Ict Notes

COMPILED BY: EDMUND S.
MANDILLAH
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Lesson I
INTRODUCTION TO I.C.T
ICT –Information and communication technology
It refers to the intergration of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of
communication.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.
Definition of a Computer:
 A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs
stored in its own memory unit.
 A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.
 An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set
of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as
Information).
A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device, stores them
temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given, and
finally transfers the processed data (Information) to an Output device.
Explanations;
 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic

components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
 A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to
the recipients through the Output devices.
 It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any
useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is normally
held within the computer as it is being processed.
Program:
 A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer
& is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to
do).
 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.

 A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the
user.
- Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to

produce information.
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COMPILED BY: EDMUND S. MANDILLAH
TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:
a). Digital (discrete) data:

Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or
symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …

b). Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to

be processed by the computer.
- Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity,

Lengths or currents, etc
- The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
Data Processing:
 It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.
 Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required
result. The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being
produced.
Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you want
it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between Data and Information.
Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.
Characteristics / Features of a Computer.
Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all
types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the day-
to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
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Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very
short time.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error
occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic
components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying
Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the
numbers supplied.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Storage:
- A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small

space.
- A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.
- Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use
of passwords.
6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored.
Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and
accuracy as the first one.
7. Automation:
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A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided
by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.
9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:
Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes
rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.

2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).
A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.
Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).
Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful computers
available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a fraction
of a second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central
processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide
cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental
conditions (i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500
users at the same time.
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Areas where supercomputers are used:

Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Defence and weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very
short time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.
Mainframe computers.
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a large
backing storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–
300 terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users
at a time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.
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Minicomputers.
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a
time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the
users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.
Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:
 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.

 Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.
Microcomputers.
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices.
They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one
person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices
(usually 1 or 2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip

containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is
based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components
into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.
Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:
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 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.
Laptops & Notebooks.
A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on his/her
lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
- Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.

2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a
laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).
Palmtops.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.
- Have limited storage capacities.

- Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.
This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an
office environment.
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- They are not portable.
Examples of desktop computers:
1) Home computer.
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has
programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.
2) Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the

home mainly for business purposes.
- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting, Word
processing, Telecommunications, etc.
- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user

access the facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a
network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is

more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers,
i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer on the
network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at
the same time.
An Embedded computer.
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g.,
there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video
recorders.
B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.
Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
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 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.
General-purpose computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.
Example;
A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the
Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games, among
others.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &

Laptops used in most offices & schools.
Special-purpose computer.
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do.
Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-wired)
at the time of manufacture.
For example;
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly &
very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.

 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.

 It is electronic.
 Has a screen.
 It has a Keypad.
 Has a Memory.
 It is programmable.
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Dedicated computer.
A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing

task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.
C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.
Usually, there are two forms of data; Digitaldata, and Analoguedata. Computers can be
classified according to the type of data they can process as either.
 Digital computers.
 Analogue computers, or
 Hybrid computers.
Digital computers.
This is the most commonly used type of computers.
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….
Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore, any
data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.
Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.
Examples:
 A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.

 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.
Analogue computers.
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents, pressure,
length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single task.

For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
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- Scientific or engineering experiments,
- Military weapons,
- Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures
and pressures.
- Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting pen
or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information
about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
 The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.
The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an
actual aeroplane.
 A Bathroom scale.
It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over calibrated

scale, which shows the person’s weight.
 Thermometer.
It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is calibrated to give

an exact temperature reading.
 Speedometer.
In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a

pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.
 A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume
delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.
 A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.
 A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.

 A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
 A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.
Hybrid computers.
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Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine
both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer &
analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may
then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an immediate
signal to the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings are detected.
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LESSON 2
PARTS OF A COMPUTER.
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together

in order to work as a single entity.
A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -

1. The System Unit.
2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.
System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the computer
called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The components in the System unit include: -
 Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.

 Motherboard.
 Power supply unit.
 Memory storage devices.
 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
Types of System units

There are two makes of System units:
a) Tower style system unit
This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.
- Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
b) Desktop system units
Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.
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Features of the System unit.

