis tales sujetos fueron excluidos.
RESULTADOS
Desde 1994 a 2003 han sido evaluados 18.058 individuos, han recibido
entrenamiento de memoria 10.908 y se han realizado 883 grupos de entre-
namiento.
Muestra 1
La media del MEC es 31,22 (DT. 2,68). El 23,3% de los sujetos tienen
Memoria Normal, el 53% tienen Memoria Débil, el 22,6 tienen Trastorno
Moderado y el 1,1% Trastorno Severo. Estudiamos el cambio producido tras
el entrenamiento mediante ANOVA de medidas repetidas (tiempos: Pre, Post
y/o Final) para memoria cotidiana (RBMT), estado de ánimo (GDS), memo-
ria subjetiva (MFE) y calidad de vida (Perfil de Salud). Ver Tabla 10.2.
Puede observarse que hay mejoría estadísticamente significativa en los
cuatro parámetros. La parte de variabilidad que explica el factor tiempo es
mucho mayor (Eta = 0,30-0,31) en las variables que miden memoria subjeti-
va y objetiva que en las que miden estado de ánimo o calidad de vida. El por-
ENTRENAMIENTO DE LA MEMORIA: MEJORA EN LA MEMORIA COTIDIANA... 217
TABLA 10.2
Cambios Pre-Post-Final
centaje de mejoría global para todo el grupo medido con el RBMT Pre-Final
es del 38%. La «d» de Cohen es de 0,78. Hay un 12,5% de sujetos cuyas pun-
tuaciones en la evaluación Final son inferiores a la evaluación Pre y un 13%
cuya puntuación es la misma en ambas evaluaciones. Mejoran por lo tanto
el 74,5% de los sujetos. El cambio (mejoría) de todo el grupo en la memoria
subjetiva es del 22%. Hay un 5% de sujetos con la misma puntuación Pre
Final en el MFE y un 20% que empeora en el Final y tienen una puntuación
inferior. «d» de Cohen 0,60.
Muestra 2
Estudiamos primero si los grupos previos elaborados de modo teórico
según las diferentes memorias evaluadas corresponden con el funcionamiento
de las variables del RBMT en este grupo, para lo que hacimos análisis de grupo
con el procedimiento de conglomerados jerárquicos (ver Figura 10.1).
218 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
RecorridoInmed.
RecorridoDifer.
Orientación
Fecha
ReconocDibujos
ReconocCaras
Mensaje
HistoriaInmed.
HistoriaDifer.
Cita
EsconderObjeto
HombreApellido
FIGURA 10.1
Agrupación de Sub-Tests del RBMT
TABLA 10.3
Diferencias de Medias Pre-Final en los Sub-test del RBMT
Media
DT T Sig.
Difer.
TABLA 10.4
Comparación de tipos de memoria Pre-Post y Final
Tipo Difer.
Eta
de Pre Post Final F p medias
Cuad.
memoria pre-final
TABLA 10.5
Frecuencia de los olvidos
TABLA 10.6
Cambio en los ítems del MFE Pre-Final
%
Medias
Olvidos (MFE) D. típ. t Sig. de
Difer.
cambio
Comprobar si hizo algo (cerrar el gas...) 0,40 0,68 5,95 0,000 36%
Olvidar lo que tenía que hacer 0,34 0,73 4,80 0,000 42%
Olvidar dónde se guardan las cosas 0,34 0,73 4,80 0,000 36%
Olvidar lo que pasó el día antes 0,27 0,71 3,84 0,000 42%
Olvidar detalles de lo que suele hacer 0,19 0,68 2,86 0,005 29%
Olvido importante sobre sí: dónde vive 0,07 0,65 1,04 0,299 31%
CONCLUSIONES
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11
PROCEDURAL LEARNING
OF COGNITIVE SKILLS AND PRIMING EFFECTS
IN NORMAL AGEING
José María Ruiz Sánchez de León*, Sara Fernández Guinea*,
José Antonio Muñiz*, Ana García Duffy*
and Javier González Marqués*
INTRODUCTION
Performance on all of these tasks is improved when the subject has pre-
viously seen or heard the target object or word, even though subjects are not
asked to recall the target items.
Different studies have shown that normal ageing show priming effects
although explicit recall or recognition may show some deficit (La Voie &
Light, 1994; Mitchell, 1993). Also, there are no differences in priming effects
between infants (from 3 to 10 years old) although there are significant
changes in explicit memory at these ages (Naito & Komatsu, 1993; Parkin,
1993).
Procedural learning, as motor repertories (type writing, cycling, using the
computer mouse...) or cognitive strategies (program in computer language,
mental calculations...), are conceived as a performance system de-
velopement, which is not represented as explicit information about the
world. It is automatically activated, as a secuence of patterns of activation
(Anderson, 1994). It has been proposed that procedural learning is developed
in different phases. All the explanations state that it is a transition from a
concious, slow and prone to errors performance to a fast and efficient one
without awareness (Anderson, 1982, 1993; Fitts, 1964; Neves & Anderson,
1981).
Studies on procedural learning usually conclude that it does not present
changes in normal aging (La Voie & Light, 1994; Mitchell, 1993) but it seems
generally accepted that this population needs more practice trials to learn an
specific task (Lezak, 1999). Mitchell and Bruss (2003) studied those
differences in implicit memory due to age, both in perceptual or conceptual
tasks. They confirm that young adults have more cognitive resources than
older adults. So, the intentional use of memory, or even its involuntary
activation, can disproportionately boost the performance of younger adults
(Carlesimo et al., 1998; Cherry & St. Pierre, 1998; Drury, Kinsella, & Ong,
2000; Kinoshita, 2001; Maki, Zonderman, & Weingartner, 1999; Russo &
Parkin, 1993).
Compared to other types of memory, it is known that this type of learning
is relatively resistant to ageing (Cohen & Squire, 1980; Craik & Jennings,
1992; Friedman, Snodgrass, & Ritter, 1994). In our work, we analyzed im-
plicit learning to show priming effect and procedural learning preservation
in ageing (Hardy, Mullen, & Jones, 1996; La Voie & Light, 1994; Masters,
1992; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2000; Mitchell, 1993). We also expected to
find shorter reaction times (RT) in young adults than in the older ones due
to slowing in information processing (Lezak, 1999).
The present study tries to find implicit memory manifestations (priming
and procedural learning) without conscious concentration and consuming
few processing recourses (Toth, Lindsay, & Jacoby, 1992). This can be
achieved: (i) by never asking the subject to improve the performance through
time, and (ii) by making the subject believe that the task been performed is
the main one.
PROCEDURAL LEARNING OF COGNITIVE SKILLS AND PRIMING EFFECTS... 229
In this study we used a Picture Fragment Completion Task. This task has
been used in a large variety of previous studies (Drury et al., 2000; Gollin,
1960; Maki et al., 1999; Snodgrass & Feenan, 1990). We also used a Semantic
Categorization Task, based on the work of Knopman and Nissen (1987,
1991).
Method
Participants
TABLE 11.1
Sample Characteristics
Young M = 22,1
Adults SD = 1,09
— Less than 24 points in the «Mini Examen Cognoscitivo» (MEC), imply probable
cognitive deterioration.
— 1 Point in the Global Deterioration Scales (GDS Deterioration) reflects no objective
or subjective cognitive alteration.
