Duration: 1 MONTH High School Grade: 12 STEM

Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration

Prepared By:
Geanlie Carl B. Pronton
Overview of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which

cells convert biochemical energy from
nutrients, such as glucose, into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of
the cell. This process occurs in both plants
and animals and is vital for sustaining
cellular functions. It can be aerobic
(requiring oxygen) or anaerobic (without
oxygen).
Overview of Cellular Respiration

General Equation of Aerobic Cellular

Respiration
The overall chemical equation for aerobic
respiration can be summarized as:
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP (energy)
Here, glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂) are
converted into carbon dioxide (CO₂), water
(H₂O), and energy (in the form of ATP).
Major Stages of Aerobic
Cellular Respiration

1.Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm)

oGlycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration and occurs in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
oDuring glycolysis, one molecule of glucose (6-carbon) is broken down
into two molecules of pyruvate (3-carbon), producing a net gain of 2
ATP molecules and reducing two molecules of NAD⁺ into NADH.
oThis process does not require oxygen, so it can occur in both aerobic
and anaerobic conditions.
Major Stages of Aerobic
Cellular Respiration

2. Pyruvate Oxidation (in the mitochondrial matrix)

o The two molecules of pyruvate from glycolysis are transported into the
mitochondria, where each is converted into Acetyl-CoA.
o This step produces CO₂ and reduces NAD⁺ to NADH.

3. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) (in the mitochondrial

matrix)
o Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, where it is further oxidized.
o This cycle generates 2 ATP, several NADH and FADH₂ molecules (which carry
high-energy electrons), and releases CO₂ as a byproduct.
Major Stages of Aerobic
Cellular Respiration

4. Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport

Chain and Chemiosmosis) (in the inner mitochondrial
membrane)
o NADH and FADH₂ from the previous steps donate electrons to the electron transport chain
(ETC), which is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
o As electrons move down the ETC, protons (H⁺) are pumped across the mitochondrial
membrane, creating a proton gradient.
o ATP is produced when protons flow back through ATP synthase, a process called
chemiosmosis.
o Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor and combines with protons to form water
(H₂O).
o Oxidative phosphorylation produces the majority of ATP: approximately 26-28 ATP
Anaerobic
Respiration
(Fermentation)

When oxygen is not available, cells can undergo anaerobic

respiration or fermentation.
 Lactic Acid Fermentation (in animals): Pyruvate is converted
into lactic acid, regenerating NAD⁺, but no additional ATP is
produced beyond the 2 ATP from glycolysis.
 Alcoholic Fermentation (in yeast): Pyruvate is converted into
ethanol and CO₂, also regenerating NAD⁺, with no additional ATP
gain.
Importance of
Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is essential for maintaining

cellular functions by providing ATP, which powers
many biological processes.
The efficiency of energy extraction during aerobic
respiration makes it preferable to anaerobic
processes, which produce far less ATP.
Overview of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a fundamental
biological process in which plants,
algae, and certain bacteria convert
light energy into chemical energy. It
is crucial for sustaining life on Earth,
as it provides the organic molecules
and oxygen that form the basis of
most ecosystems.
Overview of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs in the

chloroplasts of plant cells and
involves two main stages: the
light-dependent reactions and
the Calvin cycle (light-
independent reactions).
Overview of Cellular Respiration

General Equation of Photosynthesis

The simplified overall chemical equation for
photosynthesis is:
6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO2
+ 6H_2O +{light energy} → C_6H_{12}O_6 +
6O_26CO2​+6H2​O+light energy→C6​H12​O6​+6O2​
In this process, carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water
(H₂O) are converted into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and
oxygen (O₂) using light energy absorbed by
chlorophyll.
Major Stages of
Photosynthesis

1. Light-Dependent Reactions (Occur in the thylakoid membranes of the

chloroplasts)
The light-dependent reactions capture energy from sunlight and convert it into
chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Water is split, producing oxygen as
a byproduct.
Key Steps:
 Light absorption: Chlorophyll, the main pigment in plants, absorbs light (mainly
in the blue and red wavelengths). This excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules,
boosting them to a higher energy level.
Electron transport chain (ETC): Excited electrons are passed through an electron
transport chain in the thylakoid membrane, creating a flow of electrons.
Major Stages of Aerobic
Cellular Respiration

 Photolysis: Water (H₂O) is split to replace the electrons lost by

chlorophyll. This produces oxygen (O₂) and hydrogen ions (H⁺).
 ATP formation: The movement of electrons down the ETC
creates a proton gradient, which powers ATP synthase to produce
ATP (a process called chemiosmosis).
 NADPH formation: At the end of the ETC, electrons are
transferred to NADP⁺, forming NADPH, which will be used in the
Calvin cycle.
Outputs of the light-dependent reactions: ATP, NADPH, and
O₂.
Major Stages of
Photosynthesis

2. The Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions, Occur in the stroma of

chloroplasts)
The Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions
to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. This process does not directly require light,
but it depends on the products of the light-dependent reactions.
Key Steps:
 Carbon fixation: The enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the
atmosphere by attaching it to a five-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP). This forms a six-carbon compound that immediately splits into two three-
carbon molecules (3-phosphoglycerate or 3-PGA).
Major Stages of
Photosynthesis

 Reduction: ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA

molecules into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a three-carbon
sugar.
 Regeneration of RuBP: Some of the G3P molecules exit the
cycle to form glucose, while others are used to regenerate RuBP,
enabling the cycle to continue.
Outputs of the Calvin cycle: One glucose molecule (C₆H₁₂O₆) is
produced for every six turns of the cycle, along with the
regeneration of RuBP.
Key Components of
Photosynthesis

1.Chloroplasts: The organelles where photosynthesis

takes place. Inside the chloroplasts are thylakoids
(which house the light-dependent reactions) and the
stroma (the site of the Calvin cycle).
2.Chlorophyll: The main pigment in chloroplasts that
absorbs light energy.
3.RuBisCO: The enzyme responsible for carbon fixation
in the Calvin cycle.
Importance of
Photosynthesis

 Energy production: Photosynthesis is the foundation of

the food chain, converting solar energy into glucose, which
organisms use as a source of energy.
 Oxygen production: Photosynthesis releases oxygen into
the atmosphere, which is essential for aerobic respiration in
animals and many other organisms.
 Carbon fixation: Photosynthesis helps regulate carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere by converting CO₂ into
organic molecules.
Comparison between
Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration

Aspect Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Converts light energy into Breaks down glucose to

Purpose chemical energy release stored chemical
(glucose). energy as ATP.
Occurs in all living
Occurs in plants, algae,
Organisms organisms (plants,
and some bacteria.
animals, fungi, bacteria).
Chloroplasts (thylakoid Mitochondria (glycolysis
Location in Cells
membranes and stroma). occurs in the cytoplasm).
Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and
Reactants (Inputs)
water (H₂O), and sunlight. oxygen (O₂).
Comparison between
Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
Carbon dioxide (CO₂),
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and
Products (Outputs) water (H₂O), and ATP
oxygen (O₂).
(energy).
Chemical energy stored in
Energy Source Sunlight (solar energy).
glucose.
Light energy → chemical
Chemical energy (glucose)
Energy Conversion energy (stored in
→ usable energy (ATP).
glucose).

1. Glycolysis
1. Light-dependent 2. Pyruvate oxidation
Stages reactions 3. Citric acid cycle
2. Calvin cycle 4. Oxidative
phosphorylation
Comparison between
Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
NADP⁺ is reduced to
NAD⁺ and FAD are
Electron Carrier NADPH in the light-
reduced to NADH
Molecules dependent
and FADH₂.
reactions.
NADP⁺ in light-
Final Electron Oxygen (O₂), forming
dependent reactions
Acceptor water (H₂O).
(forms NADPH).
Oxygen is a byproduct Oxygen is required as
Role of Oxygen released into the the final electron
atmosphere. acceptor.
CO₂ is fixed into CO₂ is released as a
Carbon Dioxide glucose during the waste product during
Key Similarities

 Electron transport chains (ETC): Both processes involve electron

transport chains. In photosynthesis, the ETC is in the thylakoid
membrane, while in cellular respiration, it is in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. These chains pump protons (H⁺) to create a proton gradient,
which powers ATP synthesis.
 ATP synthase: Both processes use ATP synthase to generate ATP
through chemiosmosis (the flow of protons down their concentration
gradient).
 Energy carriers: Both processes use electron carriers (NADP⁺ in
photosynthesis, and NAD⁺/FAD in cellular respiration) to transport high-
energy electrons.
Key Differences

 Energy flow: Photosynthesis is an anabolic process

(building glucose) that stores energy, while cellular
respiration is a catabolic process (breaking down glucose)
that releases energy.
 Role in ecosystems: Photosynthesis is performed by
autotrophs (organisms that produce their own food),
supplying organic molecules and oxygen for the ecosystem.
Cellular respiration occurs in all organisms to release
energy stored in organic molecules.
Interdependence of
Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide cycling: The oxygen
produced during photosynthesis is used in cellular
respiration, while the carbon dioxide produced in respiration
is used in photosynthesis.
 Energy flow in ecosystems: Photosynthesis captures
solar energy and converts it into a form that can be
consumed by heterotrophs (organisms that rely on other
organisms for food), such as animals. Cellular respiration
releases the energy stored in organic molecules so that
cells can perform work.
Recap of Equations

 Photosynthesis:
6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + \
text{light energy} → C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2​+6H2​
O+light energy→C6​H12​O6​+6O2​
 Cellular Respiration:
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP (energy)C_6H_{12}O_6 +
6O_2 → 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP (energy)}C6​H12​O6​+6O2​
→6CO2​+6H2​O+ATP (energy)
Essentially, the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen)
are the reactants in cellular respiration, and the products of
respiration (carbon dioxide and water) are the reactants in
Importance of
Chlorophyll and other
Pigments

Chlorophyll and other pigments are vital in

photosynthesis because they capture and absorb
light energy, which is then converted into
chemical energy. These pigments are responsible
for initiating the photosynthetic process by
absorbing specific wavelengths of light, which
drives the entire photosynthesis mechanism.
Chlorophyll: The Main
Pigment

 Role: Chlorophyll is the most abundant and crucial pigment in

photosynthesis. It absorbs light energy, particularly from the blue and red
wavelengths, and converts it into chemical energy.
 Types of Chlorophyll:
oChlorophyll a: The primary pigment in photosynthesis. It directly
participates in converting solar energy into chemical energy and is
present in all photosynthetic organisms. It mainly absorbs light in the
blue-violet and red regions (430–662 nm).
oChlorophyll b: An accessory pigment that broadens the range of light
that can be absorbed. It mainly absorbs blue and orange-red
wavelengths (455–640 nm). Chlorophyll b transfers the energy it
absorbs to chlorophyll a, enhancing the efficiency of photosynthesis.
Accessory Pigment

Accessory pigments extend the range of light wavelengths that can be absorbed and utilized for
photosynthesis. They also protect chlorophyll from damage by excess light. Here are the major
accessory pigments:
 Carotenoids: These pigments include carotene (orange) and xanthophyll (yellow). They
absorb light mainly in the blue and green regions (450–550 nm) and transfer the absorbed
energy to chlorophyll a.
o Role: Carotenoids have two primary functions:
1.Broadening light absorption: They expand the spectrum of light available for
photosynthesis beyond what chlorophyll absorbs.
2.Photoprotection: Carotenoids help protect the chlorophyll molecules from photo-
oxidation and prevent damage from excessive light. They dissipate excess energy as heat
to prevent damage to the photosynthetic apparatus.
 Phycobilins: These are found in certain algae like red algae and cyanobacteria. Examples
include phycocyanin (blue) and phycoerythrin (red). These pigments absorb light in
wavelengths that chlorophyll a and b cannot, such as green and yellow-green light
.
Importance of Pigments
of Photosynthesis

