06 Lecture Presentation

Chapter 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition
Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
Lecture by Richard L. Myers

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction: How Is a Marathoner Different
from a Sprinter?
 Individuals inherit various percentages of
the two main types of muscle fibers, slow
and fast
– The difference between the two is the process
each uses to make ATP
– Slow fibers make it aerobically using oxygen
– Fast fibers work anaerobically without oxygen

Introduction: How Is a Marathoner Different
from a Sprinter?
 The percentage of slow and fast muscle fibers
determines the difference between track
athletes
– Those with a large percentage of slow fibers make
the best long-distance runners
– Those with more fast fibers are good sprinters
 All of our cells harvest chemical energy (ATP)

from our food

INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR
RESPIRATION

6.1 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
provide energy for life
 Energy is necessary for life processes
– These include growth, transport, manufacture,
movement, reproduction, and others
– Energy that supports life on Earth is captured
from sun rays reaching Earth through plant,
algae, protist, and bacterial photosynthesis

6.1 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
provide energy for life
 Energy in sunlight is used in photosynthesis
to make glucose from CO2 and H2O with
release of O2
 Other organisms use the O2 and energy in

sugar and release CO2 and H2O
 Together, these two processes are

responsible for the majority of life on Earth

Sunlight energy
ECOSYSTEM
Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
CO2 Glucose
 
H2O O2
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria
ATP
(for cellular work)
Heat energy
6.2 Breathing supplies oxygen to our cells for use
in cellular respiration and removes carbon
dioxide
 Breathing and cellular respiration are closely
related
– Breathing is necessary for exchange of CO2 produced
during cellular respiration for atmospheric O2
– Cellular respiration uses O2 to help harvest energy

from glucose and produces CO2 in the process

Breathing
O2 CO2
Lungs
CO2 Bloodstream O2
Muscle cells carrying out

Cellular Respiration
Glucose + O2
CO2 + H2O + ATP

6.3 Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP
molecules
 Cellular respiration is an exergonic process that
transfers energy from the bonds in glucose to
ATP
– Cellular respiration produces 38 ATP molecules from
each glucose molecule
– Other foods (organic molecules) can be used as a
source of energy as well

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H 2O + ATPs
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water Energy

dioxide
6.4 CONNECTION: The human body uses energy
from ATP for all its activities
 The average adult human needs about
2,200 kcal of energy per day
– A kilocalorie (kcal) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram
(kg) of water by 1oC
– This energy is used for body maintenance and
for voluntary activities

6.5 Cells tap energy from electrons “falling”
from organic fuels to oxygen
 The energy necessary for life is contained in
the arrangement of electrons in chemical
bonds in organic molecules
 An important question is how do cells
extract this energy?

 When the carbon-hydrogen bonds of glucose are
broken, electrons are transferred to oxygen
– Oxygen has a strong tendency to attract electrons

 Energy can be released from glucose by
simply burning it
 The energy is dissipated as heat and light
and is not available to living organisms

 On the other hand, cellular respiration is the
controlled breakdown of organic molecules
– Energy is released in small amounts that can be
captured by a biological system and stored in ATP

 A cellular respiration equation is helpful to show
the changes in hydrogen atom distribution
– Glucose loses its hydrogen atoms and is ultimately
converted to CO2
– At the same time, O2 gains hydrogen atoms and is

converted to H2O
– Loss of electrons is called oxidation
– Gain of electrons is called reduction

Loss of hydrogen atoms
(oxidation)
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Glucose (ATP)
Gain of hydrogen atoms
(reduction)
 Enzymes are necessary to oxidize glucose
and other foods
– The enzyme that removes hydrogen from an
organic molecule is called dehydrogenase
– Dehydrogenase requires a coenzyme called NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) to shuttle
electrons
– NAD+ can become reduced when it accepts electrons
and oxidized when it gives them up

Oxidation
Dehydrogenase
Reduction
NAD+ + 2H NADH + H+
(carries
2 H+ + 2 e– 2 electrons)
 The transfer of electrons to NAD+ results in the
formation of NADH, the reduced form of NAD+
– In this situation, NAD+ is called an electron acceptor,
but it eventually becomes oxidized (loses an electron)
and is then called an electron donor

 There are other electron “carrier” molecules
that function like NAD+
– They form a staircase where the electrons pass
from one to the next down the staircase
– These electron carriers collectively are called the
electron transport chain, and as electrons are
transported down the chain, ATP is generated

NADH
NAD+ ATP
+ 2e–
+
Controlled
H release of
energy for
El synthesis
ec
tr o of ATP
nt
c h ra
ain ns
po
rt
2e–
1
H +
2 O2
H 2O
STAGES OF CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
AND FERMENTATION

