UNIT-I

COMPUTER
FUNDAME
NTALS Yep!
Now, even
a KID’s
friend is
Computer. •Introduction to
Computers
•Characteristics of
Computers
•Uses of Computers
•Types of Computers
 Computer is an electronic device that
receives input, stores or processes the
input as per user instructions and
provides output in desired format.

WHAT’S A COMPUTER
 Computer input is called data and the output
obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information.
 Raw facts and figures which can be
processed using arithmetic and logical
operations to obtain information are
called data.

WHAT’S A COMPUTER
 Data is defined as the collection of facts and
details like text, figures, observations, symbols
or simply description of things, event or entity
gathered with a view to drawing inferences. It
is the raw fact, which should be processed to
gain information. It is the unprocessed data,
that contains numbers, statements and
characters before it is refined by the
researcher.
 The term data is derived from Latin term
‘datum’ which refers to ‘something
given’.

DATA VS. INFORMATION

 Information is described as that form of data
which is processed, organised, specific and
structured, which is presented in the given
setting. It assigns meaning and improves the
reliability of the data, thus ensuring
understandability and reduces uncertainty.
When the data is transformed into information, it
is free from unnecessary details or immaterial
things, which has some value to the researcher.
 The term information discovered from the
Latin word ‘informare’, which refers to
‘give form to’.

DATA VS. INFORMATION

DATA VS. INFORMATION
 NET
WHAT IS
NEUTRALITY…?
Net neutrality is the principle that individuals should be
free to access all content and applications equally,
regardless of the source, without Internet Service
Providers discriminating against specific online
services or websites.
In other words,
it is the principle that the company that
connects you to the internet does not get to
BASIC PARTS OF A COMPUTER
 The basic parts of a computer are as follows −
 Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse
that are used to input data and instructions to the
computer are called input unit.
 Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual
display unit that are used to provide information
to the user in desired format are called output
unit.
 Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit
controls all the functions of the computer. All
devices or parts of computer interact through the
control unit.

BASIC PARTS OF A COMPUTER

 Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the
computer where all arithmetic operations and
logical operations take place.
 Memory − All input data, instructions and data
interim to the processes are stored in the
memory. Memory is of two types – primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary
memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.
 Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and
memory are together called the central
processing unit or CPU.

BASIC PARTS OF A COMPUTER

1. High Speed
 It is capable of performing calculation of very
large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond,
nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few
seconds as compared to man who will spend many
months to perform the same task.

2. Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very
accurate.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy
provided that the input is correct.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
3. Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than
human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos,
text, audio, etc.

4. Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness, and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and
accuracy.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
5. Versatility
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to
be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems
related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex
scientific problem and the very next moment it may
be playing a card game.

6. Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
7. Automation
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task
automatically. Once the computer receives a program
i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory,
then the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.

8. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an
organization leads to reduction in paper work and
results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and
when required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
1. No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform
any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
2. Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully
dependent on humans.
3. Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust
free and suitable.
4. No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

DISADVANTAGES OF
COMPUTERS
CLASSIFICATION/ TYPES OF
COMPUTERS
Classification By Technology Used
 According to the technology used, computers
are of following three types:
1. Digital computers
2. Analog computers
3. Hybrid computers

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE/
TECHNOLOGY USED
1. Digital Computers:
 Digital computers are mainly general purpose
computers that represent and store data in
discrete quantities or numbers.
 In these computers, all processing is done in
terms of numeric representation (binary digits)
of data and information.
 Although the user enters the data in decimal or
character form, it is converted into binary digits
(0s and 1s).
 For example: PC, Laptop etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE/
TECHNOLOGY USED
2. Analog Computers:
 Analog computers are special purpose
computers that represent and store data in
continuously varying physical quantities
such as current, voltage or frequency.
 These computers are programmed for
measuring physical quantities like pressure,
temperature, speed, etc., and to perform
computations on these measurements.
 Analog computers are mainly used for scientific
and engineering applications.