1.Absorbing and Transferring Light Energy: Pigments absorb specific wavelengths of light
and transfer the absorbed energy to the reaction center of photosystems in chloroplasts. This
energy excites electrons in the chlorophyll molecules, enabling them to jump to a higher
energy state and initiate the process of electron transport.
2.Expanding the Light Spectrum: Chlorophyll alone is not sufficient to capture all
wavelengths of light. Accessory pigments like carotenoids and phycobilins increase the range
of light that can be absorbed, thus maximizing the energy available for photosynthesis.
3.Protecting the Photosynthetic Machinery: Excessive light can damage chlorophyll and
other parts of the photosynthetic machinery. Carotenoids play a vital role in protecting plants
by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and preventing oxidative damage.
4.Coloration and Adaptation: The variety of pigments also allows plants and photosynthetic
organisms to adapt to different light conditions in their environment. For example, red algae
contain phycoerythrin, which allows them to thrive in deeper waters where red light is scarce
but blue-green light penetrates..
How Pigments Work in
Photosynthesis
 Photosystems: In chloroplasts, chlorophyll and accessory pigments are
organized into clusters called photosystems (Photosystem I and
Photosystem II), which are located in the thylakoid membranes.
oAntenna Complex: Each photosystem contains an antenna complex
composed of multiple pigment molecules. This complex absorbs light
and transfers the captured energy to the reaction center, where
chlorophyll a molecules play a central role in converting the light
energy into an energized electron.
oReaction Center: When the pigments transfer their absorbed light
energy to the chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction center, chlorophyll
a releases an energized electron. This electron then enters the electron
transport chain to drive the production of ATP and NADPH, which are
used in the Calvin cycle.
How Pigments Work in
Photosynthesis

To summarize, chlorophyll and other

pigments are indispensable for
photosynthesis because they absorb and
transfer light energy efficiently, extend the range
of usable light wavelengths, and protect the
plant from light-induced damage. This enables
plants to convert solar energy into chemical
energy, sustaining nearly all life on Earth.
Pattern of Electron Flow
through Light Reaction
events

The light reactions of photosynthesis

involve a series of electron flow patterns
within the thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplast. The main goal of these reactions
is to convert solar energy into chemical
energy in the form of ATP and NADPH,
which are essential for the Calvin cycle.
Pattern of Electron Flow
through Light Reaction
events

The light reactions of photosynthesis involve a series of electron

flow patterns within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.
The main goal of these reactions is to convert solar energy into
chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, which are
essential for the Calvin cycle.
1. Linear Electron Flow (Primary pathway)
Linear electron flow is the primary pathway of the light reactions.
It involves both Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem I (PSI),
and results in the production of ATP, NADPH, and the release of
oxygen as a byproduct.
Key Events in Linear
Electron Flow

1.Photon Absorption in Photosystem II (PSII):

o A photon (light energy) is absorbed by pigment molecules in PSII. The absorbed energy is
transferred from one chlorophyll molecule to another in the antenna complex until it
reaches the reaction center.
o In the reaction center of PSII, the energy excites an electron in a special pair of
chlorophyll a molecules (known as P680), causing the electron to jump to a higher
energy level.
2.Water Splitting and Oxygen Release:
o To replace the lost electron in P680, water molecules are split through a process called
photolysis. This reaction produces:
 Electrons, which are donated to P680 to replenish its lost electron.
 Protons (H⁺), which contribute to the proton gradient.
 Oxygen (O₂), which is released as a byproduct.
o The equation for this reaction is: 2H2O→4H++4e−+O22H_2O → 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ + O_22H2​
Key Events in Linear
Electron Flow

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) from PSII to PSI:

o The high-energy electron from P680 is passed to a primary electron acceptor
and then through a series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane called the
electron transport chain (ETC). This chain includes molecules like
plastoquinone (PQ), the cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin (PC).
o As the electrons move down the ETC, they lose energy, which is used to pump
protons (H⁺) from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen. This creates a proton
gradient across the thylakoid membrane.
4. ATP Synthesis via Chemiosmosis:
o The proton gradient drives ATP synthesis through an enzyme called ATP
synthase. As protons flow back into the stroma through ATP synthase, the
energy released is used to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.
Key Events in Linear
Electron Flow

5. Photon Absorption in Photosystem I (PSI):

o A photon is also absorbed by pigments in Photosystem I (PSI), which transfers energy
to the reaction center of PSI, exciting an electron in the P700 chlorophyll pair.
o The excited electron is passed to the primary electron acceptor of PSI. Meanwhile, the
P700 chlorophyll molecules receive an electron from the electron transport chain
(specifically from plastocyanin, PC), replenishing their lost electron.
6. Formation of NADPH:
o The high-energy electron from PSI is transferred through a series of proteins, eventually
reaching a molecule called ferredoxin (Fd).
o The enzyme NADP⁺ reductase then catalyzes the transfer of two electrons and a proton
(H⁺) to NADP⁺, forming NADPH. NADPH is an essential electron carrier that provides
reducing power for the Calvin cycle.
Key Events in Linear
Electron Flow

Summary of Linear Electron Flow

 Inputs: Light energy, H₂O, NADP⁺, ADP, and Pi
(inorganic phosphate).
 Outputs: ATP, NADPH, and O₂.
 Key Products for the Calvin Cycle: ATP and
NADPH, which provide energy and reducing
power.
Pattern of Electron Flow
through Light Reaction
events

2. Cyclic Electron Flow (Alternative

pathway)
Cyclic electron flow involves only Photosystem I
and serves as an alternative pathway to produce
ATP without generating NADPH or O₂. This
pathway is vital in balancing the ATP/NADPH ratio
based on the needs of the Calvin cycle.
Key Events in Cyclic
Electron Flow

1.Photon Absorption in Photosystem I (PSI):

o Light excites an electron in the reaction center of PSI, just like in linear flow.
The excited electron is passed to the primary electron acceptor in PSI.
2.Electron Flow through Ferredoxin (Fd) to the Cytochrome Complex:
o The excited electron from ferredoxin (Fd) is not transferred to NADP⁺
reductase. Instead, it cycles back to the cytochrome complex in the electron
transport chain.
3.Electron Flow Back to PSI:
o From the cytochrome complex, the electron is passed to plastocyanin (PC)
and then back to P700 in PSI, completing the cycle.
o This cyclic flow pumps protons across the thylakoid membrane, creating a
proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis through ATP synthase, but it does
not produce NADPH or release oxygen.
Key Events in Cyclic
Electron Flow

Summary of Cyclic Electron Flow

 Inputs: Light energy, ADP, and Pi.
 Outputs: ATP.
 No Production of NADPH or O₂: The
primary role of cyclic flow is to generate
additional ATP to match the energy
requirements of the Calvin cycle.
Why Do Plants Use Both
Pathways?

