Metal Forming

MP-II
UET Taxila
Metal Forming and Sheet Metal Working

 Plastic deformation to change the shape

Classification of Metal Forming

 Stresses may be compressive, tensile,

shear or combination of these.
 Low yield strength and high

ductility is required in work

piece. Temperature is used to
assist these processes.
Bulk Deformation

 Significant deformations and massive shape

Sheet Metal Working

 Forming and cutting operations performed on

metal sheets, strips, and coils. However,
surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting
Sheet Metal Working
 A part produced in a sheet metal
operation is often called a stamping.
 Sheet metal operations are always
performed as cold working processes and
are usually accomplished using a set of
tools called a punch and die.
Flow Stress
 Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous
value of stress required to continue deforming
the material— to keep the metal ‘‘flowing.’’
 It is the yield strength of the metal as a
function of strain, which can be expressed:
n
Y f  K
 For example: In forging operations,
the instantaneous force during
compression can be determined from
the flow stress value.
Flow Stress
 Average Flow Stress
 OR mean flow stress is determined by integrating
the flow curve equation between zero and the
final strain value defining the range of interest.
This yields the equation
n
K
Y f 
1 n
 The average flow stress is extensively used in
study of the bulk deformation processes. But we
need given values of K and n for the work
material and required
K =final straincoefficient,
the strength for eachMPa (lb/in ); and n is
2

process. the strain-hardening exponent.

Strain Rate Sensitivity
 The rate at which the metal is strained in
a forming process is directly related to the
speed of deformation, v.
 In forming operations, deformation speed
is equal to the velocity of the ram or other
moving element of the equipment.
 έ =v/h , Where έ is the strain rate in m/s/m or
s-1 and ‘h’ is the instantaneous height of
the workpiece to be deformed.
Strain Rate Sensitivity
 Flow stress also depends on the strain
rate.

Replot log
scale
Strain Rate Sensitivity
 From the second curve we get
Yf=Cέ
m
 That is called the strain rate sensitivity
equation.
 Here, Yf=flow stress,
 C=strength constant, its value is
determined at a strain rate of 1.0,
 M= strain rate sensitivity exponent, which
is the slope of the curve.
Strain Rate Sensitivity: Effect of Temperature

 At room temperature, the effect of strain

rate is almost negligible, indicating that
the flow curve is a good representation of
the
material behavior.
 As temperature is increased, strain
rate plays a more important role in
determining the flow stress.
Strain Rate Sensitivity
Temperature in Metal Forming
Temperatur
e ranges

Cold Warm
Hot Working
Working Working
 Cold working is metal forming performed at room
temperature or slightly above.
 Warm Working, to facilitate the forming operations,
temperatures somewhat above room temperature
but below the recrystallization temperature are used.
 The deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature are covered in hot
working.
 Isothermal Forming, where forming equipment is at
Cold Working: Features
 Greater accuracy, meaning closer tolerances
can be achieved
 Better surface finish
 Higher strength and hardness of the part due
to strain hardening
 Grain flow during deformation provides the
opportunity for desirable directional properties
to be obtained in the resulting product
 Savings on furnace and fuel equipment costs,
hence permits higher production rates.
 Net shape or near net shape processes are
facilitated
Cold Working: Disadvantages
 Higher forces and power are required to
perform the operation
 Care must be taken to ensure that the
surfaces of the starting work piece are
free of scale and dirt
 Ductility and strain hardening of the work
metal limit the amount of forming that can
be done to the part.
 In some operations, the metal must be
annealed in order to allow further
deformation to be accomplished.
Metal Working at Elevated Temperatures

 To overcome the strain-hardening problem

and reduce force and power requirements,
many forming operations are performed at
elevated temperatures.
 Warm Working
 The dividing line between cold working and
warm working is usually taken to be 0.3 Tm,
where Tm is the melting pint of the metal.
 (1) Lower forces and power required, (2)
more intricate work geometries possible, and
(3) need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated.
Hot Working
 Hot working involves deformation at temperatures above
the recrystallization temperature. The recrystallization
temperature for a given metal is about one-half of its
melting point on the absolute scale.
 In hot working temperatures are usually maintained
within the range 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm
Hot Working: Advantages
 The capability to produce substantial plastic
deformation of the metal—greater than the cold
working or warm working.
 The shape of the workpart can be significantly
altered
 Lower forces and power are required to deform the
metal
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed
 Strength properties are generally isotropic because
of the absence of the oriented grain structure
typically created in cold working
 No strengthening of the part occurs from work
Hot Working: Disadvantages
 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the work piece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale)
 Surface finish is poor than cold working
 Shorter tool life
Isothermal Forming
 Materials (e.g. super alloys) with high hot hardness
are difficult to be formed by conventional hot
working methods
 Due to the relatively cold state of forming tools,
heat transfer is quick in those surfaces resulting in
strength variations in different regions of the
workpiece, leading to high residual stresses and
possible surface cracking.

 Isothermal forming is introduced to eliminate the

thermal gradients. It is accomplished by preheating
the tools that come in contact with the part to the
same temperature as the work metal. Mostly used
in forging.
Isothermal Forging:
Applications

 Used to forge aircraft engine disks of titanium and nickel

alloys, and more recently to forge turbine blades of
titanium aluminides (TiAl).
Friction in Metal Working
Friction is undesirable for the following reasons:
 Metal flow in the work is retarded, causing residual

stresses and sometimes defects in the product

 Forces and power to perform the operation are increased

 Tool wear can lead to loss of dimensional accuracy,

resulting in defective parts and requiring replacement of

the tooling.
 Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working.
Friction in Metal Working
 The metal forming involves high temperatures
resulting in relatively high coefficients of
friction.
 Sticking in metalworking (also called sticking
friction) is the tendency for the two surfaces in
relative motion to adhere to each other rather
than slide.
 Sticking occurs in metal forming operations
and is a prominent problem in rolling.
 Lubricants are applied to reduce sticking,
forces, power, and tool wear; and better
surface finish on the product and removing
Problems
 The strength coefficient=550 MPa and strain hardening
exponent=0.22 for a certain metal. During a forming
operation, the final true strain that the metal
experiences=0.85.
 Determine the flow stress at this strain and the average
flow stress that the metal experienced during the
operation.
Problems
 A particular metal has a flow curve with parameters:
strength coefficient=35,000 lb/in2 and strain-hardening
exponent=0.26. A tensile specimen of the metal with
gage length=2.0 in is stretched to a length=3.3 in.
 Determine the flow stress at this new length and the
average flow stress that the metal has been subjected to
during deformation.
Problem
 The gage length of a tensile test specimen=150mm. It is
subjected to a tensile test in which the grips holding the
end of the test specimen are moved with a relative
velocity=0.1 m/s.
 Construct a plot of the strain rate as a function of length
as the specimen is pulled to a length=200 mm.
 CH19
Bulk Deformation Processes
 Rolling P(396) Groover

Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by compressive.


forces exerted by two opposing rolls. And Desired rolling temperature 1200°C,


From soaking, the ingot is moved to the rolling mill, where it is rolled into one of three


intermediate shapes called blooms, billets, or slabs.

Other products or
uses ?