— More than 5 points in the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS Depression) show
probable depression.
230 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
16000 8th
FRAGMENT
14000 7th
FRAGMENT
Reaction Time (Miliseconds)
12000 6th
FRAGMENT
10000 5th
FRAGMENT
8000 4th
FRAGMENT
6000 3nd
FRAGMENT
4000 2nd
FRAGMENT
2000 1st
FRAGMENT
0
Study Phase PRIMING Study Phase PROCEDURAL
LEARNING
FIGURE 11.1
Results in Picture Fragment Completion Task
Method
Participants
The participants were the same as in the previous experiment.
1500
1400
Reaction Time (Miliseconds)
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
FIGURE 11.2
Results in Semantic Categorization Task
We found that both groups’ RT at trial 1 (933 ms. and 1377 ms,
respectively), are significantly longer (p<0,005) than RT at trial 4 or priming
test phase (706 ms. for young adults and 950 ms. for old adults). This
difference was significant too, even comparing RT at trial 1 with trial 2 (794
ms for one group and 1199 for the other). So, facilitation exists even after one
trial in both groups and this effect increases with practice along trials.
Procedural learning is evaluated comparing trial 1 with trial 5 (procedural
learning test phase). It also shows significant differences in both groups
(p<0,001). RT in young adults decrease (826 ms. in contrast with 993 ms. of
first trial) and RT in old adults does it too (1074 ms. in contrast with 1377
ms. in test phase).
PROCEDURAL LEARNING OF COGNITIVE SKILLS AND PRIMING EFFECTS... 233
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12
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MARKERS
OF COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT
M.ª Teresa Martín Aragoneses*, Ramón López-Higes Sánchez*,
Sara Fernández Guinea*, David del Río Grande*
y Javier González Marqués*
INTRODUCTION
to the simultaneous articulation and to the length of the words that have to
be retained, and also refreshes constantly decaying representations in the
phonological store. A new component, the episodic buffer, has recently been
separated from the central executive (Baddeley, 2000).
In sentence comprehension the working-memory function of storage
would associate with the maintenance of the partial and/or final products,
whereas the function of processing would relate to the syntactic analysis, the
thematic assignment and the comparison and integration of information.
Some researchers (e. g., Just & Carpenter, 1992) have argued that there is a
general verbal working memory system —single processing resource
theory—, whereas others suggest the possibility of specializations within
verbal working memory, with different subsystems for language processing
and for other verbally mediated cognitive functions —separate language
interpretation resource theory— (Caplan & Waters, 1999a,b). The last pro-
posal has introduced a distinction between two stages in sentence com-
prehension: a) interpretative processing, that would be all processes that
operate in assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and using that
structure to determine the meaning of the sentence (recognizing words,
syntactic analysis and assigning thematic roles); b) post-interpretive
processing, that would have to see with the use of that information to
accomplish other tasks of general purpose such as reasoning, planning and
performing actions, or storing in long-term memory.
Some aspects of the sentences as whether constituents follow a standard,
canonical order o not (syntactic complexity) would have impact on
interpretive processing. However, others as the number of propositions that
a sentence contains (propositional density) would influence on post-
interpretive processing and would be more related to the task demands.
Commonly, age-related changes in sentence comprehension abilities are
attributable to decline in working memory capacity or, equivalently, in
«processing resources» (Juncos, 1998). On the other hand, different studies
have found evidence that older adults’ working memory span is significantly
lower than younger adults’ span (Kirasic, Allen, Dobson, & Binder, 1996;
Norman, Kemper, & Kynette, 1992; Martín Aragoneses, Fernández Guinea,
López-Higes, & del Río, 2004). Nevertheless, according to Caplan and Waters
observations, the effect of age on syntactic comprehension may not be
directly due to difficulties of elderly subjects in constructing syntactic
structures and extracting their meaning, but rather to difficulties in
performing some sort of operation on the material that they have
interpreted.
Method
Participants
Stimulus materials
TABLE 12.1
Sentence types used in the Sentence Comprehension subtest
and their features
Passives (PV) 7 1 2 no
Passives V-PP-NP (PPPNP) 7 1 2 yes
Passives V-NP-PP (PNPPP) 7 1 2 no
Truncated Passives - SV (TPSV) 4 1 2 no
Truncated Passives - VS (TPVS) 4 1 2 no
Dative Passives (PDAT) 9 1 3 no
Passivized Subj. Relative (SRP) 9 2 2 yes
Passivized Obj. Relative (ORP) 9 2 2 no
Actives (ACT) 5 1 2 yes
Non Canonical Actives (NCACT) 6 1 2 no
Dative (DAT) 7 1 3 yes
Subject Relative (SR) 8 2 2 yes
Object Relative (OR) 9 2 2 no
Relative Subject-Object (SOR) 10 2 4 no
Relative Object-Subject (OSR) 9 2 4 yes
Focalized Subject (FS) 8 1 2 yes
Focalized Object (FO) 8 1 2 no
Procedure
TABLE 12.2
Subject’s background characteristics
Parti-
Age Ed. MMSE GDS CDR WM PC PLF PSF Cluster
cipant
Parti-
Age Ed. MMSE GDS CDR WM PC PLF PSF Cluster
cipant
Note: working memory span and performance in the Sentence Comprehension subtest (Ed: Education in
years; MMSE: Mini-Mental State Exam; GDS: Global Deterioration Scale; CDR: Clinical Dementia
Rating; WM: working memory span; PC: percentage of success in congruent items; PLF: percentage of
success in lexical foils; PSF: percentage of success in syntactic foils).
244 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
TABLE 12.3
Descriptive statistics of the two clusters of subjects used for the study
1 Mean 70,08 8,38 29,31 1,54 ,308 3,04 87,55 79,18 78,05
SD 7,729 3,50 3,146 ,877 ,4349 ,72 8,33 6,17 6,53
n = 13
2 Mean 72,55 8,45 28,18 1,91 ,455 2,27 89,04 50,53 68,18
SD 9,092 3,50 5,269 ,944 ,4719 ,65 6,84 11,37 9,65
n = 11
Note: Ed.: Education in years; MMSE: Mini-Mental State Exam; GDS: Global Deterioration Scale; CDR:
Clinical Dementia Rating; WM: working memory span; PC: percentage of correct responses in
congruent items; PLF: percentage of correct responses in lexical foils; PSF: percentage of correct
responses in syntactic foils.
Custers
Clusters
3 1
2
2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sentence type
FIGURE 12.1
Performance of the groups on the sentence-picture matching task
making separated analyses by item type between subject groups. For con-
gruent items the comparison outlined above did not resulted in significant
differences. In the case of lexical foils there was a significant main effect of
Group [F (1, 22) = 55.428, p <.000]. Finally, when syntactic foils were
considered the analysis showed again significant main effect of Group [F (1,
22) = 35.123, p <.002].