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE/
TECHNOLOGY USED
 Some of the examples of Analog computers are:
 Thermometer: It is a simple analog computer used to
measure temperature.
 Speedometer: Car’s speedometer is another example of
analog computer where the position of the needle on dial
represents the speed of the car.

Limitations of the Analog computer:

1. These do not have logical facilities afforded by
programming.
2. They do not have the ability to store data in large
quantities.
3. Cost of implementation of computation is very high.

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE/
TECHNOLOGY USED
3. Hybrid computers:
 Hybrid computers incorporate the technology of both
analog and digital computers.
 These computers store and process analog signals
which have been converted into discrete numbers
using analog to digital converters.
 They can also convert the digital numbers into analog
signals or physical properties using digital to analog
converters.
 Hybrid computers are mainly used in artificial
intelligence (robotics) and computer aided
manufacturing (e.g., process control).
 For example: Automated Teller Machine (ATM).

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE/
TECHNOLOGY USED
1. Microcomputers:
 Microcomputers are also called personal computers
(PCs) and use microprocessor as its CPU, a memory
unit, and input device and an output device.
 They are small in size. Also, they do not have large storage
capacities.
 They are more commonly called personal
computers because they are designed to be used by one
person at a time.
 Popular uses for microcomputers include word processing,
surfing the Web, sending and receiving e-mail, spreadsheet
calculations, database management, editing photographs,
creating graphics, and playing music or games.
 Few examples are IBM PC, PS/2, Apple II and Macintosh.

CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
AND CAPACITY:
2. Minicomputers:
 A minicomputer is a multi-user computer.
 They have high processing speed and high storage capacity
than the microcomputers.
 Minicomputers can support 4-200 users simultaneously.
 They are used for real-time applications in industries,
research centers etc.
CLASSIFICATION
 BY SIZE
E.g. PDP-11, IBM (8000 series)

AND CAPACITY:
3. Mainframe Computers:
 Mainframe Computers are multi-user, multi-
programming and high performance
computers.
 They operate at a very high speed, have very large
storage capacity and can handle the workload of
many users.
 These are generally used in centralized
databases.
 Mainframe computers are used in organizations like
banks or companies, where many people require
frequent access to the same data.
 E.g. CDC 6600 and IBM ES000 series.

CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
AND CAPACITY:
4. Supercomputers:
 These are the largest and fastest computers.
 A super computer has a number of CPUs which
operate in parallel to make it faster.
 They are used for massive data processing and
solving very sophisticated problems i.e., in the
fields of science and defense, designing and
launching missiles, weather forecasting, biomedical
research, aircraft design and automobile design.
 E.g. CRAY 3. India has a series of super computers
called PARAM developed by C-DAC and ANURAG.

CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
AND CAPACITY:
 Nadir: the lowest or most unsuccessful
point in a situation, the bottom
 E.g. asking that question was nadir of my
career.
 Paper Bag Day is celebrated on 12 July
globally every year to make people aware
about the use of paper bags that contribute to
fight with climate change and environment
pollution.
 General Purpose Computer:
 General-purpose computer is the one that can
work on different types of programs input to
it and thus be used in countless applications.
 The programs are not permanently stored but
are input at the time of execution.
 These computers are very versatile.
 Simply by using a general purpose computer and
different software, various tasks can be
accomplished, including writing and editing (word
processing), manipulating facts in a data base,
tracking manufacturing inventory, making
scientific calculations etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
 Special Purpose Computer:
 Special-purpose computer is the one that is
designed to perform a specific task.
 The instructions (programs) to carry out the task
are permanently stored in the machine.
 For the specific tasks, this type of computer works
efficiently but such computers are not versatile.
 Such a computer system would be useful in
playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic
lights control system, navigational system in an
aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch /
tracking etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using
Vacuum Tubes
 Hardware Technology:
 The first generation of computers used
vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory. The input to the computer
was through punched cards and paper tapes.
The output was displayed as printouts.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using
Vacuum Tubes
 Software Technology :
 The instructions were written in machine
language. Machine language uses 0s and 1s
for coding of the instructions. The first
generation computers could solve one problem
at a time.
 Computing Characteristics:
 The computation time was in milliseconds.
 Physical Appearance:
 These computers were enormous in size and
required a large room for installation.

