University of Bahrain

Course: Manufacturing Processes I (MENG 210)

Outline:
• Mechanical properties
• Plastic deformation
• Basic deformation processes
• Temperature in metal forming

Fundamentals of metal forming

Instructor: Prof. Dr. G. Hussain

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 Mechanical Properties of Engineering
Materials
 The properties of a material which determine its behavior when
it is subjected to mechanical stresses
 Include strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness, toughness,
ductility, etc
 Objective in Design Phase -> Withstand the stresses without
significant changes in geometry
 Objective in Manufacturing Phase -> Apply the stresses that
exceed the yield strength so as to change the shape of the part
Tensile Properties
Tensile test-fracture mechanism
-
Stress-Strain Relationship-
Engg
Stress-Strain Relationship- True

-
Engg stress:

Engg strain:
e = (L-Lo)/Lo

• For design, engg stress & engg strain are useful

• For manufacturing, true stress & true strain are useful
Strength of a Material
 The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied
stress/force without failure
 Two categories -> Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength
 Yield strength refers to the point on the engineering stress-
strain curve beyond which the material begins deformation
that cannot be reversed upon removal of the loading
 Ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stress-
strain curve corresponding to the maximum stress.
 7

Plastic deformation
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by
the flow curve:

Y f  K n

where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve is based on true
stress and true strain
 8

Flow Stress
 For most metals at room temperature, strength increases
when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material

Y f  K n

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield

strength as a function of strain
 9

Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining
the range of interest
_ K n
Yf 
1 n

where Y f= average flow stress; and  = maximum

strain during deformation process. n = strain
hardening exponent
 10

Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
 11

Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
 12

Material Properties in Metal

Forming
 Desirable material properties:
 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
 13

Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling
 Forging
(stock has high V/A)
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending
 Deep drawing
(stock has low V/A)
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes
 14

Temperature in Metal Forming

 Forany metal, K and n in the flow curve depend

on temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
 15

Temperature in Metal Forming

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished
with lower forces and power at elevated
temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
 16

1. Cold Working
 Performed at room temperature or slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
 These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
 17

Advantages of Cold Forming

 18

Disadvantages of Cold Forming

 Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
 19

2. Warm Working
 20

Advantages of Warm Working

 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Low spring back

Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
 21

3. Hot Working
 Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of
melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
 22

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal
‑ far more than possible with cold working or warm
working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at
room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased
 23

Advantages of Hot Working

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No work hardening occurs during forming
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
 24

Disadvantages of Hot Working

 Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk
forming
 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
 Shorter tool life
 26

Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a
perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening
exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the same flow
stress, once that stress is reached
 However, an additional phenomenon occurs during
deformation, especially at elevated temperatures:
Strain rate sensitivity
 27

What is Strain Rate?

 Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of
deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other
movement of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined:

.  v / h

.

where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed
 29

Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

 Flow stress is a function of temperature
 At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
 This effect is known as strain‑rate sensitivity
 30
Strain Rate Sensitivity
Effect of strain rate on strength properties/ flow stress is
called strain rate sensitivity

Log-Log
scale

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

(b) Same relationship plotted on log‑log coordinates.
 31

Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

  C .m

where C = strength constant (similar but not

equal to strength coefficient in flow curve
equation), and m = strain‑rate sensitivity/
exponent
Friction in Metal Forming
34

Sticking: If the coefficient of friction becomes too large, a

condition known as STICKING occurs.
Definition: Sticking in metal working is the tendency for
the two surfaces in relative motion to adhere to each other
rather than slide.
When Sticking Occurs??
The friction stress between the surfaces becomes higher
than the shear flow stress of the metal thus causing the
material to deform by a shear process beneath the surface
rather than slip at the surface.
Sticking is a prominent problem in forming operations,
especially rolling.
 35

Lubrication in Metal Forming

 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work interface
to reduce magnitude of friction co-efficient in order to
reduce harmful effects of friction
 Benefits:
 Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
 Better surface finish
 Removes heat from the tooling

Lubricants: Mineral oils, Fats, Fatty oils, water based

emulsions, Soaps and Coatings
For hot working: Graphite, Molten glass. Graphite can be
used in solid as well as in water suspension form. Glass is
useful in hot extrusion of steel alloys.