Comparisons of sentence subsets which differ in terms of number of
propositions but which are matched (one to one) as closely as possible in
other respects provides information about the effect of the number of pro-
positions on subjects' performance [(PV + PPPNP + PNPPP + DAT + FS + FO)
vs. (SRP + ORP + SR + OR + SOR + OSR)]. As before, for congruent items the
comparison did not resulted in significant differences. In the case of lexical
foils there were a significant main effects of Number of Propositions [F (1, 22)
= 6.581, p <.018] and Group [F (1, 22) = 45.244, p <.000]. The interaction
Group x Number of Proposition only approaches significance [F (1, 22) =
4.304, p =.05]. The analysis showed for syntactic foils significant main effects
of Number of Proposition [F (1, 22) = 29.654, p <.000)] and Group [F (1, 22)
= 12.754, p <.002)]. In addition there was a significative interaction between
Group and Number of Propositions [F (1, 22) = 22.848, p <.000]. Figure 12.2
shows this interaction for syntactic foils.
DISCUSSION
10
Custer
Clusters
6 1
5
1 2
Number of propositions in a sentence
FIGURE 12.2
Mean of correct responses in each group/cluster for one proposition
and two propositions in a sentence
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PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MARKERS OF COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT 249
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PART III
MEMORY AND DEMENTIA
13
PRIMING VISUAL EN ADULTOS, MAYORES SANOS
Y ENFERMOS DE ALZHEIMER
Julia Mayas*, José M. Reales*, Montserrat González*
y Soledad Ballesteros*
INTRODUCCIÓN
Los adultos jóvenes actúan mejor que los mayores en tareas de memoria
episódica, especialmente cuando se evalúa este tipo de memoria utilizando
pruebas de recuerdo libre. La memoria episódica constituye uno de los prin-
cipales procesos cognitivos que se ven alterados durante el proceso de enve-
jecimiento normal. En el envejecimiento patológico, como ocurre en la enfer-
medad de Alzheimer (EA) los cambios que se observan ya desde las primeras
etapas de la enfermedad son mucho mayores si comparamos su actuación
con la de las personas que envejecen normalmente. Puede afirmarse, por
tanto, que los déficits de memoria constituyen un rasgo común en la EA (Sal-
mon y Fennema-Notestine, 2004).
La mayor parte de las investigaciones que han estudiado el funciona-
miento de la memoria episódica en estos enfermos han utilizado tareas que
exigen aprendizaje, retención y recuperación consciente y explícita de nueva
información. La situación ha cambiado durante los últimos años y un núme-
ro creciente de investigadores se han sentido atraídos por el estudio de la
forma como estos pacientes con demencia son capaces de almacenar y recu-
perar información de una manera inconsciente o no voluntaria a partir de la
memoria implícita. Con este fin, se han utilizado una amplia variedad de
tareas diseñadas para evaluar la memoria de manera incidental, sin requerir
LA ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER
FIGURA 13.1
Ejemplos de los estímulos utilizados en la tarea de denominación rápida
de dibujos
(A partir de Snodgrass and Vanderwart, 1980).
TABLA 13.1
Tiempos de reacción medios en milisegundos y puntuaciones
de priming en función del grupo (adultos jóvenes, mayores sanos
y enfermos de Alzheimer) para estímulos estudiados y no estudiados
Tanto los estudios con lesiones como los que han utilizado imágenes
cerebrales proporcionan una fuente de evidencia de que las diferentes for-
mas de priming reflejan procesos específicos de la plasticidad en regiones
neocorticales distintas. Esto daría lugar a la hipótesis de que el priming audi-
tivo y el priming háptico estarían mediados por cambios en el neocortex
auditivo y somatosensorial, respectivamente. Sin embargo, estudios recien-
tes con neuroimágenes sugieren que muchas zonas del cerebro no están tan
especializadas como antes se había pensado y que hay áreas cerebrales que
no están diseñadas para responder a una sola modalidad sensorial. Aunque
existen pocas dudas de que hay áreas corticales primarias especializadas,
durante los últimos años ha surgido una posición sumamente interesante
que resalta la idea de que existen regiones cerebrales multimodales (James et
al., 2006; Pascual-Leone et al., 2006; Sathian & Prather, 2006).
Estudios recientes que han utilizado la técnica de las imágenes cerebra-
les (James et al., 2002) y nuevos resultados conductuales obtenidos con
mayores sanos y enfermos de Alzheimer han proporcionado resultados con-
vergentes a favor de la implicación de ciertas zonas de la corteza estriada en
el procesamiento de los estímulos presentados no solo visualmente sino tam-
bién a través del tacto (Ballesteros & Reales, 2004; 2006).
En distintos laboratorios se han encontrado resultados convergentes uti-
lizando imágenes cerebrales que muestran activación en el área occipital
lateral (LOC) durante la identificación de objetos a través del tacto y de la
visión (James et al., 2002). Esto significa que áreas cerebrales que hasta
ahora se pensaba que estaban únicamente relacionadas con el procesamien-
to de la información visual, se activan también durante el procesamiento
háptico de los mismos estímulos.
Estos resultados hacen pensar que es posible que existan otras zonas
cerebrales multisensoriales y que la demostración de que el LOC es un área
bimodal implicada no solo en el procesamiento visual de objetos sino tam-
bién en su procesamiento a través del tacto puede constituir solo el primer
paso hacia la aceptación de que lo que hasta ahora se ha contemplado exclu-
sivamente como corteza «visual» sea realmente multimodal (James et al.,
2006).
En el mismo sentido, Pascual-Leone y colaboradores (2006) señalan que
existen conexiones táctiles y auditivas con la corteza occipital. Esto significa
que la corteza primaria visual es multimodal y posiblemente sea capaz de
realizar distintas funciones en lugar de procesar la información proporcio-
nada por modalidades sensoriales específicas.
PRIMING VISUAL EN ADULTOS, MAYORES SANOS Y ENFERMOS DE ALZHEIMER 265
hemos señalado más arriba, estudios más recientes con imágenes cerebrales
han proporcionado evidencia de que son precisamente las áreas de la corte-
za occipital, las que desempeñan un papel crítico en el procesamiento estruc-
tural de la representación háptica de los objetos, además del papel que juega
la corteza somatosensorial. Los estudios de James et al (2002), utilizando
resonancia magnética funcional con jóvenes, han concluido que la explora-
ción visual y háptica de objetos produce activación en varias regiones cere-
brales, además de una sobreactivación en el área media y lateral de la corte-
za occipital. Además, la exploración háptica de objetos tridimensionales nue-
vos produjo la activación, no sólo del cortex somatosensorial, sino también
de las áreas del cortex occipital asociadas hasta entonces con el procesa-
miento visual. La experiencia háptica previa con estos objetos incrementaba
la activación en las áreas consideradas hasta ahora como «visuales» cuando
los objetos eran presentados visualmente mientras se tomaban las imágenes
cerebrales.
Como hemos señalado en otro lugar (Ballesteros y Reales, 2004), el hecho
de que se mantenga la memoria implícita en los enfermos de Alzheimer,
tanto para estímulos presentados visualmente (en este estudio) como para
estímulos presentados a través del tacto apoya la idea de que el priming per-
ceptivo visual y háptico, e incluso intermodal (Ballesteros et al., 2005), podría
depender de áreas extraestriadas de la corteza occipital aunque es muy posi-
ble que también se encuentre implicada la corteza somatosensorial. Estas
áreas de la corteza occipital se mantienen relativamente intactas en la
demencia tipo Alzheimer y en el envejecimiento normal. Próximos estudios
electrofisiológicos irán dirigidos a intentar obtener resultados convergentes
a los encontrados con los estudios con imágenes cerebrales.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
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PRIMING VISUAL EN ADULTOS, MAYORES SANOS Y ENFERMOS DE ALZHEIMER 267
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14
ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER:
¿EXISTEN DETERIOROS
DENTRO DEL DETERIORO?