- It houses the CPU.
- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer’s Power switch.
The Central processing unit (CPU)
This is the brain of the computer, and carries out all the processing within the computer.
Input devices.
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.
• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer can
understand.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Joysticks, Light pen, Scanner, etc.
The Keyboard
The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through which data
is entered into the computer.
To enter data & instructions into the computer, the user should press the required keys.
The Mouse
It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling a
special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
Output devices.
Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the computer.
- They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.

- They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.
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Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc
The Monitor
It is a television like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or number on the
keyboard, it shows up on the monitor.
Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the computer.
Printer
Printers are used to create permanent copies of output on paper.
Computer peripherals.
A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system unit
called Peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as to assist the
computer satisfy its users.
Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data interface
cables that carry data, programs & information to and from the processor. The cables are
connected to the system unit using connectors called Ports.
Examples of peripheral devices include;

- Monitor, - Keyboard,
- Mouse
- Printer. - Modem.
- Speakers.
- Plotter.
Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.

2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. What are computer peripherals?
4. (a). Name and explain the two main divisions of computer storage.
(b). Give two common examples of secondary storage devices.
5. Name two output devices.
6. (a). Explain the term System unit.
(b). Name some of the components found in the System unit.
(c). Give three features of a computer’s System Unit.
7. Why is the screen also called a Monitor?
8. What is a Mouse in relation to computing?
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.
HISTORY OF COMPUTING.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks to
count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called Abacus
that could be used to calculate large figures.
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An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires
or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.
How to represent a number using an Abacus.
Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of 5.
To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar
represent zeros.
The Figure below represents the number 6908 (Six thousand nine hundred and eight).
After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern computers
was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an English mathematician called
Charles Babbage.
In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like machine
named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each
breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new
“generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer

technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are
classified in durations (a period of more than a year).
1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).
The 1st generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes or
Thermionic valvesto store & process information.
Vacuum tube
The tubes consumed a lot power, and generated a lot of heat during processing due to
overheating.
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The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were short-
lived, and were not very reliable.
They also used Magnetic drum memories.
Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB
(2,000 bytes).
The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size, i.e.
the computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC occupied an area of
about 150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.
They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest
electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per second.
The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World War
II. It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr. John
Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).
2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).
The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state electronic devices called Transistors. The
transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.
Transistor
The computers consumed less power, produced less heat, were much faster, and more reliable
than those made with vacuum tubes.
They used Magnetic core memories.
RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.
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Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their
speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per
second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1 st generation computers.
The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1 st G
computers.
They were less costly than the 1st G computers.
Examples of 2nd Generation computers:
 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe
computers.
 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.
3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).
Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors&diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.
Integrated circuit
The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).
The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.
They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.
The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to support
remote communication facilities.
Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.
The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
Examples of 3rd Generation computers:
 IBM 360, 370;

 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.
4TH Generation computers (1979 – 1989).
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th
The 4 generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits &Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny circuits and
transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.
Very Large integrated circuit
The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million
instructions per second.
Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred Megabytes.
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.
Examples of 4th Generation computers:
 IBM 308 and 4300;

 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was
called Apple II.
5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).
In this generation fall today’s computers.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design&super

conducting materials.
These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as Supercomputers,

which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured in
Nanoseconds&Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a
number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to the
smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that
mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such programs can help
managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert services to users instead of relying
on human professionals.
Review Questions.
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1. Briefly describe the history of computers.
2. (a). What do you mean by computer generations?
(b). Describe the FIVE generations of computers in terms of technology used and give an
example of a computer developed in each generation.
(c). Compare computer memory sizes during the Five computer generation periods.
3. What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
4. (a). Technology is the basis of computer classification. Based on this, explain briefly the
difference between the first three computer generations.
(b). What is so peculiar in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop them.
Generation Technology
First generation A). Very Large Integrated Circuit
Second generation B). Thermionic valves (Vacuum tubes)
Third generation C). Transistors
Fourth generation D). Integrated Circuits
6. Give four characteristics of First generation computer.

7. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a). ENIAC
(b). VLSI
(c). IC
- 20 -
8. What is Artificial Intelligence?
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.
1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their

CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is
carried out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.

Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second
compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to
hold the instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also
support many and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions
required to manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly
compared to minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be printed
in a specified amount of time.
The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of
characters printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster
and their speeds are measured depending on the number of lines or pages printed per
minute (lpm / ppm).
7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can
be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
Review Questions.
1. Briefly explain five factors that can be used to determine the type of a computer
Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.
Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper – they imitate simple computer
technology.
2. Bigger in size. 2. Comparatively smaller.
3. Operate at very high speeds. 3. Slower than computers.
4. Are more accurate – they give up to over 4. Less accurate – most calculators give up to 8
10 decimal places of accuracy. dp of accuracy.
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations
problem. involving arithmetic/ mathematical operations
6. Work under the control of programs. 6. Calculators are non-programmable, but if
programmable, the range is limited.
7. Support a variety of peripherals, e.g. 7. They only use Display units & Keyboards of
keyboard, mouse, light pen, printer, etc. limited capabilities.
8. Have large internal memory of several 8. their internal memory is very small. Most
KB’s. calculators only use Registers for temporary
storage during calculations.
9. Support large Backing storage media. 9. Some calculators have got some sort of fixed
Backing store, though very limited.
10. A computer can support several people at 10. A calculator can serve only 1 user at a time.
the same time.
11. Have got telecommunication capabilities. 11. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
12. Require well-monitored environmental 12. Do not require well-monitored environmental
conditions. conditions.
Review Questions.
1. State three methods of classifying computers. In each case, list the different types of
computers.
2. What is a Personal computer?
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a). Supercomputer and Mainframe computer.
b). Minicomputer and a Personal computer.
c). Special-purpose (dedicated) computers and General-purpose computers.
d). Desktop computers and Laptop computers
4. Briefly describe terms “Analogue” and “Digital computers” as used in computer science.
5. Give three examples of Special-purpose computers.
6. Name any FOUR classes of computers based on size and complexity.
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are
used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters &
calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are
entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other
machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:

A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are
meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:

Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants,
where human life is threatened:
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to operate
a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it
difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine
breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but
can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could
be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.
In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related
facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now
being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer
criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them
out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running
the companies.
AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them
manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is
out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are
running out of stock and need to be reordered.
- For calculating customer’s Balance.
- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.
2. Industries.
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:
 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices
called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that
are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products &
services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore,
enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.
3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal
services.
 For processing of Cheques.
 For preparation of Payrolls.
 For better record keeping and processing of documents.
 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.
4. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical &
mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each
computer is designed to do a specific job.
5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:
 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.

 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening & monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to
properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.
 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus
reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.
6. Offices.
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.

 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.
7. Government Institutions.
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:
 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make
information recovery extremely difficult.
 To produce bills & statements.
8. Education.
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using
computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching
(CAT).
 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to help
in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a
special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.
 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open University
Concept.
 To analyze academic data.
 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor
the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the
environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.
9. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.

 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to
launch space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.
10. Communication industry.
The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and
reception of messages very fast and efficient.
 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a
computer network.
11. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.

 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar
equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).
 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases
on fingerprints and also analysed them.
 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which help
them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification
details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.
13. Defence.
 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and
tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers, etc.
14. Multimedia applications.
 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide
shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe
the product.
 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.

 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital
video clips, which make games more realistic.
 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.
15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.
Computers are used at homes:
 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.