Starting shape vs final Product

Rolling
Rolling
 Flat rolling, used to reduce the thickness
of a rectangular cross section. Shape
rolling, involved a square cross section
that is formed into a shape such as an I-
beam.
 Capital intensive
 Large quantities to be processed
 Mostly hot rolling
Flat Rolling

 In flat rolling, the work is squeezed

between two rolls so that its thickness is
reduced by an amount called the draft, or
reduction,d t  t
o f
When a series of rolling
d operations are used,

r reduction is taken as the

sum of the drafts divided
to by the original thickness.

 During rolling, increase in work width is

called spreading. The volume of metal
exiting the
t o worolls
Lo t fequals
w f L f the volume
entering.
Flat Rolling
 Before and after volume rates of material
flow must be the same, so the before and
after velocities can be related:
t o wo vo t f w f v f

 Where vo and vf are the entering and

exiting velocities of the work.
 Flat Rolling: Mechanics

 The rolls contact the

work along an arc
defined by the angle θ.
Each roll has radius R,
and its rotational
speed gives it a
surface velocity vr
 This velocity is greater
than the entering
speed vo of the work
and less than its
Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 There is one point along the arc where
work velocity equals roll velocity. This is
called the no-slip point, also known as the
neutral point.
 Amount of slip can be measured
by forward
v  v slip
f r
s
vr

The true strain experienced by the

work in rolling is based on t obefore and
  In
tf
Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 The true strain can be used to determine the average
flow stress, Yf K n
Y f 
1 n

 The average flow stress is used to compute estimates of

force and power in rolling.
 Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 The friction force on the entrance side is
greater, so that the net force pulls the
work through the rolls.
 There is a limit to the maximum possible
draft that can be accomplished in flat
rolling with a given coefficient of friction,
d max  2 R

In cold rolling, the value is around 0.1; in warm working, a typical value is around 0.2; and in hot
rolling, m is around 0.4
Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication,
work material, and working temperature. Hot rolling is
often characterized by a condition called sticking, in
which the hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the
contact arc.
 Given a coefficient of friction sufficient to perform rolling,
roll force ‘F’ required to maintain separation between the
two rolls can be computed by integrating the unit roll
pressure over the roll-work contact area.
l
F w pdL
0
Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 An approximation of the rolling force can be calculated by
using the average flow stress experienced by the work
material in the roll gap,

F Y f wL

 Contact length can be approximated by,

L  R( t o  t f )
Flat Rolling: Mechanics
 The torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming that
the roll force is centered on the work as it passes
between the rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of
one-half the contact length L.
T 0.5FL

 The power required to drive each roll is the product of

torque and angular velocity. If angular velocity is 2πN, the
power for each roll is 2πNT, and for two rolls

P 2NFL
Flat Rolling: Problem

 A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed

through a rolling mill with two powered rolls
each of radius=250 mm. The work thickness
is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a
roll speed of 50 rev/min.
 The work material has a flow curve defined by
K=275 MPa and n=0.15, and the coefficient of
friction between the rolls and the work is
assumed to be 0.12.
 Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit
the rolling operation to be accomplished. If
so, calculate the roll force, torque, and
 d=, L=?, ℇ=, ẏf=,,,
Shape Rolling
 the work is deformed into a contoured
cross section.
 I-beams, L-beams, U channels, round and
square bars, rods
 A square shape, requires a gradual
transformation through several rolls in
order to achieve the final cross section.
 Designing the sequence of intermediate
shapes and corresponding rolls is called
roll-pass design. This is done to avoid
warping, cracks in the rolled products.
Shape Rolling

Stages in shape rolling of an H-section. Several other

structural sections, such as channels and rails, also are
rolled by this process.
Rolling Mills
Forging

 Engine crankshafts, connecting rods, steel tools,

household cutlery gears, aircraft structural components,
and jet engine turbine parts
Forging Classification
 May be performed cold, warm or hot
 A forging machine that applies an impact
load is called a forging hammer, while one
that applies gradual pressure is called a
forging press.
 There are three types of forging
operations
Forging
Flashle
Open Impressi
ss
die on die
Forging
Forging Types
Introduction
 Forging is the working of metal into a useful
shape by hammering or pressing.

 The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive

blacksmith).

 Replacement of machinery occurred during

early the Industrial revolution.

 Forging machines are now capable of making

parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine rotor.

 Most forging operations are carried out hot,

although certain metals may be cold-forged.
Forging operations
Edging is used to shape the
ends of the bars and to
gather metal. The metal flow
is confined in the horizontal
direction but it is free to
flow laterally to fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce the

cross-sectional area of the
work-piece with concurrent
increase in length.

Piercing and punching are

used to produce holes in
metals.
Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area
of a portion of the stock. The metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fuller. i.e., forging
of connecting rod for an internal combustion
engine.

Fuller move fast and moves metal perpendicular to

the face
Fullers come in
different shapes
Forging operations
Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller
diameter (using concave dies).

Swaging is a special type of forging in which

metal is formed by a succession of rapid hammer
blows

Swaging at the ends, ready for next forming process

1. Open-Die Forging:
Ideal

 Involves compression of a workpart of cylindrical cross

section between two flat dies. This forging operation,
known as upsetting or upset forging, reduces the height
of the work and increases its diameter
Open-Die Forging:
Actual
Forging: Mechanics
 Under ideal conditions, homogeneous
deformation occurs between dies. The true
strain experienced by the work during the
processhocan be determined by
 In
h

 The force required to continue the compression

at any given height ‘h’ is;
F Y f A

 Force reaches a maximum value at the end of

the forging stroke, when both area and flow
Forging: Mechanics
 Barrelling effects are more significant as
the D/h ratio of the workpart increases,
due to the greater contact area at the
work–die interface.
 These factors cause the actual upsetting
force to be greater than predicted by flow
stress eq.
 As an approximation, we can apply a
F Kfactor
shape f Y f A for effects of the D/h ratio
and friction.
0.4 D
K f 1 
h
Open-Die Forging:
Practice
 Shapes generated by open-die operations are
simple; examples include shafts, disks, and
rings.
 Produces rough shape for subsequent forming
 In some applications, the dies have slightly
contoured surfaces that help to shape the
work.
 In addition, the work must often be
manipulated (e.g., rotating in steps) to effect
the desired shape change.
 An important contribution of open-die hot-
forging is that it creates a favorable grain flow
Open-Die Forging:
Operations
Forging operations
Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller
diameter (using concave dies).

Swaging is a special type of forging in which

metal is formed by a succession of rapid hammer
blows

Swaging at the ends, ready for next forming process

Problem
 A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a
cold upset forging operation. The starting
piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in
diameter. It is reduced in the operation to
a height of 36 mm.
 The work material has a flow curve
defined by K=350 MPa and n=0.17.
Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1.
 Determine the force as the process
begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm,
49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.
Load-Stroke Curve
2. Impression-Die Forging
2. Impression-Die Forging
 Or closed-die forging, is performed with dies
that contain the desired shape pattern (1/2
each).
 Forces in this process are significantly greater
and more difficult to analyze than in open-die
forging.
F Y f K f A

 A=projected area of the part including flash.