Francisco Javier Moreno* y Herminia Peraita*
INTRODUCCIÓN
En la década de los setenta del siglo pasado, Endel Tulving (1972) pro-
puso su dicotomía clásica sobre el sistema de memoria a largo plazo explíci-
to o declarativo. Para Tulving, existen dos sistemas principales de memoria:
la memoria episódica y la semántica. La primera contiene información de
acontecimientos asociados a un contexto, es decir, acotados espacial y tem-
poralmente; además, tiene siempre una referencia personal y autobiográfica.
La memoria semántica (desde ahora, MS), se ocupa de las palabras y de su
significado, de los conceptos, de sus relaciones y de las reglas para su utili-
zación, también almacena el conocimiento general acerca del mundo. Ade-
más, los conocimientos semánticos están descontextualizados espacio-tem-
poralmente.
La memoria episódica trata de aquellos conocimientos del pasado que tie-
nen que ver con nuestra propia autobiografía y que además, están investidos
de la experiencia consciente de que pertenecen a nuestro pasado. Tulving y sus
colaboradores denominan a esta experiencia «conciencia autonoética». Por el
contrario, la conciencia noética está asociada a los conocimientos «semánti-
cos» o mejor aún, «enciclopédicos». Se pone en juego cuando pensamos en
algo que sabemos (por ejemplo, cuál es el área del triángulo), o en un conoci-
miento personal, pero no somos capaces de saber o reexperimentar cuándo
aprendimos ese conocimiento (Tulving, 1985; Wheeler, Stuss y Tulving, 1997).
1 Seguiremos la terminología utilizada por MCRAE y CREE (2002), por lo que utilizaremos
el término dominio para hacer referencia a los SV frente a los SNV, tomados ambos en su con-
junto, y el término categoría para referirnos a entidades de un nivel inferior, por ejemplo, ani-
males o frutas (dominio de los SV), o vehículos y muebles (dominio de los artefactos).
ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER: ¿EXISTEN DETERIOROS...? 271
MÉTODO
Participantes
Tareas
frutas, insectos, partes del cuerpo y verduras y siete del de los artefactos (edifi-
cios, herramientas, instrumentos musicales, muebles, prendas de vestir, uten-
silios de cocina y vehículos). La tarea de los participantes consistió en denomi-
nar los 112 ítems presentados de forma aleatoria en la pantalla de un
ordenador personal. Se concedió un punto por cada respuesta correcta (0-112).
Ya que la actuación en este tipo de tareas puede ser influida por diferen-
tes variables perturbadoras (Lambon Ralph et al., 1998), los ítems fueron
controlados en las siguientes variables: acuerdo en el nombre del objeto,
complejidad visual, edad de adquisición del nombre, familiaridad, y mani-
pulabilidad (según Moreno y Peraita, en revisión), así como en frecuencia
léxica (Sebastián, Martí, Carreiras y Cuetos, 2000) y tipicidad (Soto, Sebas-
tián, García y del Amo, 1994).
RESULTADOS
DISCUSIÓN
3,5
RESPUESTAS CORRECTAS
3,0
2,5
(Arcoseno)
2,0
PC
1,5 EA
1,0
0,5
0,0
Animales
Árboles
Flores
Frutas
Insectos
P. Cuerpo
Verduras
Edificios
Herramientas
Ins. Musicales
Muebles
P. Vestir
Ut. Cocina
Vehículos
FIGURA 14.1
Perfil de puntuaciones de los participantes controles (PC) y los enfermos de
Alzheimer (EA) en la tarea de denominación de fotografías
(Se muestran las puntuaciones transformadas con arcoseno, según Howell, 1993)
Peatfield et al., 1997; Gonnerman et al., 1997; McRae y Cree, 2002). Esta eva-
luación se realizó en un grupo de pacientes de Alzheimer y un grupo de con-
troles, utilizando una tarea de denominación de ejemplares pertenecientes a
siete categorías semánticas de SV y siete de artefactos. Además, los ítems fue-
ron controlados en una serie de variables importantes en estos estudios
(Caramazza y Shelton, 1998; Funnell y Sheridan, 1992; Lambon Ralph, et al.,
1998; Stewart et al., 1992). Como vimos, se hallaron disociaciones intra-cate-
goriales, tanto en el dominio de los SV como en el de los artefactos. Este
resultado presta apoya las teorías que enfatizan la importancia de la estruc-
tura interna de las categorías semánticas (Durrant-Peatfield et al., 1997; Gon-
nerman et al., 1997; McRae y Cree, 2002) frente a las que enfatizan el papel
de los dominios autónomos de conocimiento (Caramazza y Shelton, 1998;
Santos y Caramazza, 2002).
Especialmente interesante fue el deterioro selectivo de los insectos fren-
te a los demás animales. Este hallazgo coincide con una de las predicciones
realizadas por McRae y Cree (2002). Estos autores realizaron un detallado
análisis de los tipos de atributos emitidos por sujetos sanos. Mediante la uti-
lización de una taxonomía basada en el trabajo de Wu y Barsalou (2002)
demostraron que su clasificación explicaba la disociación vivo / artefacto;
además, McRae y Cree (2002) realizaron una predicción interesante para
nuestro estudio. En el análisis de cluster de tipos de atributos, los insectos no
276 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
tuvieron un buen agrupamiento con los demás SV, por lo que McRae y Cree
(2002) sugirieron que podrían encontrarse pacientes que tuvieran un dete-
rioro específico de los insectos, frente a otros SV. Como ya fue explicado, las
teorías de dominio específico no contemplan la posibilidad de que existan
disociaciones entre los animales. Sin embargo, nuestro estudio halló tal
disociación en el grupo de enfermos.
Con relación al dominio de los artefactos, también se produjeron dete-
rioros intra dominio, concretamente los instrumentos musicales se deterio-
raron diferencialmente frente a los vehículos. No obstante, este hallazgo ha
de tomarse con cierta precaución, ya que los instrumentos musicales se con-
sideran una categoría incómoda, debido a que en algunos estudios se han
encuadrado, en términos de deterioro o conservación, con el dominio teóri-
camente opuesto: los SV (para una revisión, ver Barbarotto, Capitani y Laia-
cona, 2001). Por este motivo, existe polémica sobre si deben o no estudiarse
junto a los demás artefactos. Se agrupen o no junto a un determinado domi-
nio, hay que admitir que los instrumentos musicales son artefactos que han
sido creados por el hombre, y, a diferencia de las herramientas, no parecen
existir motivos para que las presiones evolutivas hayan favorecido la evolu-
ción de mecanismos especializados en su procesamiento (Caramazza y Shel-
ton, 1998). Por lo que este hallazgo encaja mejor en las teorías que defienden
una organización semántica en función de las propiedades o atributos
(Durrant-Peatfield et al., 1997; Gonnerman et al., 1997; McRae y Cree, 2002).