COMPUTER
GENERATIONS
 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using
Vacuum Tubes
 Application:
 They were used for scientific applications as they
were the fastest computing device of their time.
 Examples:

UNIVersal Automatic Computer ( UNIVAC),
 Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
(ENIAC),
 Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
( EDVAC)

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Disadvantages of 1st Generation:
 The first generation computers used a large
number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a lot
of heat.
 They consumed a great deal of electricity and
were expensive to operate.
 The machines were prone to frequent
malfunctioning and required constant
maintenance.
 Since first generation computers used machine
language, they were difficult to program.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using
Transistors
 Hardware Technology :
 Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first
generation of computers.
 Transistors allowed computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, energy efficient and reliable.
 The second generation computers used magnetic
core technology for primary memory. They used
magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for
secondary storage.
 The input was still through punched cards and the
output using printouts.
 They used the concept of a stored program, where
instructions were stored in the memory of computer.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using
Transistors
 Software Technology:
 The instructions were written using the
assembly language.
 Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD
for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding
of the instructions.
 High-level programming languages, such as
early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also
developed during this period

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using
Transistors
 Computing Characteristics :
 The computation time was in microseconds.
 Physical Appearance :
 Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum
tubes, thus, the size of the computer was also
reduced.
 Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604
 The cost of commercial production of these
computers was very high, though less than the first
generation computers. The transistors had to be
assembled manually in second generation computers

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using
Integrated Circuits:
 Hardware Technology:
 The third generation computers used the
Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
 In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on
a silicon chip.
 The use of IC chip increased the speed and the
efficiency of computer, manifold.
 The keyboard and monitor were used to
interact with the third generation computer,
instead of the punched card and printouts.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using
Integrated Circuits:
 Software Technology :
 The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced
through the operating system. Operating
system allowed different applications to run at
the same time.
 High-level languages were used extensively for
programming, instead of machine language and
assembly language.
 Computing Characteristics:
 The computation time was in nanoseconds.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using
Integrated Circuits:
 Physical Appearance :
 The size of these computers was quite small
compared to the second generation computers.
 Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.
 The third generation computers used less power
and generated less heat than the second
generation computers. The cost of the computer
reduced significantly, as individual components of
the computer were not required to be assembled
manually. The maintenance cost of the computers
was also less compared to their predecessors.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using
Microprocessors
 Hardware Technology:
 They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology.
Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon
chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of
thousands of components to be integrated in a small
chip.
 Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of
transistors and components, and, designed using LSI
and VLSI technology.
 Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic
core memory, resulting in fast random access to memory.
 Secondary storage device like magnetic disks became
smaller in physical size and larger in capacity.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using
Microprocessors
 The linking of computers is another key development of
this era. The computers were linked to form networks
that led to the emergence of the Internet. This
generation also saw the development of pointing
devices like mouse, and handheld devices.
 Software Technology:
 Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS
and MS- Windows developed during this time. This
generation of computers supported Graphical User
Interface (GUI).
 GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows user to
interact with the computer via menus and icons.
 High-level programming languages are used for the
writing of programs.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Fourth Generation (1971 to present):
Using Microprocessors
 Computing Characteristics:
 The computation time is in picoseconds.
 Physical Appearance :
 They are smaller than the computers of the
previous generation.
 Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor in
1971 for Intel. It was known as Intel 4004.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using
Artificial Intelligence:
 The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop
computers that are capable of learning and self-
organization.
 The fifth generation computers use Super Large
Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store
millions of components on a single chip.
 These computers have large memory requirements.
 This generation of computers uses parallel
processing that allows several instructions to be
executed in parallel, instead of serial execution.
Parallel processing results in faster processing speed.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Fifth Generation (Present and Next):
Using Artificial Intelligence:
 Quantum computation and molecular
and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come.
 The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
 Auxiliary: functioning in a subsidiary
capacity,
supplementary
e.g. Graduating from big-name schools translates
into better jobs and higher salaries, according
to conventional wisdom. Plus, there are
the auxiliary benefits that also lead to cash
—powerful alumni networks, name recognition
that attracts the interest of hiring managers
 PODCAST: A podcast is a type of digital
media, usually audio, that is available in
a series of episodes or parts and is
streamed or downloaded by the end user
over the Internet. Podcasts can be made
available via a release schedule or uploaded to
the Web randomly.
 Difference between Computer Architecture and
Computer Organization:
 Computer Architecture is a functional description of
requirements and design implementation for the
various parts of computer. It deals with functional
behavior of computer system. It comes before the
computer organization while designing a computer.
 Computer Organization comes after the decide of
Computer Architecture first. Computer Organization is
how operational attribute are linked together
and contribute to realize the architectural
specification. Computer Organization deals with
structural relationship.