In hot forging, the appropriate value of Yf is
the yield strength of the metal at the elevated
temperature. Kf is the forging shape factor.
2. Impression-Die Forging
 Several forming steps are often required in impression-die
forging to transform the starting blank into the desired
final geometry. Separate cavities in the die are needed
for each step.
Impression-Die Forging
 For complex shapes, the value of flow stress may be
difficult because of the stress variations in various
sections of the part.
 The maximum force is reached at the end of the forging
stroke, when the projected area is greatest and friction is
maximum.
Impression-Die Forging
 The advantages of forging, compared to machining, are
 higher production rates
 conservation of metal
 greater strength
 favourable grain orientation

the grain flow in forging and

Precision Forging
 Improvements in the technology have
resulted in the capability to produce forgings
with thinner sections, more complex
geometries, closer tolerances, and the
virtual elimination of machining allowances.
 This is the subject of precision forging. For
example Al and Ti are processed by this
method.
 Depending on whether machining is
required to finish the part geometry,
precision forgings are properly classified as
near net shape or net shape processes.
Precision Forging
 Precision forging does not eliminate flash, although it
reduces it.
3. Flashless Forging
 Also termed a precision forging is a type of
closed-die forging in which the raw
workpiece is completely contained within
the die cavity during compression, and no
flash is formed.
 If the starting blank is too large, excessive
pressures may cause damage to the die or
press. If the blank is too small, the cavity
will not be filled.
 Al, Mg and their alloys in simple and
symmetrical shapes are processed.
3. Flashless Forging
Flashless Forging
 Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in
which fine details in the die are impressed into the top
and bottom surfaces of the workpart.
Forging Hammers, Presses & Dies
 Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)

• The work-piece is deformed between

two die halves which carry the
impressions of the desired final shape.
• The work-piece is deformed under
high pressure in a closed cavity.

Normally used for smaller components

• The process provide precision forging

with close dimensional tolerance.
• Closed dies are expensive.
 Closed-die forging operation

Flash is the excess metal, which

Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke for squirts out of the cavity as a thick
closed-die forging. ribbon of metal.
Functions of flash

The flash serves two purposes:

Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal.
Builds up high pressure to ensure that the
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

Remark: It is necessary to achieve complete filling of the forging cavity without

generating excessive pressures against the die that may cause it to fracture.
 Closed-die design
Usually the deformation in closed-die forging is very complex and the design of the
intermediate steps to make a final precision part requires considerable experience and
skill.

The design of a part for production by closed-die forging involves the prediction of

• work-piece volume and weight

• number of performing steps and their configuration

• flash dimensions in performing and finishing dies the load and energy requirement for
each forging operation, for example; the flow stress of the materials, the fictional
condition, the flow of the material in order to develop the optimum geometry for
the dies.
-Metal flow consists only of two basic types

• extrusion (flow parallel to the direction of

the die motion)
• upsetting ( flow perpendicular to the
direction of the die motion).
- However both types of metal flow can occur
simultaneously.
 Metal flow in forging
Finite element analysis was
originally developed to model the
elastic deformation of complex
structures but recently has been
extended to cover large plastic
deformation under real stress
system.

Finite element analysis of upsetting an

aluminium cylinder
 Die materials and properties
Required properties

• Thermal shock resistance

• Thermal fatigue resistance
Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr,
• High temperature strength
Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or cast
• High wear resistance iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding
or chromium plating are required to
• High toughness and ductility
improve die life)
• High hardenability
• High dimensional stability
during hardening
• High machinability Note:
1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small tools
and flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used in
presses and horizontal forging machines.
Die life can be increased by
1) Improving die materials such as using
composite die or
2) Using surface coating or self-lubricating
coatings
Ultra hard surface coatings

Ultra hard surface coating on die

surface is used to

• Improve die life.

• Reduce energy input.
• Reduce die-related uptime and
downtime.
• Reduce particulate emission from
lubricants.
 Die failures
Different types of die
failure

• Different parts of dies are liable to permanent deformation and wear

resulting from mechanical and thermal fatigue.
• Important factors: shape of the forging, die materials, how the workpiece is
heated, coating of die surface, the operating temperature (should not exceed
the annealing temperature).
Effect of forging on microstructure

grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c)
casting.

• The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the direction of the
deformation.
• The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure (revealed by etching). This
structure gives better mechanical properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps) lower
across the thickness.
• The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide finer grains compared to the
cast dendritic structure resulting in improved mechanical properties.
Crystallographic orientation of the grains

Castings Forgings

Cast iron
structure Fibre structure in
forged steels
Mainly epitaxial,
dendritic or Redistribution of grains
equiaxed grains in the working directions
Typical forging defects

• Incomplete die filling.

• Die misalignment.
• Forging laps.
• Incomplete forging penetration- should forge on the press.
• Micro structural differences resulting in pronounced property variation.
• Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and nickel.

• Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high

temperature stick on the dies.
• Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to high
compressive stress.
• Surface cracking, due to temperature differential
between surface and centre, or excessive working of
the surface at too low temperature.
• Microcracking, due to residual stress.
Typical forging defects

• Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin work-pieces. Therefore should
increase the thickness of the flash.
• Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the work-piece.
• Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.
Upset Forging
Head formation
 UPSET FORGING
l≤3d,,,, L>3d, ds<2d,,,, l outside<d
 Roll forging
Roll forging is a deformation process used to reduce the cross section of a cylindrical (or
rectangular) workpiece by passing it through a set of opposing rolls that have grooves matching
the desired shape of the final part

Why not rolling?

Orbital Forging
 the axis of the cone is inclined, only a small area of the work surface is compressed at
any moment. As the upper die revolves, the area under compression also revolves.
Swaging with and without a Mandrel

(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; note the increase in wall thickness in
the die gap. (b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the
tube depends on the mandrel diameter. (c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes
produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling (internal spiral grooves) in
small gun barrels can be made by this process.
 Swaging
• High-speed rotation of the spindle generates centrifugal force,
• which causes the matching die segments and backer blocks to separate.
• As the spindle rotates, however, the backer blocks encounter opposing rollers that
are mounted in a massive machine housing.
• To pass beneath these rollers, the dies must be squeezed tightly together.
• Once cleared, the dies can again separate and the cycle repeats.
• The power to sustain the rotary motion is usually supplied by an external motor
connected to a large, massive flywheel.
• The operator simply inserts a rod or tube between the dies and advances it during
the periods of die separation.
• The repeated closures squeeze the workpiece from a variety of angles (since the
parting line of the dies changes as the spindle rotates), reducing the diameter and
increasing the length.
• When the desired length has been swaged, the product is extracted from the
machine as the spindle continues to rotate,
 Swaging

• Swaging operations can also be used to form products with internal shapes, usually of
constant cross section.
• A tubular or closed-end workpiece is placed over a shaped mandrel and the assembly is
inserted between the rotating dies.
• As the dies reciprocate and rotate, they compress the exterior of the workpiece and
simultaneously force the interior to conform to the shape of the mandrel.
 Cold Forging
• Large quantities of products are now being made by
cold forging, a family of processes in which slugs of
material are squeezed into shaped die cavities to
produce finished parts of precise shape and size.
• Cold heading, illustrated schematically in Figure
19.4, is used for making enlarged sections on the
ends of rod or wire, such as the heads of nails, bolts,
rivets, or other fasteners.
• Two variations of the process are common. In the
sequence illustrated, a piece of rod is first sheared to
a preset length and then transferred to a holder-
ejector assembly.
 Cold Forging
• Heading punches then strike one or more blows on
the exposed end to perform the upsetting.
• If intermediate shapes are required, the piece is
transferred from station to station, or the various
heading punches sequentially rotate into position.
• When the heading is completed, the ejector stop
advances to expel the product.
 Hubbing
Hubbing is a deformation process in which a hardened steel form is pressed into a soft steel (or
other soft metal) block. The process is often used to make mold cavities for plastic molding and
die casting

Why not using die-making by machining?