6.6 Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in
three main stages
 Stage 1: Glycolysis
– Glycolysis begins respiration by breaking glucose,
a six-carbon molecule, into two molecules of a
three-carbon compound called pyruvate
– This stage occurs in the cytoplasm

three main stages
 Stage 2: The citric acid cycle
– The citric acid cycle breaks down pyruvate into
carbon dioxide and supplies the third stage with
electrons
– This stage occurs in the mitochondria

three main stages
 Stage 3: Oxidative phosphorylation
– During this stage, electrons are shuttled through
the electron transport chain
– As a result, ATP is generated through oxidative
phosphorylation associated with chemiosmosis
– This stage occurs in the inner mitochondrion
membrane

three main stages
 During the transport of electrons, a
concentration gradient of H+ ions is formed
across the inner membrane into the
intermembrane space
– The potential energy of this concentration gradient is
used to make ATP by a process called chemiosmosis
– The concentration gradient drives H+ through ATP
synthases and enzymes found in the membrane,
and ATP is produced

NADH
High-energy electrons Mitochondrion
carried by NADH
NADH FADH2
and
GLYCOLYSIS OXIDATIVE
CITRIC ACID PHOSPHORYLATION
Glucose Pyruvate (Electron Transport
CYCLE
and Chemiosmosis)
Cytoplasm
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
CO2 CO2 ATP
ATP ATP
Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
 In glycolysis, a single molecule of glucose is
enzymatically cut in half through a series of
steps to produce two molecules of pyruvate
– In the process, two molecules of NAD+ are
reduced to two molecules of NADH
– At the same time, two molecules of ATP are
produced by substrate-level phosphorylation

6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
 In substrate-level phosphorylation, an
enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a
substrate molecule to ADP, forming ATP
– This ATP can be used immediately, but NADH
must be transported through the electron
transport chain to generate additional ATP

Glucose
2 ADP
2 NAD+
+
2 P
2 NADH
2 ATP +
2 H+
2 Pyruvate
Enzyme Enzyme
P ADP
 ATP
P P
Substrate Product
ENERGY INVESTMENT
Glucose
PHASE
ATP
Steps 1 – 3 A fuel molecule is energized, Step
1
using ATP.
ADP
P Glucose-6-phosphate
P Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP
3
ADP
P P Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Step 4 A six-carbon intermediate splits
Into two three-carbon intermediates. 4
P P Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P)
Step 5 A redox reaction NAD+ 5 NAD+ 5 ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE

generates NADH. P P
NADH NADH
+ H+ + H+
P P P P 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
ADP ADP
6 6
ATP ATP
P P 3-Phosphoglycerate
7 7
Steps 6 – 9 ATP and pyruvate P P

are produced.
2-Phosphoglycerate
8 8
H2O H2O
P P
Phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP)
ADP ADP
9 9
ATP ATP
Pyruvate
ENERGY
Glucose INVESTMENT
ATP PHASE

using ATP. 1
ADP
ATP
3
ADP
ENERGY
Glucose INVESTMENT
ATP PHASE

using ATP. 1
ADP
ATP
3
ADP
Step 4 A six-carbon intermediate splits
Into two three-carbon intermediates. 4
P P Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P)
(G3P)

generates NADH. P
NADH NADH P
 H+  H+
(G3P)

generates NADH. P
NADH NADH P
 H+  H+
ADP ADP
6 6
ATP ATP
P P 3-Phosphoglycerate
7 7
Steps 6 – 9 ATP and pyruvate P P

are produced.
2-Phosphoglycerate
8 8
H2O H2O
P P
Phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP)
ADP ADP
9 9
ATP ATP
Pyruvate
6.8 Pyruvate is chemically groomed for the citric
acid cycle
 The pyruvate formed in glycolysis is
transported to the mitochondria, where it is
prepared for entry into the citric acid cycle
– The first step is removal of a carboxyl group that
forms CO2
– The second is oxidization of the two-carbon

compound remaining
– Finally, coenzyme A binds to the two-carbon
fragment forming acetyl coenzyme A

NAD+ NADH  H+
2
CoA
Pyruvate 1 Acetyl coenzyme A
3
CO2
Coenzyme A
6.9 The citric acid cycle completes the oxidation
of organic molecules, generating many
NADH and FADH2 molecules
 With the help of CoA, the acetyl (two-carbon)
compound enters the citric acid cycle
– At this point, the acetyl group associates with a
four-carbon molecule forming a six-carbon
molecule
– The six-carbon molecule then passes through a
series of redox reactions that regenerate the four-
carbon molecule (thus the “cycle” designation)

Acetyl CoA
CoA
CoA
2 CO2
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
FADH2 3 NAD+
FAD 3 NADH