BASIC COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
 Architecture describes what the
computer does.
 Organization describes how it
does it.

BASIC COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
BASIC COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A
COMPUTER SYSTEM
 A computer consists of input unit that takes input,
a CPU that processes the input and an output unit
that produces output.
 All these devices communicate with each other
through a common bus.
 A bus is a transmission path, made of a set
of conducting wires over which data or
information in the form of electric signals, is
passed from one component to another in a
computer.
 The bus can be of three types – Address bus,
Data bus and Control Bus.
FOLLOWING FIGURE SHOWS THE
CONNECTION OF VARIOUS FUNCTIONAL
COMPONENTS:
 The address bus carries the address location of the
data or instruction.
 The data bus carries data from one component to
another and the control bus carries the control
signals.
 The system bus is the common communication
path that carries signals to/from CPU, main
memory and input/output devices.
 The input/output devices communicate with the
system bus through the controller circuit which
helps in managing various input/output devices
attached to the computer.
CPU

 Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor,

or microprocessor, the CPU is the central processing
unit of the computer. A computer's CPU handles all
instructions it receives from hardware and software running
on the computer.
 In the CPU, there are two primary components.
 ALU (arithmetic logic unit) - performs mathematical,
logical, and decision operations.
 CU (control unit) - directs all the processors operations.
 The following tasks are to be performed by the CPU:
1. Fetch instructions: The CPU must read
instructions from the memory.
2. Interpret instructions: The instructions must be
decoded to determine what action is required.
3. Fetch data: The execution of an instruction may
require reading data from memory or an I/O module.
4. Process data: The execution of an instruction may
require performing some arithmetic or logical
operations on data.
5. Write data: The results of an execution may
require writing data to the memory or an I/O
module.

CPU
 The memory is characterized on the basis of two key
factors—capacity and access time. Capacity is the
amount of information (in bits) that a memory can store.
 Access time is the time interval between the read/ write
request and the availability of data.
 The lesser the access time, the faster is the speed of
memory.
 Ideally, we want the memory with fastest speed and
largest capacity. However, the cost of fast memory is very
high.
 The computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is
organized in a manner to enable the fastest speed and
largest capacity of memory

MEMORY HIERARCHY
 1. To minimize execution time of executing
programs
 2. To maximize the throughput of the computer
 3. To minimize response time
 subject to the constraint that high-speed
memory is limited in size.

MAIN OBJECTIVES OF A
MEMORY HIERARCHY:
 Temporal Locality: If an item is referenced, it will tend to
be referenced again in the near future.
 Spatial Locality: If an item is referenced, items whose
addresses are close will tend to be referenced soon.
 Empirical and theoretical justification:
 • programs tend to stay in loops, so instructions and their data
are repeatedly accessed (temporal)
 • instructions tend to be executed sequentially (spatial)
 • data tends to be accessed sequentially, as in array accesses
(spatial)
 The Memory Hierarchy is based on the idea that the faster the
memory, the more costly to build and therefore the smaller in
capacity, and conversely, the larger the memory, the slower
to access and less costly

TWO PRINCIPLES OF LOCALITY

MEMORY HIERARCHY
 The internal memory and external memory are
the two broad categories of memory used in
the computer.
 The internal memory consists of the CPU
registers, cache memory and primary
memory. The internal memory is used by the
CPU to perform the computing tasks.
 The external memory is also called the
secondary memory. The secondary memory is
used to store the large amount of data and the
software.

