Bulk Metal

Forming
Part A

1
 Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials
 The properties of a material which determine its
behavior when it is subjected to mechanical
stresses
 Include strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness,
toughness, ductility, etc
 Objective in Design Phase -> Withstand the
stresses without significant changes in geometry
 Objective in Manufacturing Phase -> Apply the
stresses that exceed the yield strength so as to
change the shape of the part
Tensile Properties
Tensile test-fracture mechanism
-
Stress-Strain
Relationship- Engg
Stress-Strain Relationship-
True

-
Engg stress:

Engg strain:
e = (L-Lo)/Lo

• For design, engg stress & engg strain are useful

• For manufacturing, true stress & true strain are useful
Strength of a Material
 The strength of a material is its ability to
withstand an applied stress/force without failure
 Two categories -> Yield Strength and Ultimate
Strength
 Yield strength refers to the point on the
engineering stress-strain curve beyond which the
material begins deformation that cannot be
reversed upon removal of the loading
 Ultimate strength refers to the point on the
engineering stress-strain curve corresponding to
the maximum stress.
 Various Stress-Strain
Relationships
• Perfectly Elastic: The behavior
of the material is defined -
completely by its stiffness,
indicated by E. It fractures
rather than yielding (Fig. a).
Many brittle materials (e.g. cast
irons, thermosetting polymers,
ceramics)
• Elastic and Perfectly Plastic:
The material has stiffness
defined by E. Once the material
reaches its yield point, it
continues to deform
permanently without further
increase in engg stress.
Types of Stress-Strain Rel.
(Cont)
The metals show such Ideal
behavior when they are heated
to re-crystallization
temperature to nullify
hardening effect. Lead behaves
in this fashion at room
temperature (recrystallization
temp).
•Elastic and Strain Actual
Hardening
The material obeys Hooks law
in elastic range and obeys flow
stress rule in plastic region.
Most metals obey this behavior
when cold working.
 9

Plastic deformation
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is
primary interest because material is
plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is
expressed by the flow curve:

Y f K  n

where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve is based on true
stress and true strain
 10

Flow Stress
 For most metals at room temperature,
strength increases when deformed due to
strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material

Y f K  n

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield

strength as a function of strain
 11

Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final
strain value defining the range of interest
_ K n
Yf 
1 n

_
where Y f = average flow stress; and  =
maximum strain during deformation
process. n = strain hardening exponent
 12

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
FORMING

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal
Forming
 13

Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes
in which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength
of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by
the geometry of the die
 14

Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses (shear
spinning)
 15

Material Properties in Metal

Forming
 Desirable material properties:
 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by
temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
 16

Basic Types of Deformation

Processes
1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling
 Forging (stock has high V/A)
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending
 Deep drawing
(stock has low V/A)
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes
 17

Bulk Deformation
Processes
 Characterized by significant
deformations and massive shape
changes
 "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively
low surface area‑to‑volume ratios
 Starting work shapes include cylindrical
billets and rectangular bars
 18

Rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

 19

Forging
Deformation process in which work is
compressed between two dies

Types:
Open‑die forging
Impression‑die forging
Flash-less forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

 20

Extrusion

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

 21

Wire and Bar Drawing

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

 22

Sheet Metalworking
 Forming and related operations performed
on metal sheets, strips, and coils
 High surface area‑to‑volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
 Often called press working because presses
perform these operations
 Parts are called stampings
 Usual tooling: punch and die
 23

Sheet Metal Bending

Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

 24

Deep Drawing

Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

 25

Shearing of Sheet Metal

Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing

 26

Temperature in Metal
Forming

 Forany metal, K and n in the flow curve

depend on temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening
(n) are reduced at higher
temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at
higher temperatures
 27

Temperature in Metal
Forming
 Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal
forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
 28

1. Cold Working
 Performed at room temperature or
slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are
important mass production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually
required
 These operations are near net shape
or net shape processes
 29

Advantages of Cold Forming

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances
 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in
product
 No heating of work required
 30

Disadvantages of Cold
Forming
 Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
 In some cases, metal must be
annealed to allow further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not
ductile enough to be cold worked
 31

2. Warm Working
 Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
 Dividing line between cold working and
warm working often expressed in terms
of melting point:
 0.3T , where T = melting point
m m
(absolute temperature) for metal
 32

Advantages of Warm
Working
 Lower forces and power than in cold
working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
 Low spring back

Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
 33

3. Hot Working
 Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about
one‑half of melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level
 34

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation
of the metal ‑ far more than possible with
cold working or warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially
less than at room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased
 35

Advantages of Hot Working

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
 No work hardening occurs during forming
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
 36