En resumen, los resultados de nuestro estudio han apoyado las teorías que
enfatizan la importancia de las propiedades componentes de la estructura
semántica categorial, frente a las que defienden la existencia de dominios
autónomos de procesamiento derivados de presiones evolutivas. Además, este
resultado se ha obtenido con un conjunto de estímulos bien controlados, por
lo que las disociaciones halladas no fueron efectos espurios ocasionados por
las variables perturbadoras. No obstante, debemos ser cautos y esperar que
nuestros hallazgos puedan ser replicados por otros estudios y con otras mues-
tras experimentales, a ser posible más numerosas. De igual modo, los estudios
longitudinales podrán ayudar a conocer sí, a lo largo del tiempo, el deterioro
semántico afecta por igual a las distintas categorías semánticas.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
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15
RECUPERACIÓN DE INFORMACIÓN
VERBAL Y NO VERBAL EN LA ENFERMEDAD
DE ALZHEIMER TEMPRANA
Israel Contador1,2, Bernardino Fernández-Calvo1,3,
Francisco Ramos2 y Jesús Cacho1
INTRODUCCIÓN
MÉTODO
Participantes
Selección de pacientes
Evaluación neuropsicológica
Puntuaciones
RESULTADOS
Memoria no verbal
SC EA
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
RLPDI REDI RLPI RLPDD RED RLPD
FIGURA 15.1
Aciertos de posición y dibujo (RLPD), dibujo (RED) y posición (RLP),
inmediatas (I) y demoradas (D)
TABLA 15.1
Diferencia entre el quinto ensayo y ensayo demorado de las medidas
de posición y dibujo, dibujo y posición en los diferentes grupos
V I-J E P valor
Nota. V = variables; I – J = diferencia de medias entre variables; E = error; RLPD: recuerdo libre
de Posición y dibujo; RED: reconocimiento de dibujo; RLP: recuerdo libre de posición; I =
inmediato; D =demorado.
286 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
Memoria verbal
SC EA
7
10
8
6
4
2
0
RLI RCI REI RLD RCD RED
FIGURA 15.2
Puntuaciones en recuerdo libre (RL), recuerdo con clave (RC)
y reconocimiento (RE) a nivel inmediato (I) y demorado (D)
RECUPERACIÓN DE INFORMACIÓN VERBAL Y NO VERBAL... 287
TABLA 15.2
Diferencias entre SC y EA entre medidas inmediatas y demoradas de
recuerdo libre, recuerdo con clave y reconocimiento.
V I-J E P valor
V = variables; I – J = diferencia de medias entre variables; E = error; RL: recuerdo libre; RC:
recuerdo con clave; RE: reconocimiento; I = inmediato; D = ensayo demorado.
DISCUSIÓN
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16
MEMORIA IMPLÍCITA
PARA LA EXPRESIÓN FACIAL
DE LAS EMOCIONES EN PACIENTES
DE ALZHEIMER Y ADULTOS SANOS
Beatriz García Rodríguez*, Soledad Ballesteros*,
Beatriz Rodríguez* José Manuel Reales** y Anna Fusari*
INTRODUCCIÓN
El procesamiento emocional es complejo y en él intervienen diferentes
funciones y mecanismos. En primer lugar, es necesario un conocimiento de
la taxonomía de los diferentes estados emocionales y, en segundo lugar, la
comprensión de aquellas situaciones típicas que conducen a determinadas
emociones. Un aspecto muy estudiado del procesamiento emocional es el
reconocimiento de las expresiones faciales de las llamadas emociones bási-
cas. Estas emociones son la alegría, la tristeza, el miedo, la sorpresa, la ira y
el asco. Según Adolphs (2002), la mayor parte de las estructuras cerebrales
que participan en el reconocimiento de las emociones básicas incluyen tanto
un procesamiento perceptivo, que permite identificar las características de
cada parte del rostro (para poder discriminar entre diferentes estímulos por
sus características físicas), como el reconocimiento del significado emocio-
nal del estímulo. El principal interés de los investigadores en este campo ha
sido poder determinar cuáles son las estructuras neurales implicadas en el
reconocimiento de las emociones básicas. Por ejemplo, tradicionalmente se
ha vinculado la amígdala al reconocimiento de la emoción de miedo y de evi-
tación de peligro, mientras los ganglios basales se han asociado con la detec-
ción del asco. También hay evidencias de que el hemisferio derecho del cere-
bro es el encargado de la percepción, producción e interpretación de las
expresiones emocionales (Bowers, 1993). Sin embargo, a pesar del número
de investigaciones dedicadas a estudiar cuáles son las estructuras neurales
implicadas en el reconocimiento de las expresiones faciales emocionales
frente a otro tipo de estímulos, todavía se sabe relativamente poco sobre el
tema (Adolphs, 2002).
Los enfermos de Alzheimer constituyen un grupo de interés especial para
el estudio del reconocimiento de las emociones ya que estos pacientes pre-
sentan lesiones cerebrales que aparecen gradualmente y que van afectando
poco a poco a las distintas estructuras corticales y subcorticales. De este
modo, el interés de los investigadores consiste en intentar asociar estos
daños cerebrales a las dificultades en el reconocimiento de las distintas emo-
ciones básicas que pueden expresarse a través del rostro con el fin de poder
determinar su sustrato neural.
del nivel intelectual. Controlando esta última variable, Broks et al. (1998)
estudiaron el reconocimiento de expresiones emocionales de miedo en un
grupo de pacientes con lesiones en la amígdala. Los resultados indicaron que
todos los pacientes mostraron algunos problemas para reconocer el nombre
de caras famosas y poca memoria para las caras evaluadas con el Warrington
Recognition Memory Test. Estos pacientes, sin embargo, no presentaban nin-
gún problema en el reconocimiento de rostros evaluado con el Benton Test of
Facial Recognition, mostrando una buena percepción de la estructura física
de los rostros. Respecto al reconocimiento de emociones, alcanzaron el
mismo nivel que el grupo control, excepto para el miedo. Para Burnham y
Hogervorst (2004), tampoco los pacientes de Alzheimer mostraron dificulta-
des en comparación con el grupo control en una tarea de reconocimiento y
clasificación de las expresiones faciales emocionales.
Burnham y Hogervorst (2004), por otro lado, no pudieron demostrar que
la actuación de los pacientes de Alzheimer fuera diferente a la del grupo con-
trol. Sin embargo, los pacientes de Alzheimer tuvieron más dificultades que
el grupo control en la tarea de emparejamiento de diferentes expresiones
emocionales. Estos autores explicaron que estas diferencias podían deberse
a una disfunción visoespacial más que al deterioro del procesamiento emo-
cional.
La segunda línea de investigación parte de la hipótesis de que las dificul-
tades en el reconocimiento de la expresión emocional en los rostros no se
debe exclusivamente a los daños en la amígdala, sino también a los daños
producidos en la corteza cerebral. Según Adolphs et al. (2002), todas las
estructuras (corticales y subcorticales) están conectadas en un proceso múl-
tiple y en varios puntos a la vez, de manera que es didícil asignar una simple
función a una determinada estructura. Las regiones temporales occipital y
posterior de la corteza visual desempeñan un papel muy importante en el
procesamiento de estímulos visuales emocionalmente relevantes. Hay evi-
dencias empíricas de que los estímulos emocionales activan automática-
mente muchas regiones diferentes del cerebro.