MEMORY HIERARCHY
 Internal Memory—The key features of internal
memory are—
 (1) limited storage capacity,
 (2) temporary storage,
 (3) fast access, and
 (4) high cost.
 Registers, cache memory, and primary
memory constitute the internal memory.

MEMORY HIERARCHY
 Registers are high-speed storage areas within the
CPU, but have the least storage capacity. Registers
are not referenced by their address, but are directly
accessed and manipulated by the CPU during instruction
execution.
 Registers store data, instructions, addresses and
intermediate results of processing. Registers are often
referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
 The data and instructions that require processing
must be brought in the registers of CPU before they
can be processed.
 For example, if two numbers are to be added, both
numbers are brought in the registers, added and the
result is also placed in a register.

REGISTERS
 Registers are the top of the memory hierarchy
and are the fastest way for the system to
manipulate data.
 Registers are normally measured by the
number of bits they can hold, for example, an
8-bit register means it can store 8 bits of data
or a 32-bit register means it can store 32 bit of
data.
 32-bit processor and 64-bit processor are the
terms used to refer to the size of the registers.

REGISTERS
 Following are some commonly used registers:
 Accumulator: This is the most common register, used to store
data taken out from the memory.
 General Purpose Registers: This is used to store data,
intermediate results during program execution. It can be
accessed via assembly programming.
 Special Purpose Registers: Users do not access these
registers. These registers are for Computer system,
 MAR: Memory Address Register are those registers that holds
the address for memory unit.
 MBR: Memory Buffer Register stores instruction and data
received from the memory and sent from the memory.
 PC: Program Counter points to the next instruction to be
executed.
 IR: Instruction Register holds the instruction to be executed.

REGISTERS
 A Cache is a small and very fast temporary
storage memory. It is designed to speed up the
transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside
or close to the CPU chip. It is faster than RAM and
the data/instructions that are most recently or most
frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.
 The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM
when CPU uses them for the first time. A copy
of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The
next time the CPU needs that data or instructions, it
first looks in cache. If the required data is found
there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of
main memory. It speeds up the working of CPU.

CACHE MEMORY
 Cache memory is costlier than main memory
or disk memory but economical than CPU
registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast
memory type that acts as a buffer between
RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently
requested data and instructions so that they
are immediately available to the CPU when
needed.
 Cache memory is used to reduce the
average time to access data from the
Main memory.

CACHE MEMORY
 The purpose of cache memory is to store program instructions
and data that are used repeatedly in the operation of
programs or information that the CPU is likely to need next.
 The computer processor can access this information quickly
from the cache rather than having to get it from computer's
main memory.
 Fast access to these instructions increases the overall speed
of the program.
 As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache
memory. If it finds the instructions or data it's looking for there
from a previous reading of data, it does not have to perform a
more time-consuming reading of data from larger main
memory or other data storage devices.
 Cache memory is responsible for speeding up computer
operations and processing.

WHY CACHE/ PURPOSE OF

CACHE
 The ability of cache memory to improve a computer's
performance relies on the concept of locality of
reference. Locality describes various situations that
make a system more predictable, such as where the
same storage location is repeatedly accessed, creating a
pattern of memory access that the cache memory
relies upon.
 There are several types of locality. Two key ones for
cache are temporal and spatial.
 Temporal locality is when the same resources are
accessed repeatedly in a short amount of time.
 Spatial locality refers to accessing various data or
resources that are in close proximity to each other.