Isothermal Forging/ Hot-Die Forging
Trimming
Extrusion

 Extrusion is a compression process in

which the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape.
Extrusion:
Advantages

 Variety of shapes are possible, especially

with hot extrusion
 Grain structure and strength properties
are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion
 Fairly close tolerances are possible,
especially in cold extrusion
 In some extrusion operations, little or no
wasted material is created.
Types of Extrusion
Extrusi
on
Indirec
Direct
t
 Cold, Warm and Hot extrusion
 Continuous or discrete process
Direct Extrusion

 The friction causes a substantial increase in

the ram force required. In hot extrusion, the
friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of
the billet. A dummy block is used to reduce
Direct Extrusion
Direct Extrusion:
Hollow Shapes and Tubes

 The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its

axis. This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to
the dummy block.

 Semi-hollow
x-sectional shapes
are also formed.
Indirect Extrusion
 Backward or reverse extrusion, the die is
mounted to the ram rather than at the
opposite end of the container.
 Materials flows opposite to the ram
movement.
Hot and Cold Extrusion
 Metals that are typically extruded hot
include aluminum, copper, magnesium,
zinc, tin, and their alloys.
 Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the
billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature.
 These same metals are sometimes
extruded cold. Steel alloys are usually
extruded hot, although the softer, more
ductile grades are sometimes cold
extruded (e.g., low carbon steels and
Advantages of Hot Extrusion
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal,
permitting more extreme size reductions and more
complex shapes to be achieved.
 Reduction of ram force, power
 increased ram speed,
 reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final product.
Cold Extrusion
 Cold extrusion and warm extrusion are
generally used to produce discrete parts,
often in finished (or near finished) form.
 Impact extrusion is an example.
Cold Extrusion:
Advantages

 increased strength due to strain hardening,

 Close tolerances
 Improved surface finish and absence of oxide layers
 High production rates.
 Cold extrusion at room temperature also eliminates the
need for heating the starting billet
Extrusion Analysis
 Extrusion ratio or reduction ratio
Ao
rx 
Af

 Where, rx =extrusion ratio; Ao=cross-

sectional area of the starting billet, mm2
(in2); and Af=final cross-sectional area of
the extruded section, mm2 (in2).

 The ratio applies for both direct and

Extrusion Analysis
 If ideal deformation occurs with no friction
and no redundant work, the true strain in
extrusion can be determined,
Ao
 In rx In
Af
 In the same conditions, the pressure applied
by the ram to compress the billet through the
die opening,
p Y f  Y f In rx

 But these equations underestimate the strain

Extrusion Analysis:
Friction Contribution

 In extrusion, friction exists between the

die and work. The following empirical
equation has been proposed for
estimating actual extrusion strain,
 x a  b In rx

 Where, ex=extrusion strain

and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are empirical
constants for a given die
angle.
Extrusion Analysis:
Die Angle
Extrusion Analysis
 The ram pressure to perform indirect
extrusion can be estimated as;
p Y f  x

 Where ‘Yf’ is calculated based on ideal

strain formula.

 Ram force in indirect extrusion is pressure

‘p’ multiplied by billet area Ao
F  pAo
Extrusion Analysis
 In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between
the container walls and the billet causes the ram
pressure to be greater than for indirect extrusion,
pc 4 L
p f Do2 OR pf 
pcDo L Do
4
 Where, pf=additional pressure required to
overcome friction, Mpa
 pc=pressure of the billet against the container
wall,
 µ=coefficient of friction at the container wall,
 πDoL=area of the interface between billet and
Extrusion Analysis
 As soon as force required to push the billet
into the container surface equals shear
strength of the work metal, sticking
occurs.
psDo L YsDo L

 Where Ys=shear yield strength, MPa

(lb/in2). If we assume that Ys=Yf/2, then pf
2L
reduces
p f Y f to the following
Do
Extrusion Analysis
 The following formula can be used to
compute ram pressure in direct extrusion
in actual conditions.
2L
p Y f ( x  )
Do

 2L/Do accounts for the additional pressure

due to friction at the container–billet
interface. ‘L’ is the portion of the billet
length remaining to be extruded, and Do is
the original diameter of the billet.
Extrusion Analysis
 Typical plots of ram pressure as a function
of ram stroke for direct and indirect
extrusion

 Power required to carry

out the extrusion operation
is given as;
p Fv

 Where, P=power, J/s,

Example Problem
 A billet 75mm long and 25mm in diameter
is to be extruded in a direct extrusion
operation with extrusion ratio rx=4.0. The
extrudate has a round cross section. The
die angle (half angle)=90.
 The work metal has a strength
coefficient=415 MPa, and strain-hardening
exponent=0.18. Use the Johnson formula
with a=0.8 and b=1.5 to estimate extrusion
strain.
 Determine the pressure applied to the end
of the billet as the ram moves forward.
Extrusion Equipment

 Horizontal hydraulic press with controlled

stroke and speed of the operation
 Hydraulic presses with a ram-force
capacity as high as 120 MN have been
built, particularly for hot extrusion of
large-diameter billets.

 Vertical hydraulic presses are used for

cold extrusion and have less capacity.
 Lower footprint
Wire and Bar Drawing

Copyright© 2008-2013 • World Technology Machinery

Extrusion Equipment
Extrusion Dies and Presses
 Die angle
 Orifice shape

 The optimum angle depends on various factors

e.g., work material, billet temperature, and
Extrusion Dies and Presses
 A complex cross section requires a higher
pressure and greater force than a circular shape.
 Die shape factor, is defined as the ratio of the
pressure required to extrude a cross section of a
given shape relative to the extrusion pressure for
a round cross section of the same area.
C x 2.25
K x 0.98  0.02( )
Cc
 Where Kx=die shape factor in extrusion,
Cx=perimeter of the extruded cross section, mm
and Cc=perimeter of a circle of the same area as
the extruded shape, mm.
Complex shapes
Extrusion Dies and Presses
 A circular shape is the simplest shape,
with a value of Kx=1.0. Hollow, thin-walled
sections have higher shape factors and
are more difficult to extrude.
 For shapes other than round, the
corresponding expression for indirect
p K x Y f  is
extrusion x

2L

pFor
Kdirect
x Y f ( x extrusion
 )
Do
Extrusion Dies and Presses

 Die materials used for hot extrusion

include tool and alloy steels. Die materials
for cold extrusion include tool steels and
cemented carbides.
 Extrusion presses are usually hydraulically
driven especially suited to semi-
continuous production of long sections.
 Mechanical drives are often used for cold
extrusion of discrete parts, such as in
impact extrusion.
Special types of Extrusion
 Impact extrusion is usually done cold on a variety of
metals. Backward impact extrusion is most common.
Products made by this process include toothpaste tubes
and battery cases.
 Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and
shorter strokes compared to previous types.
forwar backwa
d rd

combined
 Hydrostatic Extrusion

It is an extrusion in which billet’s interaction with

the container is avoided by surrounding liquid

Hydrostatic pressure on the work increases the

material’s ductility.