Plants need both ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle. However,
sometimes the Calvin cycle requires more ATP than NADPH. By
using cyclic electron flow, plants can produce additional ATP
to maintain the balance needed for efficient carbon fixation
without overproducing NADPH.
Recap of Patterns in Electron Flow
 Linear Electron Flow: Produces ATP, NADPH, and O₂ using
both PSII and PSI.
 Cyclic Electron Flow: Produces only ATP using PSI, without
the involvement of PSII or the production of NADPH and O₂.
Significant Events of
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle (also called the light-

independent reactions or C3 cycle) is the
second major stage of photosynthesis. It occurs in
the stroma of the chloroplast and uses the ATP
and NADPH produced in the light-dependent
reactions to synthesize glucose from carbon
dioxide (CO₂). The Calvin cycle doesn’t directly
require light, but it depends on the products of the
Overview of the
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle (also called the light-

independent reactions or C3 cycle) is the
second major stage of photosynthesis. It occurs in
the stroma of the chloroplast and uses the ATP
and NADPH produced in the light-dependent
reactions to synthesize glucose from carbon
dioxide (CO₂). The Calvin cycle doesn’t directly
require light, but it depends on the products of the
Overview of the
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle can be divided into

three main phases:
1.Carbon Fixation
2.Reduction
3.Regeneration of RuBP
Overview of the
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle can be divided into three main phases:

1.Carbon Fixation
 The Calvin cycle begins when CO₂ from the atmosphere is
attached to a five-carbon molecule called ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP). This reaction is catalyzed by the
enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase).
 The addition of CO₂ to RuBP forms an unstable six-carbon
compound, which quickly splits into two molecules of 3-
Overview of the
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle can be divided into three main phases:

2. Reduction
 Each 3-PGA molecule is phosphorylated by ATP and then
reduced by NADPH. This series of reactions converts each
3-PGA molecule into a three-carbon sugar called
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
 The ATP donates a phosphate group to convert 3-PGA into
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG), and NADPH donates
electrons to reduce 1,3-BPG to G3P.
Overview of the
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle can be divided into three main phases:

3. Regeneration of RuBP
 The remaining five molecules of G3P are used to regenerate RuBP
so the cycle can continue. This step requires ATP.
 The regeneration involves a series of complex reactions that
rearrange the carbon atoms from five molecules of G3P (each with
three carbons) to form three molecules of RuBP (each with five
carbons).
 ATP provides the energy needed to rearrange these molecules into
RuBP.
Key Points of the
Calvin Cycle

1.Inputs: The Calvin cycle uses 3 molecules of CO₂, 9 molecules

of ATP, and 6 molecules of NADPH per cycle to produce one net
molecule of G3P. Remember, each G3P molecule contains three
carbon atoms, so two G3P molecules are needed to form one
glucose molecule.
2.Outputs: The Calvin cycle produces G3P as the main product. G3P
can be used to synthesize glucose, starch, cellulose, and other
organic molecules necessary for plant growth.
3.Recycling of Reactants: RuBP is regenerated in the cycle to allow
continuous carbon fixation, maintaining the cyclical nature of the
process.
Summary of Key Events
in Each Phase

1.Carbon Fixation:
oCO₂ is fixed to RuBP by RuBisCO.
oProduces 3-PGA.
2.Reduction:
oATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-PGA into G3P.
oProduces G3P, which is a sugar that can be used for carbohydrate
production.
3.Regeneration of RuBP:
oATP is used to regenerate RuBP from G3P.
oAllows the cycle to continue and fix more CO₂.
Balance Equations of
the Calvin Cycle

To synthesize one molecule of glucose, the Calvin

cycle must turn six times because each turn fixes one
CO₂ molecule. The balanced equation for producing one
glucose molecule is as follows:
6CO2+18ATP+12NADPH+H2O→C6H12O6+18ADP+18Pi
+12NADP+6CO_2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH + H_2O →
C_6H_{12}O_6 + 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP^+6CO2​
+18ATP+12NADPH+H2​O→C6​H12​O6​
+18ADP+18Pi+12NADP+
Importance of the
Calvin Cycle

 Carbon Fixation: The Calvin cycle is responsible for fixing

carbon from CO₂ into an organic form, which is crucial for
sustaining life on Earth.
 Energy Storage: The cycle produces G3P, which can be
used to form glucose and other carbohydrates. These
molecules serve as energy storage compounds and building
blocks for other organic molecules.
 Regeneration of RuBP: The cycle efficiently regenerates
RuBP, allowing for continuous CO₂ fixation and glucose
production.
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration are

two types of cellular respiration that
organisms use to generate energy in the
form of ATP. Both processes break down
glucose to produce ATP but differ in their
oxygen requirements, byproducts, and
energy yield.
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
1. Oxygen Requirement
 Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen (O₂) to proceed. It uses oxygen
as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
 Anaerobic Respiration: Does not require oxygen. It uses an alternative
molecule as the final electron acceptor (e.g., nitrate, sulfate, or carbon
dioxide), or relies on fermentation pathways.
2. Location in Cells
 Aerobic Respiration: Takes place in the mitochondria (specifically in
the matrix and inner membrane).
 Anaerobic Respiration: Occurs in the cytoplasm of cells since the
process does not involve mitochondria.
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
3. Stages Involved
 Aerobic Respiration:
oGlycolysis (cytoplasm)
oPyruvate Oxidation (mitochondrial matrix)
oCitric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) (mitochondrial matrix)
oOxidative Phosphorylation (inner mitochondrial membrane,
including the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis)
 Anaerobic Respiration:
oGlycolysis (cytoplasm)
Fermentation pathways (e.g., lactic acid fermentation or alcohol
fermentation) or an anaerobic electron transport chain (if an alternative
electron acceptor is used, as in some bacteria).
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
4. Final Electron Acceptor
 Aerobic Respiration: Oxygen (O₂) acts as the final electron
acceptor, forming water (H₂O).
 Anaerobic Respiration: Depends on the organism. It can be:
oLactic Acid Fermentation: No external electron acceptor;
pyruvate is converted into lactic acid.
oAlcohol Fermentation: Acetaldehyde acts as an electron
acceptor, forming ethanol and CO₂.
oAnaerobic Bacteria: Use inorganic molecules like nitrate
(NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻), or carbon dioxide (CO₂) as the final
electron acceptors.
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
5. End Products
 Aerobic Respiration: Produces carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
water (H₂O) as waste products.
 Anaerobic Respiration:
oLactic Acid Fermentation: Produces lactic acid (lactate) as a
waste product (e.g., in muscle cells).
oAlcohol Fermentation: Produces ethanol and carbon
dioxide (CO₂) (e.g., in yeast).
oOther Anaerobic Pathways: Produce different end products
depending on the electron acceptor used (e.g., methane in
methanogenic bacteria).
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
6. Energy Yield (ATP Production)
 Aerobic Respiration: High energy yield. Produces a net
total of about 36–38 ATP molecules per molecule of
glucose.
oGlycolysis: 2 ATP
oCitric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport Chain: 34–36 ATP
 Anaerobic Respiration: Low energy yield. Produces only 2
ATP molecules per molecule of glucose (from glycolysis).
oNo additional ATP is generated in fermentation or
anaerobic pathways, making it far less efficient.
Differentiate Aerobic
from Anaerobic
Respiration
7. Organisms That Use Each Pathway
 Aerobic Respiration: Most eukaryotic organisms, including humans,
animals, plants, and many bacteria, rely primarily on aerobic respiration when
oxygen is available.
 Anaerobic Respiration: Some prokaryotes (e.g., certain bacteria) and
eukaryotes (e.g., muscle cells under low oxygen conditions) can perform
anaerobic respiration. Yeast and some bacteria primarily perform
fermentation.
8. Efficiency and Complexity
 Aerobic Respiration: More complex due to multiple stages (Krebs cycle,
electron transport chain, etc.) and involves highly efficient ATP production.
 Anaerobic Respiration: Simpler and less efficient. Glycolysis alone
produces ATP, and additional fermentation steps help regenerate NAD⁺.
Summary of Differences

Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen Requirement Requires oxygen (O₂). Does not require oxygen.

Mitochondria (cytoplasm for
Location Cytoplasm.
glycolysis).
Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Glycolysis, Fermentation (lactic
Stages
Krebs Cycle, ETC. acid or alcohol).
Pyruvate (fermentation) or other
Final Electron Acceptor Oxygen (O₂).
molecules.
Lactic acid or ethanol, CO₂, and
End Products CO₂, H₂O, and ATP.
ATP.
ATP Yield per Glucose 36–38 ATP. 2 ATP.
Most eukaryotes, some Some bacteria, yeast, muscle
Organisms
prokaryotes. cells, and some fungi.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Cellular respiration is a multi-step process that cells
use to convert glucose and oxygen into ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary
energy currency of cells. This process occurs in
three major stages: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle
(Citric Acid Cycle), and Oxidative
Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and
Chemiosmosis). These stages can be divided into
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration

1. Glycolysis (Occurs in the

Cytoplasm)
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular
respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm. It
does not require oxygen and breaks down
one molecule of glucose (6-carbons) into
two molecules of pyruvate (3-carbons
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Key Chemical Events of Glycolysis
1.Energy Investment Phase:
o Glucose phosphorylation: A molecule of glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate.
o Fructose-6-phosphate formation: Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged into fructose-6-phosphate.
o Second phosphorylation: Another ATP molecule is used to convert fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate.
2.Cleavage Phase:
o Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into two three-carbon sugars called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). DHAP is then converted to G3P, so two G3P molecules are produced
per glucose.
3.Energy Payoff Phase:
o Each G3P molecule undergoes a series of reactions, producing:
 2 NADH molecules (one per G3P).
 4 ATP molecules (two per G3P).
o The final products of glycolysis are 2 pyruvate molecules, 2 NADH, and a net gain of 2 ATP.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration

2. Pyruvate Oxidation (Occurs in

the Mitochondrial Matrix)
Before entering the Krebs Cycle, each
pyruvate molecule is converted into
acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial
matrix .
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Key Chemical Events of Pyruvate Oxidation
 Each pyruvate (3-carbons) loses a carbon as CO₂
in a process called decarboxylation.
 The remaining two-carbon molecule (acetyl
group) is combined with a coenzyme called CoA,
forming acetyl-CoA.
 NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH during this process.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration

3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

(Occurs in the Mitochondrial Matrix)
The Krebs Cycle occurs in the
mitochondrial matrix and involves a
series of eight steps that complete the
breakdown of glucose by oxidizing acetyl-
CoA. .
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Key Chemical Events of the Krebs Cycle
1.Formation of Citrate:
o Acetyl-CoA (2-carbons) combines with oxaloacetate (4-carbons) to form a 6-carbon citrate.
2.Isomerization and Decarboxylation:
o Citrate is rearranged to form isocitrate.
o Isocitrate undergoes decarboxylation, releasing CO₂ and producing α-ketoglutarate (5-carbons). During this
step, NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH.
3.Further Decarboxylation:
o α-Ketoglutarate loses another carbon as CO₂, producing a 4-carbon molecule called succinyl-CoA. Another NAD⁺
is reduced to NADH.
o Succinyl-CoA is converted into succinate and a molecule of GTP (which is readily converted to ATP) is produced.
4.Regeneration of Oxaloacetate:
o Succinate is converted into fumarate, generating FADH₂ in the process.
o Fumarate is then converted into malate.
o Malate is finally oxidized to oxaloacetate, producing another NADH.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Summary of Products for One Turn of the Krebs
Cycle (per acetyl-CoA):
 3 NADH
 1 FADH₂
 1 ATP (or GTP)
 2 CO₂
Since two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the cycle per glucose
molecule, these totals double for each glucose.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation (Occurs in
the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane)
Oxidative phosphorylation consists of two main
components: the Electron Transport Chain
(ETC) and Chemiosmosis. This stage is
responsible for producing the majority of the
ATP generated in cellular respiration.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Key Chemical Events of Oxidative Phosphorylation
1.Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
o NADH and FADH₂ donate their electrons to protein complexes in the ETC embedded in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
o As electrons pass through the ETC, they move from higher energy to lower energy levels, releasing energy in
each step.
o The energy released is used to pump protons (H⁺) from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane
space, creating a proton gradient.
2.Chemiosmosis:
o The proton gradient generates a difference in proton concentration and electrical charge across the membrane,
known as the proton-motive force.
o Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase, a specialized enzyme that uses this flow to produce
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
3.Oxygen as the Final Electron Acceptor:
o At the end of the ETC, electrons combine with protons (H⁺) and oxygen (O₂) to form water (H₂O).
o This is why aerobic respiration requires oxygen and why it is called "oxidative" phosphorylation.
The Major Features And
Sequence The Chemical
Events Of Cellular
Respiration
Summary of ATP Production:
 Each NADH contributes to the formation of about 2.5 ATP.
 Each FADH₂ contributes to the formation of about 1.5 ATP.
 The total ATP yield from one molecule of glucose is about 30-32 ATP in aerobic respiration.
Summary of the Major Features and Chemical Events of Cellular Respiration
1.Glycolysis: Glucose → 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
2.Pyruvate Oxidation: 2 Pyruvate → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 CO₂ + 2 NADH
3.Krebs Cycle: 2 Acetyl-CoA → 4 CO₂ + 2 ATP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH₂
4.Oxidative Phosphorylation: 10 NADH + 2 FADH₂ → 28 ATP (using the ETC and Chemiosmosis)
Final Total ATP Yield
 Glycolysis: 2 ATP (net) + 2 NADH
 Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH₂
 Oxidative Phosphorylation: ~28 ATP (from 10 NADH and 2 FADH₂)
 Total ATP Yield: Approximately 30-32 ATP per glucose molecule (the exact yield varies slightly depending on cell
type and conditions).
Distinguish Major Features of
Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle,
Electron Transport, and
Chemiosmosis
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
 Location: Mitochondrial Matrix
 Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (indirectly dependent on oxygen for the re-oxidation of
NADH and FADH₂)
 Starting Molecule: Acetyl-CoA (derived from pyruvate during pyruvate oxidation)
 Key Events:
o Citrate Formation: Acetyl-CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate
(6C).
o Decarboxylation: Citrate is progressively oxidized and decarboxylated, releasing 2
molecules of CO₂.
o Reductions: The cycle produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH₂ per acetyl-CoA.
o ATP Production: One ATP (or GTP) is produced per cycle turn.
 End Products (per cycle/acetyl-CoA): 2 CO₂, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, and 1 ATP.
 Purpose: To fully oxidize acetyl-CoA into CO₂, generate high-energy electron carriers
(NADH and FADH₂), and produce a small amount of ATP.
Distinguish Major Features of
Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle,
Electron Transport, and
Chemiosmosis
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 Location: Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
 Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor)
 Starting Molecules: NADH and FADH₂ (electron carriers)
 Key Events:
o Electron Transfer: Electrons are passed from NADH and FADH₂ through a series of
protein complexes (Complex I, II, III, and IV).
o Proton Pumping: As electrons pass through the complexes, protons (H⁺) are pumped
from the matrix into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.
o Oxygen as Final Electron Acceptor: At the end of the ETC, electrons combine with
protons and oxygen to form water (H₂O).
 End Products: Water (H₂O), proton gradient, and ATP via chemiosmosis.
 Purpose: To create a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane by
transferring electrons through a chain of proteins, with oxygen acting as the final electron
acceptor.
Distinguish Major Features of
Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle,
Electron Transport, and
Chemiosmosis
4. Chemiosmosis
 Location: Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
 Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (depends on the proton gradient generated by the
ETC, which requires oxygen)
 Starting Molecule: Proton Gradient (H⁺ gradient across the inner membrane)
 Key Events:
o ATP Synthase Activity: Protons (H⁺) flow down their gradient from the
intermembrane space into the matrix through a protein channel called ATP
synthase.
o ATP Production: The energy released by this proton flow drives the conversion of
ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP.
 End Products: ATP (approximately 28-30 molecules per glucose molecule).
 Purpose: To use the energy stored in the proton gradient to synthesize ATP through
the enzyme ATP synthase.
Summary of the Major
Features

Electron Transport
Feature Glycolysis Krebs Cycle Chemiosmosis
Chain (ETC)

Inner mitochondrial Inner mitochondrial

Location Cytoplasm Mitochondrial matrix
membrane membrane

Oxygen Anaerobic (no oxygen Aerobic (indirectly Aerobic (depends on

Aerobic (requires O₂)
Requirement required) requires O₂) proton gradient)

Starting Molecule Glucose Acetyl-CoA NADH and FADH₂ Proton gradient

Glucose breakdown to Complete oxidation of Electron transport and Proton flow through
Key Events
pyruvate acetyl-CoA proton pumping ATP synthase

2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 CO₂, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, Water (H₂O), proton ATP (28-30 molecules
End Products
pyruvate 1 ATP (per turn) gradient per glucose)

To produce ATP and To generate NADH, To create a proton To produce ATP using
Purpose
NADH from glucose FADH₂, and ATP gradient the gradient
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a key molecule
involved in many cellular processes. Reactions
that produce ATP are typically referred to as
ATP-generating reactions, while reactions
that consume ATP are ATP-utilizing
reactions. Let’s dive into each of these in the
context of cellular respiration and other
cellular processes.
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
Reactions That Produce ATP
1.Glycolysis:
oSubstrate-Level Phosphorylation: During glycolysis, ATP is
produced directly through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Phosphoglycerate Kinase Reaction: Converts 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate, producing 1
ATP.
Pyruvate Kinase Reaction: Converts
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate, producing 1
ATP.
oTotal ATP Production in Glycolysis: 4 ATP (net gain of 2 ATP due
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle):
oSubstrate-Level Phosphorylation: ATP (or
GTP) is generated directly in one step of the
Krebs Cycle.
Succinyl-CoA Synthetase Reaction:
Converts succinyl-CoA to succinate,
producing 1 ATP (or GTP) per turn of the
cycle.
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation:
oElectron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis: The main ATP
production occurs through oxidative phosphorylation, driven by the
flow of electrons through the ETC and the formation of a proton
gradient.
The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) pumps protons into the
intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.
During Chemiosmosis, protons flow back into the mitochondrial
matrix through ATP Synthase, which uses the energy of this flow to
convert ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP.
oTotal ATP Production: Approximately 28-30 ATP molecules per
glucose.
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
Reactions That Consume ATP
1.Glycolysis:
oHexokinase Reaction: In the first step of glycolysis,
glucose is phosphorylated to form glucose-6-
phosphate using 1 ATP.
oPhosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) Reaction: In a key
regulatory step of glycolysis, fructose-6-phosphate
is phosphorylated to form fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate using 1 ATP.
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
2. Active Transport:
oSodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase): This pump uses 1 ATP to
move 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell against their
concentration gradients.
oCalcium Pumps (Ca²⁺-ATPase): ATP is consumed to transport calcium
ions (Ca²⁺) out of the cell or into organelles like the sarcoplasmic
reticulum in muscle cells.
3. Muscle Contraction:
oCross-Bridge Cycling: During muscle contraction, ATP binds to myosin,
allowing the release of the actin filament. ATP hydrolysis provides energy
for the myosin head to reset and prepare for the next contraction cycle.
oCalcium Removal: After a contraction, ATP is consumed to pump calcium
ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, stopping the contraction.
Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
4. Biosynthetic Pathways:
oProtein Synthesis: ATP is consumed during the activation of tRNA
molecules and in steps of elongation and translocation in the ribosome.
oNucleic Acid Synthesis: ATP is used to add nucleotides during DNA
replication and transcription. It’s also involved in capping and
polyadenylation during RNA processing.
oLipid and Carbohydrate Synthesis: ATP is needed in various anabolic
pathways, such as fatty acid synthesis and the formation of complex
carbohydrates like glycogen.
5. Signal Transduction:
oPhosphorylation Cascades: ATP is consumed in kinase reactions that
add a phosphate group to proteins, activating or deactivating them in
signaling pathways (e.g., MAP kinase pathway).
Summary of ATP-
Producing and ATP-
Consuming Reactions
Process ATP Produced ATP Consumed