HOW CACHE WORKS?

 The following are the different levels of Cache
Memory.
 Level 1 (L1) Cache
 It is also called primary or internal cache. It is
built directly into the processor chip. It has small
capacity from 8 kB to 128 kB.
 Level 2 (L2) Cache
 It is slower than L1 cache. The current
processors contain advanced transfer cache on
processor chip that is a type of L2 cache. The
common size of this cache is from 512 kB to 8 MB.

CACHE MEMORY
 Level 3 (L3) Cache
 This cache is separate from processor chip on
the motherboard. It exists on the computer that
uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower
than L1 and L2 cache. The personal computer
often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.

CACHE MEMORY
 Primary memory is the main memory of
computer. It is a chip mounted on the
motherboard of computer.
 Primary memory is categorized into two main
types-
 Random Access Memory (RAM), and
 Read Only Memory (ROM)

PRIMARY MEMORY/MAIN
MEMORY
 Primary
Memory

PRIMARY MEMORY/MAIN
MEMORY
 RAM is used to store data and instructions
during the operation of computer.
 The data and instructions that need to be
operated upon by CPU are first brought to
RAM from the secondary storage devices
like the hard disk.
 CPU interacts with RAM to get the data and
instructions for processing.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

 RAM loses information when the computer is
powered off. It is a volatile memory.
 When the power is turned on, again, all files
that are required by the CPU are loaded from
the hard disk to RAM.
 Since RAM is a volatile memory, any
information that needs to be saved for a
longer duration of time must not be
stored in RAM.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

 RAM provides random access to the stored
bytes, words, or larger data units. This means
that it requires same amount of time to access
information from RAM, irrespective of where it
is located in it.
 RAM can be read from and written to with the
same speed.
 The size of RAM is limited due to its high cost.
The size of RAM is measured in MB or GB.
 RAM is a microchip implemented using
semiconductors.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

 There are two categories of RAM, depending on
the technology used to construct a RAM—
 (1) Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and
 (2) Static RAM (SRAM).

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

 DRAM is the most common type of memory chip.
DRAM is mostly used as main memory since it is small
and cheap.
 It uses transistors and capacitors. The
transistors are arranged in a matrix of rows and
columns. The capacitor holds the bit of information
0 and 1. The transistor and capacitor are paired to
make a memory cell.
 DRAM must be refreshed continually to store
information.

DRAM gets its name from the refresh operation that
it requires to store the information; otherwise it will
lose what it is holding. The refresh operation occurs
DRAM
automatically thousands of times per second.
DRAM is slow because the refreshing takes
time.
 Access speed of DRAM ranges from 50 to 150
 SRAM uses multiple transistors (four to six), for each
memory cell. It does not have a capacitor in each
cell.
 A SRAM memory cell has more parts so it takes more
space on a chip than DRAM cell.
 It does not need constant refreshing and therefore
is faster than DRAM.
 SRAM is more expensive than DRAM, and it takes up
more space.
 It stores information as long as it is supplied with power.
 SRAM are easier to use and very fast. The access
speed of SRAM ranges from 2– 10 nanosecond.

SRAM
 Memory chips are generally available as part of a card
called a memory module. There are generally two
types of RAM modules—Single Inline Memory Module
(SIMM) and Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM).
 SIMM modules have memory chip on one side of the
PCB. SIMM modules can store 8 bits to 32 bits of data
simultaneously.
 DIMM modules have memory chips on both sides of
the PCB. DIMM format are 64–bit memories.
 Smaller modules known as Small Outline DIMM (SO
DIMM) are designed for portable computers. SO DIMM
modules have 32–bit memory.