3 H+
ATP ADP + P
CoA
Acetyl CoA
CoA
2 carbons enter cycle

Oxaloacetate
1
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Step 1
Acetyl CoA stokes the furnace.
CoA
Acetyl CoA
CoA

Oxaloacetate
1
Citrate
NAD+
NADH + H+
2
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
CO2 leaves cycle
ADP + P
ATP Alpha-ketoglutarate
CO2 leaves cycle
NADH + H+ NAD+
Step 1 Steps 2 – 3
Acetyl CoA stokes the furnace. NADH, ATP, and CO2 are generated
during redox reactions.
CoA
Acetyl CoA
CoA

Oxaloacetate
1
Citrate
NADH + H+
NAD+
5
NAD+
NADH + H+
2
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Malate CO2 leaves cycle
ADP  P
FADH2 4 ATP Alpha-ketoglutarate
FAD 3
CO2 leaves cycle

Succinate
NADH + H+ NAD+
Step 1 Steps 2 – 3 Steps 4 – 5

Acetyl CoA stokes the furnace. NADH, ATP, and CO2 are generated Redox reactions generate FADH2
during redox reactions. and NADH.
6.10 Most ATP production occurs by oxidative
phosphorylation
 Oxidative phosphorylation involves electron
transport and chemiosmosis and requires an
adequate supply of oxygen
– NADH and FADH2 and the inner membrane of the
mitochondria are also involved
– A H+ ion gradient formed from all of the redox
reactions of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
provide energy for the synthesis of ATP

H+ H+ H+ H+
+
Protein H
H+ H+
complex Electron
H+ H+ ATP
of electron carrier
Intermembrane synthase
carriers
space
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
FADH2 FAD
Electron
flow 1
NADH NAD+ 2 O2 + 2 H+
H+
Mitochondrial H+
matrix ADP + P ATP
H+ H2O
H+
Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
6.11 CONNECTION: Certain poisons interrupt
critical events in cellular respiration
 There are three different categories of
cellular poisons that affect cellular
respiration
– The first category blocks the electron transport
chain (for example, rotenone, cyanide, and
carbon monoxide)
– The second inhibits ATP synthase (for example,
oligomycin)
– Finally, the third makes the membrane leaky to
hydrogen ions (for example, dinitrophenol)

Rotenone Cyanide, Oligomycin
carbon monoxide
H+ H+
H+ ATP
H+
synthase
H+ H+ H+
DNP
FADH2 FAD
1
NADH + 2 O2 + 2 H+
NAD
H+
ADP + P ATP
H+ H2 O
H+
Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis

6.12 Review: Each molecule of glucose yields
many molecules of ATP
 Recall that the energy payoff of cellular
respiration involves (1) glycolysis, (2)
alteration of pyruvate, (3) the citric acid
cycle, and (4) oxidative phosphorylation
– The total yield of ATP molecules per glucose
molecule has a theoretical maximum of about 38
– This is about 40% of a glucose molecule
potential energy
– Additionally, water and CO2 are produced

Electron shuttle
Cytoplasm across membrane Mitochondrion
2 NADH 2 NADH
(or 2 FADH2)
2 NADH 6 NADH 2 FADH2
GLYCOLYSIS OXIDATIVE
2 2 Acetyl CITRIC ACID PHOSPHORYLATION
Glucose Pyruvate CoA (Electron Transport
CYCLE
and Chemiosmosis)
2 ATP 2 ATP about 34 ATP

by substrate-level by substrate-level by oxidative phosphorylation
phosphorylation phosphorylation
Maximum per glucose: About

38 ATP
6.13 Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP
without oxygen
 Fermentation is an anaerobic (without
oxygen) energy-generating process
– It takes advantage of glycolysis, producing two
ATP molecules and reducing NAD+ to NADH
– The trick is to oxidize the NADH without passing
its electrons through the electron transport
chain to oxygen

without oxygen
 Your muscle cells and certain bacteria can
oxidize NADH through lactic acid
fermentation
– NADH is oxidized to NAD+ when pyruvate is
reduced to lactate
– In a sense, pyruvate is serving as an “electron
sink,” a place to dispose of the electrons
generated by oxidation reactions in glycolysis
Animation: Fermentation Overview

Glucose
2 NAD+
GLYCOLYSIS
2 ADP
2 P
2 ATP 2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
2 NADH
2 NAD+
2 Lactate
Lactic acid fermentation
without oxygen
 The baking and winemaking industry have
used alcohol fermentation for thousands of
years
– Yeasts are single-celled fungi that not only can use
respiration for energy but can ferment under
anaerobic conditions
– They convert pyruvate to CO 2 and ethanol while

oxidizing NADH back to NAD +

Glucose
2 NAD+
GLYCOLYSIS
2 ADP
2 P
2 ATP 2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
2 NADH
2 CO2
released
2 NAD+
2 Ethanol
Alcohol fermentation
6.14 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Glycolysis
evolved early in the history of life on Earth
 Glycolysis is the universal energy-harvesting
process of living organisms
– So, all cells can use glycolysis for the energy
necessary for viability
– The fact that glycolysis has such a widespread
distribution is good evidence for evolution

INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN
MOLECULAR BREAKDOWN
AND SYNTHESIS

6.15 Cells use many kinds of organic molecules
as fuel for cellular respiration
 Although glucose is considered to be the
primary source of sugar for respiration and
fermentation, there are actually three
sources of molecules for generation of ATP
– Carbohydrates (disaccharides)
– Proteins (after conversion to amino acids)
– Fats

Food, such as
peanuts
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids Amino acids
Amino
groups
OXIDATIVE
CITRIC PHOSPHORYLATION
Glucose G3P Pyruvate Acetyl
ACID (Electron Transport
CoA CYCLE
GLYCOLYSIS and Chemiosmosis)
ATP
6.16 Food molecules provide raw materials for
biosynthesis
 Many metabolic pathways are involved in
biosynthesis of biological molecules
– To survive, cells must be able to biosynthesize
molecules that are not present in its foods
– Often the cell will convert the intermediate
compounds of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
to molecules not found in food

ATP needed to drive biosynthesis
ATP
GLUCOSE SYNTHESIS
CITRIC Acetyl
ACID Pyruvate G3P Glucose
CoA
CYCLE
Amino
groups
Amino acids Fatty acids Glycerol Sugars
Proteins Fats Carbohydrates
Cells, tissues, organisms

Cytoplasm
NADH
Mitochondrion
NADH and FADH2
Glycolysis Citric Oxidative

Glucose Pyruvate acid phosphorylation
cycle (Electron Transport
and Chemiosmosis)
CO2 CO2
ATP
ATP ATP
Cellular
respiration
generates has three stages oxidizes
uses
ATP (a) glucose and
produce organic fuels
some
C6H12O6
(b) (d)
produces
energy for many
to pull to
(c) electrons down
cellular work
by process called (f)
uses
H+ diffuse
through
chemiosmosis ATP synthase (e)
uses pumps H+ to create
H+ gradient
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.1
Color intensity
0.2
0.2
0.1 0.1
0.3
a. Time b. Time c. Time

You should now be able to
1. Explain how photosynthesis and cellular

respiration are necessary to provide energy
that is required to sustain your life
2. Explain why breathing is necessary to

support cellular respiration
3. Describe how cellular respiration produces

energy that can be stored in ATP
4. Explain why ATP is required for human

activities

5. Describe the process of energy production

from movement of electrons
6. List and describe the three main stages of

cellular respiration
7. Describe the major steps of glycolysis and

explain why glycolysis is considered to be a
metabolic pathway
8. Explain how pyruvate is altered to enter the

citric acid cycle and why coenzymes are
important to the process
9. Describe the citric acid cycle as a metabolic

pathway designed for generating additional
energy from glucose
10. Discuss the importance of oxidative

phosphorylation in producing ATP
11. Describe useful applications of poisons that

interrupt critical steps in cellular respiration
12. Review the steps in oxidation of a glucose

molecule aerobically

13. Compare respiration and fermentation
14. Provide evidence that glycolysis evolved

early in the history of life on Earth
15. Provide criteria that a molecule must

possess to be considered a fuel for cellular
respiration
16. Discuss the mechanisms that cells use to

biosynthesize cell components from food

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Chapter 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lecture by Richard L. Myers

– Fast fibers work anaerobically without oxygen

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 All of our cells harvest chemical energy (ATP)

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Other organisms use the O2 and energy in

 Together, these two processes are

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

(for cellular work)

– Cellular respiration uses O2 to help harvest energy

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Muscle cells carrying out

CO2 + H2O + ATP

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water Energy

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

– At the same time, O2 gains hydrogen atoms and is

– Gain of electrons is called reduction

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C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Step 5 A redox reaction NAD+ 5 NAD+ 5 ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE

Steps 6 – 9 ATP and pyruvate P P

Steps 1 – 3 A fuel molecule is energized, Step

Steps 1 – 3 A fuel molecule is energized, Step

Step 5 A redox reaction NAD+ 5 NAD+ 5 ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE

Step 5 A redox reaction NAD+ 5 NAD+ 5 ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE

Steps 6 – 9 ATP and pyruvate P P

– The second is oxidization of the two-carbon

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

2 carbons enter cycle

CITRIC ACID CYCLE

2 carbons enter cycle

CO2 leaves cycle

2 carbons enter cycle

CO2 leaves cycle

Step 1 Steps 2 – 3 Steps 4 – 5

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Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.