 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their
prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.
16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:
- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other
library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
17. Employment.
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.
Review Questions.
1. Explain exhaustively the importance of computers in the following areas:

i). Industries.
ii). Hospitals.
iii). Education
iv). Research.
v). Communication industry.
vi). Law enforcement agencies.
vii). Domestic and Entertainment.
2. Explain various ways computers have been mostly used in our country.
3. List down and explain 6 uses of computers in our society.
4. Explain the similarities and differences between human beings and computer systems.
LESSON 3
COMPUTER LABORATORY.
Definition:
A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of
computers, and provide a safe conducive environment for teaching & learning of Computer
Studies.
SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)
Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be handled with
great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct instructions on
use of equipment, carelessness, and neglect.
Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care & order.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:
1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.

2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed, and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.
i). Standard and Enough furniture.

ii). Good ventilation.
iii). Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv). Free from Dust and Moisture.
v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii). Fire fighting equipment.
viii). Good lighting equipment.
ix). Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.
After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and practices
need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of computers or lack
of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.
The safety precautions and practices include;
1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
a). Entering the computer room.
 Only authorized people should enter the computer room.

 Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
 Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust
contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause
wearing of the moving parts.
 Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, & drinks/beverages to
the computer room.
Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them.
Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.
 Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer
room & put them into the dustbin.
 Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the
peripheral devices.
 Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
 Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
 Shut the door of the computer room properly.
b). Starting and shutting down the computer.
 Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to
avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
 Avoid turning the computer on&off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is

turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down when the
computer is turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand & contract and this can
badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.
 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without

permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.
2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.
Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:
a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the computer
equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.
 Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
 Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must be
properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they can cause fire
leading to damage of equipment.
 The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those
containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.
Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room
because; they can cause damage to computer components.
Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder particles
normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operations.
 Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the person in
charge of the laboratory.
 No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete damage of
the equipment.
3. INSULATION OF CABLES.
 All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from
busy pathways in the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents the user from
stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.
 System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly clipped
(fixed).
 The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking the pins.
4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.
Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.
 Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss of
data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.
Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power
surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being
damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid
connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is important to connect the computer to a
special power correction equipment or device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power
supply /source (UPS), then connect the UPS to the main supply.
The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off, the UPS
gives some sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.
Functions of the UPS
1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.
2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure. This
allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct
procedure.
4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).

To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give
important services such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install devices that provide
alternative sources of power such as standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable batteries,
etc that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Such devices are referred to as
Power backups.
However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the
computer, because it is also not stable.
 Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.
5. BURGLAR PROOFING.
Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized
persons get access to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be
implemented:
- Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing is
weak).
- Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain firmly
locked when not in use).
- Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
- Use of Personal Identification cards.
- Use of fingerprint identification.
- Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case
of a break in.
- Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser &
check against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
- Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.
6. VENTILATION.
Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the
computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.
Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the
electronic parts.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:
 The room should have large & enough windows & doors.
 Installing an air-conditioning system.
 Installing cooling fans.
 Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.
7. DUST CONTROL
 Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.

 Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
 The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust
particles.
 The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the noise
made by chairs.
 Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the
computer room.
NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of
harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy drives,
cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral
devices such as Printers and Mouse.
8. DUMP CONTROL.
Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%. If the
humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive
electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes rusting of the metallic
parts of the computer system.
To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be
controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.
9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.
Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can
easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device, e.g., to
transport the System unit always handle it on its frame.
 Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
 Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
 Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any electrostatic
discharge.
 The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects. This
causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and as a result, effects the
computer’s solder-joints.
 Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and under
supervision. If in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no damage is caused due to
lack of proper knowledge.
 Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.
Floppy disk management.
Floppy disks are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the likelihood of
destroyed or corrupted data.
Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software, which
can easily be re-loaded.
Handling precautions for diskettes.
1). Insert the diskette in the drive with the correct side up & in the correct direction.
The diskette should slide in easily (with no force at all) until it locks in the drive. To
remove the diskette out of the drive, press the Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.
3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This indicates that
the diskette is in use, and removing it might damage the files on the diskette.
4). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.
5). Ensure that all your diskettes are labelled carefully using meaningful names that indicate
the right contents of the diskette. The labels should be applied at the slightly depressed
region at the top surface of the diskette.
Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes, and also mixing diskettes
that are used everyday with those used for long-term storage of important data.
6). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.
7). Use the shutter at the bottom of the diskette to write-protect it in order to protect the data
stored in it.
Note. To write-protect the diskette, the shutter is pushed up until the hole is covered &
no data can be written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the hole must be left open.
8). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (usually over 6 months), its surface wears
out.
9). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.
10). Keep your disks safely away from extreme temperatures or direct sunlight, i.e., avoid
placing the diskette near possible heat sources, e.g. on top of monitor displays.
11). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media, e.g., near power supplies & magnets.
They can corrupt the data.
12). Never carry disks in loose bags or in pockets to prevent dust from getting in & harming
them.
Store your diskettes in disk banks or a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or enclosed
polythene when carrying them.
13). Always store the disks vertically in the storage box/container.
14). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.
15). Do not bend the diskette, or leave it lying on top of the desk.
16). Protect the diskettes against computer viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign diskettes in
your computer, especially if you suspect that they might have viruses in them.
Use of Printers.
1. Different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong quality
paper in a particular printer can make the paper get stuck.
2. Printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges&ribbons. Use of clones or