Accordingly, this process can be used on metals

that would be too brittle for conventional extrusion
operations.

Ductile metals can also be hydrostatically

extruded, and high reduction ratios are possible on
these materials.
 CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION
• In terms of commercial manufacturing,
the most significant is probably the
Conform process, illustrated
schematically in Figure 19-12.
• Continuous feedstock is inserted into a
grooved wheel and is friction propelled
into a mating die shoe.
From Degarmo’s Text book.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLLASxt8joI
 CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION

• . Continuous extrusion complements and competes

with wire drawing and shape rolling as a means of
producing nonferrous products with small, but
uniform, cross sections.

• It is particularly attractive for complex profiles and

cross sections that contain one or more holes, since
extrusion operations can perform massive
reductions through a single die.
ROLL EXTRUSION
• Thin-walled cylinders can be produced
from thicker-wall material by the roll-
extrusion process.
• As depicted in Figure 19-13a, internal
rollers increase the internal diameter as
they squeeze material against an
external confining ring.
• The tube elongates as the wall thickness
is reduced.
 ROLL EXTRUSION
• In Figure 19-13b, the internal diameter is
maintained as external rollers squeeze the material
against an internal mandrel.
• Although cylinders from 0.75 to 156 in. in diameter
have been made by this process, it is most
commonly used for products with diameters
between 3 and 20 in.
Advantages
 Very thin walls are possible
 The high-speed characteristics of
impacting permit large reductions
 High production rates
 Commercially viable process
Hydrostatic Extrusion
 The problems associated with friction can
be addressed by surrounding the billet
with fluid inside the container and
pressurizing the fluid by the forward
motion of the ram.
Advantages
 Friction at the container interface and die
opening is reduced.
 Ram force is significantly lower than in
direct extrusion
 It can be carried out at room temperature
or at elevated temperatures.
 Brittle materials can be extruded
successfully by this method.
 Pressures up to 1400 MPa can be applied.
Disadvantages
 Among the disadvantages is the required
preparation of the starting work billet.
 The billet must be formed with a taper at
one end to seal and to prevent fluid from
squirting out the die hole when the
container is initially pressurized.
 Thus design of specialized equipment, and
the long cycle times required
 Special fluids and procedures must be
used at elevated temperatures.
Extrusion Defects
 Three principal extrusion defects: Centre
burst, surface cracking and piping.
Extrusion Defects:
Centreburst

 Also called arrowhead fracture, center

cracking, and chevron cracking.
 Internal crack develops as a result of
tensile stresses along the centerline of the
workpart during extrusion.
 Conditions that promote centerburst are
high die angles, low extrusion ratios, and
impurities in the work metal that serve as
starting points for crack defects.
 Being internal defect is its usually not
noticeable by visual observation.
Extrusion Defects
 The tendency toward chevron cracking
increases if the two plastic zones do not
meet.
Extrusion Defects
 Piping, tailpipe or fish tailing is a defect
associated with direct extrusion. it is the
formation of a sink hole in the end of the
billet.
 It is caused by nonuniform flow pattern of

the billet, surface oxides etc.

 The use of a dummy block whose diameter

is slightly less than that of the billet helps to

avoid piping.
 The surface can be machined prior to

Extrusion to control piping.

Extrusion Defects
 Surface cracking and tearing (fir-tree
cracking or speed cracking) results from
high work part temperatures that cause
cracks to develop at the surface.
 They often occur when extrusion speed is
too high, leading to high strain rates and
associated heat generation.
 Other factors contributing to surface
cracking are high friction and surface
chilling of high temperature billets in hot
extrusion.
Wire and Bar Drawing
 Drawing is an operation in which the cross
section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening.
 Different from extrusion
 Should not be confused with drawing in
sheet metal forming
 Apart from tensile stresses, compression
also plays a significant role
 Sometimes referred to as indirect
compression
Wire and Bar Drawing
 Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and
rod stock, while wire drawing applies to small diameter
stock.
Wire and Bar Drawing
 Bar drawing is generally a single-draft
operation i.e. the stock is pulled through one
die opening. As beginning stock has a large
diameter, it is in the form of a straight
cylindrical piece rather than coiled. So bar
drawing is a batch type operation.
 In contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting
of several hundred feet of wire and is passed
through a series of draw dies (4-12).
 So continuous drawing is used to describe this
type of operation because of the long
production runs.
Wire and Bar Drawing: Mechanics

 In a drawing operation, the change in size

of the work is usually given by the area
reduction, defined as follows
Ao  A f
r
Ao
 The term draft is simply the difference
between original and final stock diameters
in bar or rod drawing

d D o  D f
Wire and Bar Drawing
 In ideal conditions, true strain could be
determined as follows;
Ao 1
 In In
Af 1 r
 The stress that results from this ideal
deformation is given by
Ao
 Y f  Y f In
Af

Groover’s
Wire and Bar Drawing
 In actual, friction is present between the
drawing and the work metal experiences
inhomogeneous deformation. Other
variables that influence draw stress are die
angle and coefficient of friction at the work–
die interface.
 An equation suggested by Schey is used;

 ϕ is a factor that accounts for

inhomogeneous deformation and is
Wire and Bar Drawing

 Where D=average diameter of work

during drawing, mm(in); and Lc=contact
length of the work with the draw die.
Wire and Bar Drawing
 The corresponding draw force is then the area of the
drawn cross section multiplied by the draw stress:

 The power required in a drawing operation is the draw

force multiplied by exit velocity of the work.
Problem
 Wire is drawn through a draw die with
entrance angle=15. Starting diameter is
2.5mm and final diameter=2.0 mm. The
coefficient of friction at the work–die
interface=0.07.
 The metal has a strength coefficient
K=205 MPa and a strain-hardening
exponent n=0.20.
 Determine the draw stress and draw force
in this operation.
Wire and Bar Drawing:
Maximum Reduction Per Pass

 Why more than one step required to

achieve the desired reduction in wire
drawing?


If the reduction is large enough, draw stress will exceed
the……
Maximum Reduction Per Pass
 As the reduction increases, draw stress
increases, If the reduction is large enough,
draw stress will exceed the yield strength of
the exiting metal.
 The drawn wire will then simply elongate
instead of new material being squeezed
through the die opening.
 We need to determine this maximum draw
stress and the resulting maximum possible
reduction that can be made in one pass.