Mediante resonancia magnética funcional, Pessoa, McKenna, Gutierrez y
Ungerleider (2002) investigaron si el procesamiento de estímulos emociona-
les es automático o, si por el contrario, requiere ciertos niveles de atención.
Utilizaron una tarea donde se presentaba a los sujetos unas caras que expre-
saban alegría, tristeza y otras caras neutras con unas barras orientadas hacia
los lados izquierdo y derecho. Sus resultados indicaron que todas las regio-
nes cerebrales respondian diferencialmente ante las caras con contenido
emocional, incluida la amígdala, solo cuando se fijaba la atención de los suje-
tos en dichas caras (los sujetos tenían que indicar si el rostro era de hombre
o de mujer). Sin embargo, cuando se obligaba a los sujetos a centrar su aten-
ción en otras características del estímulo (la orientación de las barras), se eli-
minaron todas las respuestas a las caras con contenido emocional. Esto
sugiere que las caras con expresiones emocionales no constituyen una cate-
MEMORIA IMPLÍCITA PARA LA EXPRESIÓN FACIAL DE LAS EMOCIONES... 297
Dos de los modelos correspondían a caras de hombres y los otros dos eran
caras de mujer. Cada modelo expresaba las seis emociones básicas descritas
por el FACS (alegría, tristeza, asco, miedo, ira y sorpresa) en tres niveles dife-
rentes de intensidad que de menor a mayor denominamos (1) esbozo, (2)
acción presente, y (3) intensidad máxima. En una escala del 1 al 5, el esbozo
corresponde a la puntuación 1, la acción presente a la puntuación 3 y la
máxima intensidad a la puntuación 5. El tamaño de las fotografías fue de 35
mm x 52 mm. Las fotografías eran a color. En la Tabla 16.1 se muestra el
mínimo requerido de unidades de acción necesario para la expresión de cada
una de las emociones.
TABLA 16.1
Número y combinaciones de Unidades de Acción (UUAA) necesarias
para la expresión de cada una de las emociones básicas
ALEGRÍA 6 + 12 + 25
TRISTEZA 1 + 4 + 15
ASCO 10 + 17 + 4 + 18
IRA 4 + 5 + 7 + 24
SORPRESA 1 + 2 + 5 + 26
MIEDO 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 20 + 25
de los estímulos fue aleatorio tanto en la fase de estudio previa como en esta
fase de prueba.
En la Tabla 16.2 se muestra el número de aciertos y el porcentaje de iden-
tificaciones correctas para cada emoción en los tres niveles de intensidad en
los tres grupos.
TABLA 16.2
Número de aciertos y porcentajes de identificaciones emocionales
en los tres niveles de intensidad
Priming
CONCLUSIONES
Los resultados de este estudio son concordantes con la idea de que algu-
nas emociones se identifican mejor que el resto de las emociones. En con-
creto, la alegría y la tristeza resultan más fáciles de identificar que el miedo,
sorpresa, ira y asco. Esto parece coherente con la hipótesis de que la identi-
MEMORIA IMPLÍCITA PARA LA EXPRESIÓN FACIAL DE LAS EMOCIONES... 303
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PART IV
APPLIED ISSUES
17
VIEJISMO EN ESTUDIANTES DE PSICOLOGÍA
CLÍNICA Y DE LA SALUD:
UN PRIMER ESTUDIO EN ESPAÑA
Adelia de Miguel Negredo*
INTRODUCCIÓN
MÉTODO
Muestra
Se evaluó a dos muestras: la muestra «post-grado» estaba compuesta por
48 estudiantes universitarios (37 mujeres y 11 hombres) matriculados en un
programa de master y/o doctorado en psicología clínica y de la salud (el
rango de edad variaba desde 23 hasta 44 años); la segunda muestra, deno-
minada «pre-grado» tenía 68 estudiantes de segundo curso (57 mujeres y 11
312 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
ancianos a menudo están en contra de las reformas que necesita nuestra socie-
dad porque se aferran al pasado) hasta 0,62 (Muchos ancianos pasan dema-
siado tiempo entrometiéndose en los asuntos de los demás). Finalmente, el ter-
cer factor, actitud positiva en el área social, agrupa 5 elementos (En nuestro
país, muchos ancianos tienen buena salud [saturación de 0,65], Los ancianos
son valiosos por sus experiencias [0,48 como peso factorial]). Los índices de
consistencia interna, respectivamente, son 0.63, 0.69 y 0.40.
Para evaluar los factores de personalidad, utilizamos la versión traduci-
da por Avia, Sanz y Sánchez Bernardos (1997) del Inventario de Personalidad
NEO-PI-R (Costa y McCrae, 1992, adaptado por TEA en 1999) que mide las
cinco tendencias básicas (neuroticismo, extraversión, apertura a la experien-
cia, cordialidad y responsabilidad) más las 30 facetas (seis por tendencia
básica); está compuesto por 240 afirmaciones (8 elementos por faceta) a las
que se responde con escalas de 5 puntos tipo Likert (desde totalmente en des-
acuerdo hasta totalmente de acuerdo).
RESULTADOS
TABLA 17.1
Diferencias intergénero en actitudes viejistas
Viejismo y personalidad
TABLA 17.2
Diferencias intergrupales en actitudes viejistas
POST-GRADO PRE-GRADO
N = 48 N = 68
media dt media dt t
TABLA 17.3
Correlaciones entre personalidad y actitudes viejistas
N: Neuroticismo .25*
E: Extraversión .28**
O: Apertura a la
experiencia .34**
A: Cordialidad
C: Responsabilidad .30** –.24*
N1: Ansiedad .28**
N2: Hostilidad
N3: Depresión .30**
N4: Ansiedad social
N5: Impulsividad
N6. Vulnerabilidad
E1: Ser cálido .30**
E2: Gregarismo –.34**
E3: Asertividad
E4: Actividad .23*
E5: Búsqueda de
emociones .25*
E6: Emociones
positivas
O1: Fantasía .28**
O2: Estética
O3: Sentimientos .27*
O4: Acciones –.31**
O5: Ideas
O6: Valores –.24* .47*** .27*
A1: Confianza .23*
A2: Honradez –.23*
A3: Altruismo .27*
A4: Actitud
conciliadora
A5: Modestia
A6: Sensibilidad
a los demás
C1: Competencia .24*
C2: Orden –.24* –.22*
C3: Sentido del
deber .26* –.21*
C4: Necesidad
del deber .35** –.26*
C5: Autodisciplina –.28**
C6: Reflexión y
deliberación
A MODO DE CONCLUSIÓN
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
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VIEJISMO EN ESTUDIANTES DE PSICOLOGÍA CLÍNICA Y DE LA SALUD... 319
INTRODUCCIÓN
* Universidad de Granada.