RAM
 ROM is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not
lose its content when the power is switched
off.
 ROM, as the name implies, has only read
capability and no write capability. After the
information is stored in ROM, it is permanent.
 ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer. It
stores standard processing programs that
permanently reside in the computer. ROM stores
the data needed for the start up of the computer.
The instructions that are required for initializing the
devices attached to a computer are stored in ROM.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

 The ROM memory chip stores the Basic
Input Output System (BIOS).
 BIOS provides the processor with the
information required to boot the system.
 It provides the system with the settings and
resources that are available on the system.
 BIOS is a permanent part of the computer. It
does not load from disk but instead is stored in
a ROM memory chip.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 When the computer is turned on, the BIOS does the
following things:
 Power On Self Test (POST) is a program that runs
automatically when the system is booted. BIOS performs the
power-on self-test. It checks that the major hardware
components are working properly.
 BIOS setup program, which is a built-in utility in BIOS, lets
the user set the many functions that control how the computer
works. BIOS displays the system settings and finds the
bootable devices. It loads the interrupt handlers and device
drivers. It also initializes the registers.
 Bootstrap Loader is a program whose purpose is to start the
computer software for operation when the power is turned on.
It loads the operating system into RAM and launches it.
It generally seeks the operating system on the hard disk. The
bootstrap loader resides in the ROM. The BIOS initiates the
bootstrap sequence.
 All the different kinds of ROM retain their content when the power is
turned off.
 PROM (Programmable ROM ) can be programmed with a special tool,
but after it has been programmed the contents cannot be changed.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) can be programmed in a
similar way as PROM, but it can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet
light and re-programmed. EPROM chips have to be removed from the
computer for re-writing.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) memories can
be erased by electric charge and re-programmed. EEPROM chips do not
have to be removed from the computer for re-writing.

TYPES OF ROM
 RAM is expensive and has a limited storage capacity. Since it is a volatile
memory, it cannot retain information after the computer is powered off.
Thus, in addition to primary memory, an auxiliary or secondary memory
is required by a computer. The secondary memory is also called the
storage device of computer.
 In comparison to the primary memory, the secondary memory stores
much larger amounts of data and information (for example, an entire
software program) for extended periods of time. The data and
instructions stored in secondary memory must be fetched into RAM
before processing is done by CPU.
 Magnetic tape drives, magnetic disk drives, optical disk drives and
magneto-optical disk drives are the different types of storage devices.

SECONDARY MEMORY
 The information stored in storage devices can be accessed in two ways—
 1. Sequential access
 2. Direct access
 Sequential Access Devices:
 Sequential access means that computer must run through the data in sequence,
starting from the beginning, in order to locate a particular piece of data.
 Magnetic tape is an example of sequential access device. Let us suppose that
magnetic tape consists of 80 records. To access the 25threcord, the computer
starts from first record, then reaches second, third etc. until it reaches the 25th
record.
 Sequential access devices are generally slow devices.

ACCESS TYPES OF STORAGE

DEVICES
 Direct Access Devices:
 Direct access devices are the ones in which any piece of
data can be retrieved in a non-sequential manner by
locating it using the data’s address. It accesses the data
directly, from a desired location.
 Magnetic disks and optical disks are examples of
direct access devices. There is no predefined order in
which one can read and write data from a direct access
device.
 In a magnetic disk consisting of 80 records, to access the
25th record, the computer can directly access the 25th
record, without going past the first 24 records.
 Based on access, magnetic tapes are sequential access
devices, and, magnetic disks, optical disk and magneto-
optical disks are direct access devices.

ACCESS TYPES OF STORAGE

DEVICES
 Magnetic tape is a plastic tape with magnetic coating.
 It is a storage medium on a large open reel or in a smaller cartridge or
cassette (like a music cassette). Magnetic tapes are cheaper storage
media.
 They are durable, can be written, erased, and re-written.
 Magnetic tapes are sequential access devices, which mean that the
tape needs to rewind or move forward to the location where the
requested data is positioned in the magnetic tape. Due to their
sequential nature, magnetic tapes are not suitable for data files that
need to be revised or updated often.
 They are generally used to store back-up data that is not frequently
used or to transfer data from one system to other.

MAGNETIC TAPE
  Magnetic tape is divided
horizontally into tracks (7 or
9) and vertically into frames.
A frame stores one byte of data,
and a track in a frame stores one
bit. Data is stored in successive
frames as a string with one data
(byte) per frame.