 Do not include
Wire and Bar Drawing
 Ideally, let us assume a perfectly plastic
metal (n=0), no friction, and no redundant
work. The maximum possible draw stress
is equal to the yield strength of the work
material by setting Yf=Y (n=0),
Ao Ao 1
 d Y f In Y In Y In Y
Af Af 1 r
Applications
 Wire drawing is an important industrial
process, providing commercial products
such as electrical wire and cable; wire
stock for fences, coat hangers, shopping
carts; rod stock to produce nails, screws,
rivets, springs, and other hardware items.
 Bar drawing is used to produce metal bars
for machining, forging, and other
processes.
Advantages
 Close dimensional control,
 Good surface finish,
 Improved mechanical properties such as
strength and hardness,
 Adaptability to economical batch or mass
production.
 Drawing speeds are as high as 50 m/s for
very fine wire
Drawing Equipment
 Bar drawing is accomplished on a machine called a draw
bench, consisting of an entry table, die stand (which
contains the draw die), carriage, and exit rack.
Drawing Equipment
 Wire drawing is done on continuous
drawing machines that consist of multiple
draw dies, separated by accumulating
drums between the dies.
Drawing Equipment: Die
 Depending on the metal to be processed and the total
reduction, annealing of the wire is sometimes required
between groups of dies in the series.
Drawing Equipment: Die
 The entry region is usually a bell-shaped
mouth that does not contact the work. Its
purpose is to funnel the lubricant into the
die and prevent wear of work and die
surfaces.
 The approach is where the drawing
process occurs. It is cone-shaped with an
angle (half angle) of 6-20°.
 The bearing surface, or land, determines
the size of the final drawn stock.
Preparation of Work
 Annealing
 Cleaning
 Pointing or swaging
Tube Drawing
 Drawing can be used to reduce the
diameter or wall thickness of seamless
tubes and pipes produced by extrusion.
 Without Mandrel (tube sinking)
Tube Drawing
 With Mandrel
Maxim reduction in one pass?
Sheet Metal Working

 Typical sheet-metal thicknesses are between 0.4-6 mm.

 When thickness exceeds about 6 mm, the stock is usually
referred to as plate rather than sheet.
Sheet Metal Working
 Sheet-metal processing is usually
performed at room temperature (cold
working). But when the stock is thick, the
metal is brittle, or the deformation is
significant, warm working may be done.
Sheet Metal Working
 Most sheet-metal operations are
performed on machine tools called
presses. For example, stamping press.
 The tooling that performs sheet metalwork
is called a punch-and-die.

 Cutting
 Bending
 Drawing
Cutting Operation
 Shearing action between two sharp
cutting edges.

 As the punch continues to travel into the work, fracture is initiated

in the work at the two cutting edges. If the clearance between the
punch and die is correct, the two fracture lines meet, separating
work into two pieces.
Shearing Blanking and Punching
 Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a
straight line between two cutting edges.
Shearing, Blanking and Punching
 Blanking involves cutting of the sheet
metal along a closed outline in a single
step to separate the piece from the
surrounding stock.
 Punching produces a hole, and the
separated piece is scrap, called the slug.
Sheet Metal Cutting:
Mechanics

 Process parameters in sheet-metal cutting

are clearance between punch and die,
stock thickness, type of metal and its
strength, and length of the cut.

 The clearance ‘c’ in a shearing operation

is the distance between the punch and
die.
 Typical clearances in conventional press
working range between 4% and 8% of the
sheet-metal thickness ‘t’.
Sheet Metal Cutting:
Mechanics

 If the clearance is too small, then the fracture lines tend

to pass each other, causing a double burnishing and
larger cutting forces.
 If the clearance is too large, the metal becomes pinched
between the cutting edges and an excessive burr results.
Sheet Metal Cutting:
Mechanics

 The recommended clearance can be

calculated by the following formula:

c  Ac t
 c=clearance, mm; Ac=clearance
allowance; and t=stock thickness, mm
Sheet Metal Cutting:
Mechanics

 Punch and die sizes for a round blank of

diameter Db are determined as;

Blanking punch dia Db  2c

Blanking die dia Db
Sheet Metal Cutting:
Mechanics

 Punch and die sizes for a round hole

punching of diameter Dh are determined
as;
Hole punch dia D h
Hole die dia Dh  2c

 In order for the slug or blank to drop

through the die, the die opening must
have an angular clearance of 0.25-1.5° on
each side.
Cutting Forces
 Cutting force determines the size (tonnage)
of the press needed. Cutting force ‘F’ in
sheet metalworking can be determined by,

F SLt
 S=shear strength of the sheet metal (MPa),
t=stock thickness (mm), and L=length
of the cut edge, (mm).
 In blanking, punching, slotting, and similar
operations, ‘L’ is the perimeter length of
the blank or hole being cut.
Cutting Forces
 Alternative way of estimating the cutting
force is to use the tensile strength (TS),
F 0.7(TS ) Lt

 Although it is assumed that cutting is

performed at the same time (max. force), it
is possible to reduce the maximum force by
using an angled cutting edge on the punch
or die.
 The angle (shear angle), spreads the cut
over time and reduces the force
Example Problem
 A round disk of 150-mm diameter is to be blanked from a
strip of 3.2-mm, half-hard cold rolled steel whose shear
strength=310 MPa.
 Determine (a) the appropriate punch and die diameters,
and (b) blanking force
Other Sheet Metal Cutting Operations

 Cut-off is a shearing operation in which

blanks are separated from a sheet-metal
strip by cutting the opposite sides of the
part in sequence.

 Parting involves cutting a sheet-metal

strip by a punch with two cutting edges
that match the opposite sides of the
blank.
Cut-off and Parting Operation

Cut-off Parting
Nesting in Cut-off
Slotting, Perforating, and Notching
Trimming, Shaving, and Fine Blanking

Shavin Fine Blanking

g
Slitting
Die-less Cutting of Sheet Metal
 There are several other methods of
cutting sheets and, particularly, plates:
 Laser-beam cutting is an important
process typically used with computer-
controlled equipment to cut a variety of
shapes consistently, in various
thicknesses.
 Laser-beam cutting also can be combined
with punching and shearing. Combination
machines incorporating both capabilities
have been designed and built.
Die-less Cutting of Sheet Metal
 Water-jet cutting is effective on many metallic
as well as nonmetallic materials.

 Flame cutting is another common method,

particularly for thick plates; it is used widely in
shipbuilding and on heavy structural
component.
Bending Operations
 Bending in sheet-metalwork is defined as the
straining of the metal around a straight axis.

Bend angle,
α Included
angle

 The metal is plastically deformed and bend

takes a permanent set upon removal of the
stresses. Little or no change in the thickness
of the sheet.
Bending Methods
 In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent
between a V-shaped punch and die with
angles ranging from acute to obtuse.
 V-bending is generally used for low-
production operations.
 The associated V-dies
are relatively simple
and inexpensive.
Bending Methods
 Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet
metal. A pressure pad is used to apply a force Fh to hold
the base of the part against the die, while the punch
forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the
die..
Bending Operations
 Edge bending is limited to bends of ≤90°.
However, more complicated wiping dies
can be designed for bend angles greater
than 90.
 Because of the pressure pad, wiping dies
are more complicated and costly than V-
dies and are generally used for high-
production work.
 Sheet Metal Bending
• Bending should take place at right angle to the grain direction
• If the bending operation takes place parallel to the grain
direction, cracking will develop

Effect of grain direction

on sheet metal bending

ZAS_2011-12 10
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Several factors must be considered when designing

parts that are to be shaped by bending.
• One of the primary concerns is determining the
smallest bend radius that can be formed without
metal cracking (i.e., the minimum bend radius).
• This is directly dependent on the ductility of the
metal and can be related to the percent reduction
in area observed in a standard tensile test.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Figure 19-25 shows how the ratio of the minimum

bend radius R to the thickness of the material t
varies with material ductility.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• As can be noted, it requires an extremely ductile

material to produce a bend with radius less than
the thickness of the metal.
• In general, bends should be designed with the
largest possible radii.
• This permits easier forming and allows the designer
to select from a wider variety of engineering
materials.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• If the metal has previously been cold worked or has

marked directional properties, these features
should be considered in the bending operation.
• Whenever possible, it is best to make the bend axis
perpendicular to the direction of previous working.
• If two perpendicular bends are involved, it is
preferable to orient the bend axes at angles of 45°
to the direction of prior rolling.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Another design concern is designing the

dimensions of a flat blank that will produce a bent
part of the desired precision.
• The fact that the neutral axis is not at the
centerline of the metal causes metal to thin and
lengthen during bending.
• The amount of lengthening is a function of both the
stock thickness and the bend radius.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Figure 19-26 illustrates one method that has been

found to give satisfactory results in designing the
blank length for bent products.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• It may also be important to design the minimum

length of a leg that can be successfully bent.
• In most cases, the length of a protruding leg should
be at least 1 ½ times the thickness of the metal
plus the bend radius.
• Whenever possible, the tolerance on bent parts
should not be less than 1/32 in.
 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Severe bends (900 or greater) should not be

specified without first designing whether the

material and bending method will permit them.