322 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
CONDUCTAS COMPENSATORIAS
minar el riesgo que una persona, con una edad y género determinado, tiene
de fallecer en un accidente. Compara el riesgo de fallecer de conductores de
diferentes edades con el de un conductor de 20 años, igualando la magnitud
y características de la colisión sufrida. Los valores obtenidos en estas ecua-
ciones (número de fallecimientos en cada grupo de edad) son empleados
para estimar el promedio de la implicación en accidentes de tráfico, con sufi-
ciente gravedad, para ocasionar el fallecimiento de un conductor varón de 80
años. Con estos criterios, Evans (1988, 1991, 2000, 2004) vuelve a examinar
el número de conductores fallecidos en accidente de tráfico, ponderando por
el número de carnés de conducir y por la distancia recorrida. En el primer
caso, el aumento de fallecimientos en conductores mayores es menor, siendo
prácticamente imperceptible en el primer estudio (de la década de los 80,
1981-1985), mostrando que el incremento del riesgo de accidentes en con-
ductores mayores puede ser debido al aumento del riesgo de morir en la coli-
sión. Los resultados obtenidos, ponderando por la distancia recorrida, son
un poco más elevados a los encontrados con el criterio anterior, aunque infe-
riores a los obtenidos cuando no tiene en cuenta el riesgo de fallecer en un
accidente. En general, obtenemos un aumento del número de fallecimientos
a partir de los 60 años en ambos géneros, aunque el valor más elevado es
menor que el obtenido por los conductores varones de 30 años.
Por otro lado, McKenzie y Peck (1998) estimaron el índice de accidenta-
lidad a partir del número de accidentes (con heridos y muertos) producidos
en California en 1995, ponderando el número de accidentes brutos a partir
del número de carnés de conducir vigentes y la distancia recorrida. Con el
primer criterio de ponderación, encontraron que son los jóvenes quienes pre-
sentan los niveles de accidentalidad más altos, valores que van disminuyen-
do hasta los 70 años, donde estos índices comienzan a aumentar de nuevo.
Una variante de esta estimación es la inclusión, únicamente, de los acciden-
tes donde se hayan producido fallecimientos y se examine la culpabilidad de
la autoría. En esta ocasión, el incremento de accidentes en los mayores es
más elevado, alcanzando los valores más altos a partir de los 80 años. Estas
tasas de accidentalidad se incrementan cuando se pondera por la distancia
recorrida. En este caso, los grupos de jóvenes y mayores presentan unos índi-
ces de accidentalidad más elevados, siendo los conductores de 85 años quie-
nes alcanzan el valor más alto.
CONCLUSIÓN
400
Número de accidentes
350
300
250
Sin heridos
200
Con heridos
150
100
50
0
18-27 28-37 38-47 48-57 58-67 68-77 78 o más
Edad de los conductores
FIGURA 18.1
Accidentalidad en valores absolutos con heridos
y sin heridos
Tasa de accidentalidad
0,0400
Índice de accidentalidad
0,0150
Con heridos
0,0050
0,0000
18-27 28-37 38-47 48-57 58-67 68-77 78 o más
Edad de los conductores
FIGURA 18.2
Índice de accidentalidad con heridos y sin heridos
328 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
REFERENCIAS
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ment through driving. Disponible el 1 de febrero del 2004 en: http://www.agile.
iao.fhg.de/index_span.html.
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sis and Prevention, 30 (3), 313-322.
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dent Analysis and Prevention, 34 (6), 717-727.
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515-524.
DAIGNEAULT, G., JOLY, P., y FRIGON, J.-Y. (2002): «Previous convictions or accidents and
the risk of subsequent accidents of older drivers». Accident Analysis and Preven-
tion, 34 (2), 257-261.
DEPARTMENT OF CHRONIC DISEASES AND HEALTH PROMOTION (2005): Día internacional
de las personas mayores. Disponible el 16 de enero del 2005 en: http://www.who.
int/hpr/ageing/Declaración.
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older driver´capabilities: A review of the literature. Disponible el 7 de abril del 2004
en: http://www.umtri.umich.edu/library/pdf/1998-24.pdf.
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nal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 43 (6), S186-S193.
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«Driving patterns and medical conditions in older women». Journal of the Ameri-
can Geriatrics Society, 45 (10), 1214-1248.
HAKAMIES-BLOMQVIST, L. (1994a): «Aging and fatal accidents in male and female
drivers». Journals of Gerontology, 49 (6), 286-290.
HAKAMIES-BLOMQVIST, L. (1994b): «Compensation in older drivers as reflected in their
fatal accidents». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 26 (1), 107-112.
HAKAMIES-BLOMQVIST, L. (1998): «Older drivers' accident risk: Conceptual and metho-
dological issues». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30 (3), 293-297.
HU, P. S., TRUMBLE, D. A., FOLEY, D. J., EBERHARD, J. W., y WALLACE, R. B. (1998):
«Crash risks of older drivers: A panel data analysis». Accident Analysis and Pre-
vention, 30 (5), 569-581.
LI, G., BRAVER, E. R., y CHEN, L.-H. (2003): «Fragility versus excessive crash involve-
ment as determinants of high death rates per vehicle-mile of travel among older
drivers». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 35 (2), 227-235.
LUNDBERG, C., HAKAMIES-BLOMQVIST, L., ALMKVIST, O., y JOHANSSON, K. (1998): «Im-
pairments of some cognitive functions are common in crash-involved older
drivers». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30 (3), 371-377.
MCGWIN, G., CHAPMAN, V., y OWSLEY, C. (2000): «Visual risk factors for driving dif-
ficulty among older drivers». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 32 (6), 735-744.
MCGWIN, G. Jr., y BROWN, D. B. (1999): «Characteristics of traffic crashes among
young, middle-aged, and older drivers». Accident Analysis and Prevention, 31 (3),
181-198.
MCKENZIE, D., y PECK, R. (1998): Revised teen and senior facts report confirms previous
trends. Disponible el 3 de junio del 2004 en: http://www.dmv.ca.gov/about/profi-
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MCKNIGHT, A. J., y MCKNIGHT., A. S. (1999): «Multivariate analysis of age-related driver
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MINISTERIO DE TRABAJO Y ASUNTOS SOCIALES (2002): Las personas mayores en España.
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csic.es/estadisticas/informemayores/informe2002/index.html.
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PREUSSER, D. F., WILLIAMS, A. F., FERGUSON, S. A., ULMER, R. G., y WEINSTEIN, H. B.
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ANÁLISIS DEL ÍNDICE DE ACCIDENTALIDAD EN ANCIANOS... 331
INTRODUCCIÓN
conducir tanto tiempo como puedan hacerlo confortablemente y sin que esto
suponga una amenaza para su propia seguridad o la de los demás. Esto es
posible si se anima a los conductores mayores a seguir prácticas de conduc-
ción apropiadas a sus habilidades para conducir, al mismo tiempo que se les
ayuda a concienciarse, o sea, a ir pensando en el día en el que tendrán que
reducir su conducción o tendrán que finalizarla.
Muchos mayores de los países desarrollados se enfrentan a la decisión de
cuándo dejar de conducir. Sin duda es una decisión difícil de tomar. El vehí-
culo desempeña una función importante en nuestra vida cotidiana, especial-
mente si se vive en zonas en las que falta transporte urbano fiable.
Las estadísticas de accidentalidad de los mayores parecen buenas, pero
cuando se tiene en cuenta el número de colisiones por kilómetros recorridos,
estos datos se vuelven francamente preocupantes. Los conductores mayores
se ven involucrados en un menor número de colisiones porque conducen
menos y en situaciones menos peligrosas. Pero cuando se ven involucrados
en un accidente, suele ser grave. En una colisión de dos vehículos, en los que
uno es un conductor de 65 años o más, el conductor mayor tiene una proba-
bilidad 3.5 veces mayor de fallecer. Los daños que oscilan entre moderados y
severos para la población general suelen ser graves o fallecimientos para los
mayores de 55 años.