2 ATP in the initial phosphorylation

Glycolysis 4 ATP (2 net gain)
steps

Krebs Cycle 1 ATP (or GTP) per cycle None directly in the cycle

Oxidative Phosphorylation 28-30 ATP per glucose None directly

Active Transport (Na⁺/K⁺

None 1 ATP per cycle
Pump, Ca²⁺ Pump)
ATP for cross-bridge cycling and
Muscle Contraction None directly
Ca²⁺ transport

Biosynthesis None directly ATP for building macromolecules

Signal Transduction None directly ATP for protein phosphorylation

Reactions that
Produced and
Consumed ATP
Key Points to Remember:
 ATP-Producing Reactions include substrate-level
phosphorylation in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, as well
as oxidative phosphorylation during the ETC and
chemiosmosis.
 ATP-Consuming Reactions include initial steps in
glycolysis, active transport processes (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump),
biosynthetic pathways (e.g., protein and nucleic acid
synthesis), muscle contraction, and phosphorylation events
in signal transduction pathways.
The Role of Oxygen in
Respiration and Pathways of
Electron Flow in the Absence
of Oxygen

Oxygen plays a critical role in cellular

respiration, particularly in the final stage
known as oxidative phosphorylation. Its
presence or absence greatly influences
how cells generate ATP. Here’s a
breakdown of oxygen’s role and what
happens when it’s not available:
Role of Oxygen in
Cellular Respiration

1.Final Electron Acceptor: Oxygen serves as the final

electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain
(ETC) during aerobic respiration. At the end of the ETC,
electrons from NADH and FADH₂ are transferred to oxygen,
which combines with protons (H⁺) to form water (H₂O). This
process is crucial because:
oIt prevents the buildup of electrons in the ETC, ensuring
continuous electron flow and ATP production.
oIt allows the regeneration of NAD⁺ and FAD, which are
essential for glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle to proceed.
Role of Oxygen in
Cellular Respiration

2. Maintaining the Proton Gradient: Oxygen’s role

in accepting electrons helps maintain the proton
gradient across the inner mitochondrial
membrane. The proton gradient drives ATP
synthase to produce ATP via chemiosmosis.
3. Energy Yield: Aerobic respiration yields the
maximum amount of ATP (about 30-32 ATP molecules
per glucose) due to the complete oxidation of glucose
when oxygen is present.
Pathways of Electron
Flow in the Absence of
Oxygen
When oxygen is unavailable, cells switch to
anaerobic pathways to produce ATP. This
includes anaerobic respiration (in
organisms capable of it) and
fermentation. These processes allow
cells to continue generating ATP, though at
much lower efficiency compared to aerobic
Pathways of Electron
Flow in the Absence of
Oxygen
1. Fermentation
 Occurs in the Cytoplasm.
 Involves only glycolysis followed by reactions to regenerate NAD⁺.
 Produces ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Fermentation pathways include:
a. Lactic Acid Fermentation:
 Location: Muscle cells in animals and certain bacteria.
 Key Events:
o After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate (lactic acid) by the enzyme
lactate dehydrogenase.
o NADH donates its electrons to pyruvate, regenerating NAD⁺.
 Purpose: To regenerate NAD⁺, allowing glycolysis to continue producing 2 ATP per
glucose molecule.
 Example: Occurs in muscle cells during vigorous exercise when oxygen supply is
insufficient.
Pathways of Electron
Flow in the Absence of
Oxygen
b. Alcoholic Fermentation:
 Location: Yeasts and some types of bacteria.
 Key Events:
oPyruvate is first decarboxylated to form acetaldehyde and
CO₂.
oAcetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by alcohol
dehydrogenase, using electrons from NADH.
oThis process regenerates NAD⁺ for glycolysis.
 Purpose: To regenerate NAD⁺, enabling glycolysis to continue
generating 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
 Example: Used in brewing, winemaking, and bread-making
Pathways of Electron
Flow in the Absence of
Oxygen
2. Anaerobic Respiration
 Occurs in Some Bacteria and Archaea.
 Similar to aerobic respiration, but does not use oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
 Alternative Electron Acceptors: Sulfate (SO₄²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), or other molecules.
Key Features:
 Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport chain similar to the ETC in aerobic
respiration.
 Instead of oxygen, it employs inorganic molecules like nitrate (NO₃⁻) or sulfate
(SO₄²⁻) as final electron acceptors. For example:
o Nitrate Reduction: In bacteria such as E. coli, nitrate (NO₃⁻) can accept electrons to
form nitrite (NO₂⁻) or nitrogen gas (N₂).
o Sulfate Reduction: In sulfate-reducing bacteria, sulfate (SO₄²⁻) can accept
electrons, producing hydrogen sulfide (H₂S).
 Yields less ATP compared to aerobic respiration but more than fermentation.
Summary of Electron
Flow Pathways