• Parts with multiple bends should be designed with

most (or all) of them to be of the same bend

radius.

• This will reduce setup time and tooling costs.

 DESIGN FOR BENDING

• Consideration should also be given to providing

regions for adequate clamping or support during
manufacture.
• Bending near the edge of a material will distort the
edge.
• If an undistorted edge is required additional
material must be included and a trimming
operation performed after bending.
 Bending Mechanics:
Bend Allowance
 If the bend radius is small relative to stock
thickness, the metal tends to stretch
during bending.
 This stretching is associated with the
length of the neutral axis before bending
and is called
 the bend allowance.
Ab 2 ( R  K bat )
360

 Ab=bend allowance (mm), a=bend angle,

degrees; R= bend radius, (mm), t=stock
thickness (mm), and Kba is stretching factor.
The neutral axis is generally located between one-third and one-
half of the way from the inner surface, depending on the bend
radius and bent.
 Springback
 When the bending pressure is removed at the end of the
deformation operation, elastic energy remains in the bent
part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape.

 '  't
SB 
 't
 α’=included angle of the sheet-metal part,
degrees; and α’t=included angle of the
bending tool, degrees.
Springback:
Compensation

 In Overbending, the punch angle and radius are

fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle on the
final part so that the sheet metal springs back to the
desired value.
 Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the
stroke, thus plastically deforming it in the bend region.
Assignment
 Manufacturing of Aluminium Beverage Cans by Sheet
Metal Forming
Bending Force

 The force required to perform bending

depends on the geometry of the punch-and-
die and the strength, thickness, and size of
the sheet metal.
 The Max. bending force
K bf (TS ) wt 2 can be estimated
by; F
D

 w=width of part in the direction of bend

axis (mm), t=stock thickness (mm); and
D=die-opening dimension, for V-bending,
Example Problem
 A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Figure. The
metal has a modulus of elasticity=205 (103) MPa, yield
strength=275 MPa, and tensile strength=450 MPa.
 Determine (a) the starting blank size and (b) the bending
force if a V-die is used with a die opening dimension=25
mm
 ANGLE BENDING

• Machines like the bar folder, shown in Figure 19-

21, can be used to make angle bends up to 1500
in sheet metal under 1/16in. (1.5 mm) thick.
• The workpiece is inserted under the folding leaf
and aligned in the proper position.
• Raising the handle then actuates a cam, causing
the leaf to clamp the sheet. Further motion of
the .handle bends the metal to the desired angle.
• Bar folders are manually operated and produce
linear bends up to about 12 ft. in length.
 ANGLE BENDING

• Raising the handle then actuates a cam, causing

the leaf to clamp the sheet.
• Further motion of the handle bends the metal to
the desired angle.
• Bar folders are manually operated and produce
linear bends up to about 12 ft. in length.
• Bends in heavier sheet, or more complex bends in
thin material, are generally made on press brakes,
like the one shown in Figure 19-22.
Other Bending Operations
Drawing
 A sheet-metal-forming operation used to
make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved and concave parts.
 Common parts made by drawing include
beverage cans, ammunition shells, battery
cases, cooking pots, and automobile body
panels.
Drawing
Drawing
 The punch and die must have corner radii, given by Rp
and Rd.
Drawing Process
 The sides of the punch and die are
separated by a clearance c. For Drawing,
the clearance is greater than the stock
thickness as follows;
c 1.1t

 As the punch first begins to push into the

work, the metal is subjected to a bending
operation. As the punch moves further
down, a straightening action occurs in the
metal that was previously bent over the
Drawing Process
Drawing
Drawing:
Friction and Compression

 Initially, static friction is involved until the

metal starts to slide; then, after metal flow
begins, dynamic friction governs the
process.
 In addition to friction, compression is also
occurring in the outer edge of the blank.
As the metal in this portion of the blank is
drawn toward the center, the outer
perimeter becomes smaller.
Drawing:
Holding Force

 Holding force is critical for a successful

drawing operation. If too small, wrinkling
occurs and if too large, it prevents the
metal from flowing properly toward the die
cavity. This results in stretching and
possible tearing of the sheet metal.
Drawing Analysis
 For a cylindrical shape the drawing ratio is the ratio of
blank diameter Db to punch diameter Dp.
Db
DR 
Dp
 The greater the ratio, the more severe the operation. An
approximate upper limit of drawing ratio=2.0
Drawing Analysis
 For a given drawing operation, the reduction ‘r’
is also used as;
Db  D p
r
 r>.50 Db
 A third measure in deep drawing is the
thickness-to-diameter ratio, which gives the
tendency for wrinkling.
t
Thicknessto diameter ratio 
Db

 It is desirable for the t/Db ratio >1%. As t/Db

decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.
Drawing Analysis
 In cases where these limits on drawing ratio, reduction,
and t/Db ratio are exceeded by the design of the drawn
part, the blank must be drawn in two or more steps,
sometimes with annealing between the steps.
Example Problem
 A drawing operation is used to form a
cylindrical cup with inside
diameter=75mm and height=50mm. The
starting blank size=138mm and the stock
thickness=2.4mm.
 Based on these data, is the operation
feasible? Would there be wrinkling?
Drawing Force
 Force equation estimates the maximum
force in the operation
 Db 
F D p t (TS )  0.7 
 Dp 
 

 Where, F=drawing force, N, t=original

blank thickness, mm, TS=tensile strength,
MPa, and Db and Dp are the starting blank
diameter and punch diameter, mm. The
constant 0.7 is a correction factor to
account for friction.
Holding Force
 As a rough approximation, the holding pressure can be
set at a value=0.015 of the yield strength of the sheet
metal.
 This value is then multiplied by that portion of the
starting area of the blank that is to be held by the
blankholder.
Fh 0.In
015eq.
Y {form
Db2  ( D p  2.2t  2 Rd ) 2 }

 Holding force is usually about one-third the drawing force.