Algunos países han hecho un esfuerzo por crear instrumentos que ayu-
den a los conductores mayores a continuar conduciendo de forma segura o,
en caso contrario, que les ayuden a tomar la decisión de dejar de conducir. A
partir de ahora vamos a comentar algunos de estos intentos.
«How to help and Older Driver» and «The Older & Wiser
Driver»
«Cómo ayudar al conductor mayor» y «Conductor mayor
e inteligente»
Además, la AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety ha publicado varios docu-
mentos, en forma de librillo ilustrado, para ayudar a los conductores mayo-
res: How to help and Older Driver y The Older and Wiser Driver, que también
se puede encontrar en versión de video de 22 minutos (AAA Foundation for
Traffic Safety, 2000 y 1997, respectivamente).
El primer documento citado, How to help and Older Driver, expone cómo
familiares y amigos pueden ayudar a los conductores mayores a mantener su
independencia y movilidad sin tener que sacrificar su seguridad.
El segundo, The Older and Wiser Driver, es un libreto colorido, y fácil de
leer, que explica cómo se pueden compensar los efectos de la edad. Basado
en este libro se ha publicado un video, que ofrece algunos consejos sobre
visión, cognición, mantenerse en forma y efectos de la medicación. Ambos
están diseñados para ayudar a los conductores mayores a continuar condu-
ciendo con seguridad y se suministra gratis.
Una de las cosas que los profesores de autoescuela intentan enseñar a los
conductores mayores es a acelerar de una vez, o sea, rápido, por ejemplo al
incorporarse a una autovía; o a realizar maniobras para impedir que otros
conductores les sigan demasiado de cerca. Por tanto, el tema prioritario para
aumentar la seguridad de los mayores es adaptar sus habilidades de conduc-
ción acomodándolas a sus capacidades y reflejos (Di Stefano y Anderson,
2001).
En EE.UU., cada año se llama a 5.000 conductores para que hagan un re-
examen de la conducción. Este re-examen normalmente tiene que realizarse
porque un médico informa de que pueden estar afectadas las condiciones
físicas, o las habilidades para conducir con seguridad, de determinado con-
ductor (BCAA, 2003b).
Las autoescuelas ayudan a los clientes mayores a adquirir habilidades
que les den confianza para «acelerar» de nuevo (Kay, 2003). Es posible que
otros conductores que hayan perdido su carné de conducir sigan el consejo
y se apunten a las autoescuelas para recibir clases. A menudo, los conducto-
res realizan de nuevo el examen de conducir y lo pasan con éxito.
340 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
Algunas veces dejar el carné parece ser inevitable. Conducir puede llegar
a ser estresante y peligroso. Por ejemplo, si el conductor tiene problemas
girando sus hombros, conduciendo de noche o con condiciones meteoroló-
gicas adversas, deberá dejar de ponerse en riesgo a sí mismo y a los demás.
Entonces, es preciso decidir dejar el carné y comenzar a usar medios de
transporte alternativos como taxis, autobuses o ser pasajero en vehículos de
amigos y familiares. Sin duda, dejar de conducir también conlleva algunos
beneficios, como que disminuye la responsabilidad o se ahorra dinero
(Licensing Road Safety Autoplan Insurance, 2000).
FIGURA 19.1
Ejemplo del tipo de preguntas y de la forma de emisión de respuesta
de la versión española del cuestionario de auto-evaluación
de la conducción: Conductor mayor de 55 años:
Reflexione sobre su conducción
evaluar las propias habilidades para conducir con seguridad y los conducto-
res mayores pueden decidir si continuar conduciendo.
Su forma de corrección es muy simple y fácil de calcular siguiendo las
instrucciones del cuestionario gracias a la ayuda gráfica de distintas formas
geométricas (cuadrado, triángulo y círculo), para las alternativas de cada
pregunta. Estas formas geométricas tienen distinto peso cuando se realiza el
cómputo final (ver Figura 19.2).
La interpretación de las puntuaciones obtenidas también resulta sencilla.
En función de la puntuación obtenida (menos de 20, entre 21 y 40 y más de
41). Existen tres posibles categorías que indican la conveniencia de seguir
conduciendo, hacerlo con precaución o dejar de conducir, respectivamente.
1
Cuente el número de marcas en
cuadrados, escríbalo en el cuadrado de la
derecha y multiplique ese número por 5. x5=
2
Cuente el número de marcas en
triángulos, escríbalo en el triángulo de la
derecha y multiplique ese número por 3. x3=
FIGURA 19.2
Ejemplo de cómo se realiza el cómputo del resultado obtenido
en el cuestionario de 17 preguntas: Conductor mayor de 55 años:
Reflexione sobre su conducción
0 a 20: ¡ADELANTE!
Usted sabe lo que es importante para conducir con seguridad, y lo pone en
práctica. Vea las Sugerencias para Mejorar en la sección siguiente de este
impreso para aprender cómo llegar a ser un conductor aun más seguro.
21 a 40: ¡PRECAUCIÓN!
Algunas de sus conductas al volante necesitan mejorar para garantizar su
seguridad. Atienda las Sugerencias para Mejorar para ver cómo usted
podría mejorar su conducción.
41 y más: ¡ALTO!
Muchas de sus conductas al volante son peligrosas. Es usted un riesgo
para usted mismo y para los demás. Revise en las Sugerencias para
Mejorar aquellas cuestiones en las que marcó cuadrados o triángulos.
FIGURA 19.3
Ejemplo de cómo se interpreta la puntuación obtenida en el cuestionario
de 17 preguntas: Conductor mayor de 55 años:
Reflexione sobre su conducción
Sin duda, estos instrumentos pueden llegar a ser de gran utilidad para
que los conductores mayores, en España, puedan llegar a ser conscientes de
los posibles riesgos que la edad produce a la hora de conducir, para generar
un debate familiar y social, y para ayudarles a determinar cuándo tomar la
decisión de dejar de conducir.
La utilización de este tipo de materiales de auto-evaluación y concien-
ciación sobre el momento de dejar de conducir, y la demostración de efec-
tividad, en otros países, denota la sensibilidad de sus gobiernos y centros
de investigación por la problemática. Al mismo tiempo, el protagonismo y
la responsabilidad principal de la toma de decisiones, no impuesta, recae
en el conductor mayor, activo, que forma parte del proceso de evaluación
de cuándo dejar de conducir. Le permite tomar conciencia de los proble-
mas asociados a la edad, que puede ir sufriendo, desarrollar estrategias
344 AGEING, COGNITION... / ENVEJECIMIENTO, COGNICIÓN...
1
Cuando cambio de carril, señalizo y miro
por los espejos retrovisores
FIGURA 19.4
Ejemplo de los consejos y directrices que pueden ser extraídos del cuadernillo
de mejora, Conductor mayor de 55 años: Sugerencias
de mejora, que complementa el cuestionario de auto-evaluación
de la conducción. En concreto, se trata del caso en que el conductor
da una respuesta deficiente o inapropiada, para una conducción segura,
en la pregunta número 1 del cuestionario
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