 In Aerobic Respiration:
oElectrons from NADH and FADH₂ are passed through the Electron
Transport Chain and finally accepted by oxygen, forming water.
This process maintains a proton gradient and drives ATP synthesis
via chemiosmosis.
 In the Absence of Oxygen:
oFermentation (lactic acid or alcoholic) occurs, where NADH
donates electrons to an organic molecule (e.g., pyruvate or
acetaldehyde) to regenerate NAD⁺.
oAnaerobic Respiration occurs in certain microorganisms using
alternative electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate or sulfate) in an ETC-like
pathway.
Summary of Electron
Flow Pathways

Key Differences Between Pathways with and without Oxygen

Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation

Organic molecule (e.g.,

Final Electron Nitrate, Sulfate, or other
Oxygen (O₂) pyruvate or
Acceptor inorganic ions
acetaldehyde)
Cytoplasm or specific
Location Mitochondria Cytoplasm
bacteria membranes

High (30-32 ATP per Moderate (depends on

ATP Yield Low (2 ATP per glucose)
glucose) the efficiency)

Electron Transport Chain Electron Transport Chain

Main ATP Production Glycolysis
& Chemiosmosis & Chemiosmosis

NADH and FADH₂ pass NADH and FADH₂ pass NADH donates electrons
Electron Carriers
electrons to the ETC electrons to the ETC to an organic molecule
The Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Fermentation and Aerobic
Respiration
Fermentation and aerobic respiration are two different
pathways that cells use to generate ATP. Each pathway has
its advantages and disadvantages depending on the
environmental conditions, energy needs, and cell types.
Aerobic Respiration
 Definition: Aerobic respiration is the process in which
cells produce ATP by completely oxidizing glucose in the
presence of oxygen. It involves glycolysis, the Krebs
cycle, and the electron transport chain (ETC).
Advantages of
Aerobic
Respiration
1.High Energy Yield:
oAerobic respiration produces a large amount of ATP
(about 30-32 ATP molecules per glucose molecule).
This high yield is crucial for cells with high energy
demands, such as muscle and brain cells.
2.Efficient Utilization of Glucose:
oComplete oxidation of glucose in aerobic respiration
releases all of its potential energy, producing CO₂ and
water as waste products. This maximizes the extraction
of energy from glucose.
Advantages of
Aerobic
Respiration
3. Supports Complex Organisms:
oThe efficiency of ATP production in aerobic respiration
supports the energy needs of large and complex
multicellular organisms, allowing them to maintain
functions like homeostasis, growth, and movement.
4. Detoxification of Harmful Byproducts:
oBy completely oxidizing substrates to carbon dioxide
and water, aerobic respiration prevents the
accumulation of potentially toxic intermediates, which
can occur in anaerobic conditions.
Disadvantages of
Aerobic
Respiration
1.Dependence on Oxygen:
oAerobic respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen. Without oxygen,
the ETC cannot function, causing ATP production to halt and leading to a
reliance on less efficient anaerobic pathways.
2.Time-Consuming Process:
oThe full aerobic respiration cycle, including the Krebs cycle and ETC,
involves numerous steps and reactions. It is slower compared to the simpler
fermentation pathway, which generates ATP more quickly.
3.Requirement for Mitochondria:
oAerobic respiration depends on the presence of mitochondria in eukaryotic
cells, limiting its effectiveness in prokaryotic organisms or cells lacking
properly functioning mitochondria.
Fermentation

Definition: Fermentation is an anaerobic

process in which cells produce ATP without
using oxygen. It involves glycolysis
followed by the conversion of pyruvate to
lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or
ethanol and CO₂ (alcoholic fermentation).
Advantages of
Fermentation
1.Oxygen-Independent:
oFermentation can occur in the absence of oxygen, making it suitable for
anaerobic environments or situations where oxygen supply is limited, such
as in muscle cells during intense exercise.
2.Rapid ATP Production:
oFermentation is a simpler and faster process than aerobic respiration.
Glycolysis, which is common to both pathways, can rapidly generate 2 ATP
per glucose molecule, providing a quick but limited source of energy.
3.Survival Mechanism:
oFermentation allows certain organisms (e.g., bacteria and yeasts) and
tissues (e.g., muscle cells) to survive in low-oxygen conditions. For
example, during intense exercise, muscles use lactic acid fermentation to
continue ATP production.
Disadvantages of
Fermentation
1.Low Energy Yield:
oFermentation yields only 2 ATP per glucose, which is much
lower than the 30-32 ATP generated by aerobic respiration. As
a result, cells must consume large amounts of glucose to
meet their energy needs in anaerobic conditions.
2.Production of Toxic Byproducts:
oFermentation produces lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol
(in yeasts), which can be toxic in high concentrations. Lactic
acid buildup in muscles leads to fatigue and soreness, while
high ethanol levels can be harmful to cells.
Disadvantages of
Fermentation
3. Inefficient Use of Glucose:
oSince glucose is not fully oxidized, much of its energy
remains trapped in the end products (lactic acid or
ethanol), making fermentation an inefficient way to extract
energy.
4. Limited to Simple Organisms:
oMost complex, multicellular organisms rely primarily on
aerobic respiration for their energy needs. Fermentation is
sufficient for single-celled organisms or cells in
emergency situations but not for sustaining complex life
Summary Table of
Advantages and
Disadvantages
Pathway Advantages Disadvantages

- High energy yield (30-32

ATP per glucose).
- Requires oxygen supply.
- Efficient use of glucose.
- Takes longer to complete.
Aerobic Respiration - Supports complex life forms.
- Needs mitochondria for
efficiency.
- Detoxifies byproducts into
CO₂ and H₂O.
- Can occur without oxygen. - Low energy yield (2 ATP per
- Quick ATP production (2 ATP glucose).
Fermentation per glucose). - Produces toxic byproducts.
- Useful in low-oxygen - Inefficient glucose
conditions. utilization.
The Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Fermentation and Aerobic
Respiration

Final Thoughts:
 Aerobic respiration is advantageous in high-
energy demand scenarios and supports
complex organisms, while fermentation is
beneficial for rapid energy needs and
anaerobic conditions. However, its low
efficiency and byproduct toxicity make it a
temporary or emergency pathway.
4. The power of green

Thank
You!