Example Problem
 A drawing operation is used to form a
cylindrical cup with inside
diameter=75mm and height=50mm. The
starting blank size=138mm and the stock
thickness=2.4mm.
 Determine (a) drawing force and (b)
holding force, given that the tensile
strength of the sheet metal (low-carbon
steel)=300 MPa and yield strength=175
MPa. The die corner radius=6 mm.
Blank Size Determination
Drawing Defects:
1. Wrinkling in the Flange

 Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges

that form radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart
due to compressive buckling.
2. Wrinkling in the Wall
 If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn
into the cup, these ridges appear in the
vertical wall.
3. Tearing
 Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near
the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses
that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this
location.
 This type of failure can also occur as the metal is pulled
over a sharp die corner.
4. Earing
 This is the formation of irregularities
(called ears) in the upper edge of a deep
drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in the
sheet metal.
5. Surface Scratches
 Surface scratches can occur on the drawn
part if the punch and die are not smooth
or if lubrication is insufficient.
Other Drawing Operations
 Redrawing: For severe drawing (drawing ratio too high)
 Complete forming of the part may require more than one
drawing step.
Redrawing
 For the first draw, the maximum reduction
40-45%
 The second draw (first redraw), the
maximum reduction 30%
 For the third draw (second redraw), the
maximum reduction should be 16%.
Reverse Drawing
 The drawn part is positioned face down on
the die.
 It is easier to perform than redrawing
because the sheet metal is bent in the
same direction at the outside and inside
corners of the die.
Drawing Without a Blank holder
 One of the primary functions of the blank
holder is to prevent wrinkling of the flange
while the cup is being drawn.
 The tendency for wrinkling is reduced as
t/Db ratio of the blank increases (>1%). If
the t/Db ratio is large enough, drawing can
be accomplished without a blank holder.
Drawing Without a Blank holder
 The draw die must have a funnel or cone shape to permit
the material to be drawn properly into the die cavity.
 The limiting condition for drawing without a blank holder

Db  D p  5t
Drawing of other Shapes
 Many shapes other than cylindrical cups
Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Sheet
Metal
Operation
s
With Flexible
metal Rubber
tooling Tooling

Guerin
Ironing
Process
Coining
and Hydroformi
embossin ng
g

Lancing Ironing is applied to achieve a

more uniform wall thickness
Twisting in a drawn cup.
Coining & Embossing
 Embossing is a forming operation used to create
indentations in the sheet, such as raised (or indented)
lettering or strengthening ribs.
Lancing
 Lancing is a combined cutting and
bending or cutting and forming operation
performed in one step to partially
separate the metal from the sheet.
Twisting
 Twisting subjects, the sheet metal to a
torsion loading rather than a bending
load, thus causing a twist in the sheet
over its length.
 It is used to make such products as fan
and propeller blades.
Rubber Forming Processes
 Performed on conventional presses, but
the tooling is unusual in that it uses a
flexible element.
 Guerin Process:
Hydroforming
 1) Start-up, no fluid in cavity;
 2) press closed, cavity pressurized with hydraulic fluid
 3) punch pressed into work to form part
 Press and Dies for Sheet Metal
Processes
Design of a Stamping Die

 Components of a punch and die for a

blanking operation.
Die and Punch Shape
Types of Stamping Dies
 A single blanking operation with each
stroke of the press and is called a simple
die. For example, the previous blanking
and hole forming dies and V-dies for
bending.
 A compound die on the other hand,
performs several operations at a single
station on the same sheet, such as
blanking and punching, or blanking and
drawing.
 For example, a compound die that blanks
Compound Die
Progressive Die
 Punching and Blanking of a Washer
Progressive Die
 A progressive die performs two or more operations on a
sheet-metal coil at two or more stations with each press
stroke. The part is fabricated progressively.
Progressive Dies
 Design of a progressive die begins with
the layout of the part on the strip or coil
and the determination of which operations
are to be performed at each station. The
result of this procedure is called the strip
development.
Press Design
 Mechanical Drive
 Hydraulic Drive mechanism

 The punch holder is

attached to the ram, and the
die holder is attached to a
bolster plate of the press bed.
Sheet Metal Forming not Performed in Presses

Others
Sheet
Metal
Forming
High
Roll
Stretch Energy
Forming/B Spinning
Forming Rate
ending
Forming
Stretch Forming
 Stretch Forming is widely used in the aircraft and
aerospace industries to economically produce large
sheet-metal parts in low quantities.
Roll Bending and Forming
 Components for large storage tanks and
pressure vessels are fabricated by roll
bending. The operation can also be used
to bend structural shapes, railroad rails,
and tubes.
Spinning
 Basic geometric shapes typically produced by spinning
include cups, cones, hemispheres, and tubes.
 There are three types of spinning operations: (1)
conventional spinning, (2) shear spinning, and (3) tube
spinning.
Shear Spinning
 The process has been applied in the
aerospace industry to form large parts
such as rocket nose cones.
Tube Spinning
Explosive Forming
 Detonation of the charge results in a
shock wave whose energy is transmitted
by the water to cause rapid forming of the
part into the cavity.
 Explosive forming is reserved for large
parts, typical of the aerospace Industry.
 industry
Electrohydraulic Forming
Electromagnetic Forming
Degarmos
More sheet metal forming processes
 PIPE WELDING- (17.6, new text)
Butt-Welded Pipe
• In the butt-welding process for making pipe, steel
skelp is heated to a specified hot-working
temperature by passing it through a furnace.
• Upon exiting the furnace, it is pulled through
forming rolls that shape it into a cylinder and bring
the free ends into contact.
• The pressure exerted between the edges of the
skelp is sufficient to upset the metal and produce a
welded seam.
• Additional sets of rollers then size and shape the pipe and it
is cut to standard, preset lengths.
• Product diameters range from 1/8 in. (3 mm) to 3 in. (75
mm), and speeds can approach 500 ft/min.
 PIPEWELDING
Lap-Welded Pipe
• Lap-welding process for making pipe differs from butt-
welding technique in that skelp now has beveled edges and
the rolls form the weld by forcing lapped edges down
against a supported mandrel.
• This process is used primarily for larger sizes of pipe, from
about 2 in. (50 mm) to 14 in. (400 mm) in diameter.
• Because product is driven over a supported mandrel,
product length is limited to about 20 to 25 feet.
 PIERCING
• Thick-walled seamless tubing can be made by rotary
piercing,
• A heated billet is fed longitudinally into the gap
between two large, convex-tapered rolls.
• These rolls are powered to rotate in the same
direction, but axes of rolls are offset from axis of
billet by about 6°, one to right and the other to left.
• Clearance between rolls is preset at a value less
than diameter of billet.
 PIERCING
• As billet is caught by rolls, it is simultaneously
rotated and driven forward.
• The reduced clearance between rolls forces billet to
deform into a rotating ellipse.
• Rotation of the elliptical section causes the metal to
shear about the major axis.
• A crack tends to form down the center axis of billet,
and cracked billet is then forced over a pointed
mandrel that enlarges and shapes the opening to
form a seamless tube.
 PIERCING
• The result is a short length of thick-walled seamless
tubing, which can then be passed through a reeler
and sizing rolls to straighten it and reduce the
diameter and/or wall thickness.
• Seamless tubes can also be expanded in diameter
by passing them over a larger mandrel.
• As the diameter and circumference increase, the
walls correspondingly thin.
 PIERCING

• Mannesmann mills used in hot piercing can produce

tubing upto 12 in. (300 mm) in diameter.
• Larger-diameter tubes can be produced on Stiefel
mills, which use same principle but replace convex
rolls of Mannesmann mill with larger-diameter
conical disks.