WORKING OF MAGNETIC TAPE

 Data is recorded on tape in the
form of blocks, where a block
consists of a group of data also
called as records. Each block is
read continually. There is an Inter-
Record Gap (IRG) between two
blocks that provides time for the
tape to be stopped and started
between records.

WORKING OF MAGNETIC TAPE

 Magnetic tape is mounted on a magnetic tape
drive for access. The magnetic tape moves on
tape drive from the supply reel to take-up reel,
with its magnetic coated side passing over the
read/write head.
 Tapes are categorized based on their width - ¼
inch, ½ inch, etc.
 The storage capacity of the tape varies greatly.
A 10–inch diameter reel of tape which is 2400
feet long can store up to 180 million
characters.

WORKING OF MAGNETIC TAPE

 Magnetic disk is a direct access secondary
storage device. It is a thin plastic or metallic
circular plate coated with magnetic oxide and
encased in a protective cover. Data is stored on
magnetic disks as magnetized spots.

MAGNETIC DISKS
 The entire disk is divided
into platters.
 Each platter consists of concentric
circles called as tracks.
These tracks are further divided
into sectors which are the
smallest divisions
MAGNETIC DISK in the disk.
ARCHITECTURE
 A cylinder is formed by combining the tracks
at a given radius of a disk pack.

MAGNETIC DISK
ARCHITECTURE
 There exists a mechanical arm called as Read /
Write head.
 It is used to read from and write to the disk.
 Head has to reach at a particular track and then
wait for the rotation of the platter.
 The rotation causes the required sector of the
track to come under the head.
 Each platter has 2 surfaces- top and bottom and
both the surfaces are used to store the data.
 Each surface has its own read / write head.

MAGNETIC DISK
ARCHITECTURE
MAGNETIC DISK
ARCHITECTURE
DISK PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
 Seek Time-
 The time taken by the read / write head to reach
the desired track is called as seek time.
 It is the component which contributes the
largest percentage of the disk service time.
 The lower the seek time, the faster the I/O
operation.

DISK PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
 Rotational Latency/ Latency Time-
 The time taken by the desired sector to come
under the read / write head is called
as rotational latency.
 It depends on the rotation speed of the spindle.
 Data Transfer Rate-
 The amount of data that passes under the read /
write head in a given amount of time is called
as data transfer rate.
 The time taken to transfer the data is called
as transfer time.

DISK PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
 Controller Overhead-
 The overhead imposed by the disk controller is
called as controller overhead.
 Disk controller is a device that manages the
disk.
 Queuing Delay-
 The time spent waiting for the disk to become
free is called as queuing delay.

DISK PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
 Consider a hard disk with:
4 surfaces
64 tracks/surface
128 sectors/track
256 bytes/sector
Q:1 What is the capacity of the hard disk?
 Disk capacity = surfaces * tracks/surface *
sectors/track * bytes/sector
Disk capacity = 4 * 64 * 128 * 256
Disk capacity = 8 MB
 Consider a disk pack with the following
specifications- 16 surfaces, 128 tracks per
surface, 256 sectors per track and 512 bytes
per sector.
Q: What is the capacity of disk pack?
 Capacity of disk pack
 = Total number of surfaces x Number of tracks
per surface x Number of sectors per track x
Number of bytes per sector
 16 x 128 x 256 x 512 bytes
 = 228 bytes
 = 256 MB
 Write a short note on:
 Floppy Disk
 CR-ROM
 DVD-ROM
 Optical Disks

ASSIGNMENT
 Input Devices:
 Keyboard, Mouse, Digitizing Tablet, Track Ball,
Joystick, TouchScreen, Light Pen, Speech
Recognition System, Digital camera, Scanner,
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR),
Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Optical
Mark Recognition (OMR), Barcode Reader
 Output Devices:
 Monitor, Visual Display Terminal, Printer, Plotter,

I/O DEVICES