Disadvantages of Hot
Working
 Lower dimensional accuracy in case of
bulk forming
 Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
 Shorter tool life
Isothermal Forming- A Type of Hot
37

Forming

When highly alloyed metals such as Ti and

Nickel alloys are heated to hot temp and bring
in contact with cold tooling, the heat radiates
from the metal to tooling. This result in high
residual stresses and temp variation over metal
and hence irregular material flow occurs during
forming, causing cracks.
In order to avoid this problem, both metal
and tooling are heated to same temp. However,
this causes reduction in tooling life.
** Mostly, Forging is performed through this
process
 38

Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Theoretically, a metal in hot working
behaves like a perfectly plastic material,
with strain hardening exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the
same flow stress, once that stress is
reached
 However, an additional phenomenon
occurs during deformation, especially at
elevated temperatures: Strain rate
sensitivity
 39

What is Strain Rate?

 Strain rate in forming is directly related
to speed of deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the
ram or other movement of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined:

 . v / h

.

where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed
 40

Evaluation of Strain Rate

 In most practical operations, evaluation
of strain rate is complicated by
 Workpart geometry
 Variations in strain rate in different
regions of the part
 Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more
for some metal forming operations
 41

Effect of Strain Rate on Flow

Stress
 Flow stress is a function of temperature
 At hot working temperatures, flow stress
also depends on strain rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
 This effect is known as strain‑rate
sensitivity
 42
Strain Rate Sensitivity
Effect of strain rate on strength properties/ flow stress is
called strain rate sensitivity

Log-Log
scale

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

(b) Same relationship plotted on log‑log coordinates.
 43

Strain Rate Sensitivity

Equation
.m
 C

where C = strength constant (similar

but not equal to strength coefficient
in flow curve equation), and m =
strain‑rate sensitivity/ exponent
 44

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

C
Effect of temperature on flow
stress for a typical metal. The
constant C, as indicated by
the intersection of each plot
with the vertical dashed line
at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m (slope of
each plot) increases with
increasing temperature.
Log-Log
scale
 45

Observations about Strain Rate

Sensitivity
 Increasing temperature decreases C and
increases m
 At room temperature, effect of strain
rate is almost negligible
 As temperature increases, strain rate
becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress
Friction in Metal Forming
46

Sticking: If the coefficient of friction becomes

too large, a condition known as STICKING
occurs.
Definition: Sticking in metal working is the
tendency for the two surfaces in relative
motion to adhere to each other rather than
slide.
When Sticking Occurs??
The friction stress between the surfaces
becomes higher than the shear flow stress of
the metal thus causing the material to deform
by a shear process beneath the surface rather
than slip at the surface.
Sticking is a prominent problem in forming
operations, especially rolling.
 47

Lubrication in Metal Forming

 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work
interface to reduce magnitude of friction co-
efficient in order to reduce harmful effects of
friction
 Benefits:
 Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
 Better surface finish
 Removes heat from the tooling

Lubricants: Mineral oils, Fats, Fatty oils, water

based emulsions, Soaps and Coatings
For hot working: Graphite, Molten glass.
Graphite can be used in solid as well as in
water suspension form. Glass is useful in hot
extrusion of steel alloys.
 48

Four Basic Bulk Deformation

Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed
between opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a
die opening, thereby taking the shape of
the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire
or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening
Basic Bulk Deformation Processes 49

1. Rolling
Deformation process in which work
thickness is reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Basic Bulk Deformation Processes 50

The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section
Basic Bulk Deformation Processes 51

Types of Rolling
 Based on work-piece geometry:
 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I‑beam
 Based on work temperature:
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large
amount of deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and
plate stock
Basic Bulk Deformation Processes 52

Rolled Products Made of Steel

150*150mm
From Ingot

250*40mm
From
Ingot/Bloom

40*40mm
From Bloom
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.
Diagram of Flat Rolling
53

Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,

work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
 54

Flat Rolling Terminology Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d t o  t f

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final

thickness; dmax= max possible draft; μ: Friction Coefficient;
R: Roll radius
 55

Flat Rolling Terminology Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

* Reduction = draft expressed as a

fraction of starting stock thickness:
r
d
d t o  t f
to
where r = reduction
* Volume entrance = Volume at exit

* Volume flow rate at entrance = Volume flow rate at exit

* Forward slip:

* Strain:

* Average flow stress:

Flat Rolling Terminology
56

Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

* Rolling force by one roll:

=

Length of contact:

Torque required by one roll:

T =F*L/2
Power required for rolling (based on
2 rolls):
 57
Example 19.1

d t o  t f
 58
Example 19.1
Basic Bulk Deformation Processes