imitations (i.e., the wrong make & model) can damage the printer mechanism.
3. Avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of Ribbons. This can spoil the printer due to
leakage or use of poor quality materials.
10. LABORATORY LAYOUT.
 The computer laboratory should have enough floor space to facilitate free movement from
one place to another.
 The laboratory furniture must be well arranged to prevent accidents.
 Your working surface must be large enough to hold the computer equipment & any other
additional items required. This prevents squeezing the devices together & also minimizes
breakages.
 The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.
11. STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.

 The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear
the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices.
 The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows
someone to sit upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused by poor sitting
posture.
 Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.
For example;
- Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are parallel with
the floor and your wrists are straight.
- The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the hands on the
keyboard comfortably.
- The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user is seated
upright.
 You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly flat on
the floor.
 Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or leaning
far backwards.
 The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.
Keyboard, Mouse and Input devices.
Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.
For example;
 The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that your hands are
in a relaxed, comfortable position.
 Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with your
shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.
 Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.
12. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.

A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress,
and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long periods of time, your eyes
may become irritated. Therefore, special care should be given to your vision.
 Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will minimize
glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
 Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright reflections) on
the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots on
the display.
 Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the
eye.
 Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your
eyesight.
 The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing
eyestrain.
 Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of the
computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image quality of
your display.
 Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent screen
burnout.
 If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the
room.
 Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
 You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer display.
 Keep your glasses and the display clean.
 Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
 The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.
STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.
1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly connected,
and that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a
constant voltage Stabilizer or an Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after
switching the main supply.
3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on the
Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.
After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting.
Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that
makes the computer ready for use.
Types of Booting.
There are 2 types of booting, namely;
a). Cold booting.

b). Warm booting.
Cold booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power button
on the system unit.
Warm booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart
button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).
In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to
perform a warm boot.
When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine
whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by
executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored in
ROM.
POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests
when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is
operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller&
the Keyboard.
During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device being
tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the process will
halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user where the
problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an abnormal
number of beeps are sounded.
The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS).
Shutting down a computer.
After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of shutting
down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and computer
components does not occur.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.
For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:
a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the
keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on
the screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the
button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.

5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.
KEYBOARD.
The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the computer
memory.
It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.
Types of Keyboard.
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.

2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.
KEYBOARD LAYOUT.
The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the usual
range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to represent
data items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the computer.
Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you type
data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.
SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.
Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -
(a). Function/ Command keys.
These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They are
used to issue commands into the computer.
Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application packages, e.g.,
F1 is used in most applications for help.
Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with
different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.
(b). Alphanumeric keys.
This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used for
typing of text.
It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and Number
keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are Punctuation
marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.
At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate words or
sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).
(c). Numeric Keypad keys.
It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked on
them in rows from the bottom upwards.
The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the
multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the decimal
point (.).
The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on.
(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.
They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.
They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End,& the four Arrow Keys.
 Arrow keys:
To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press the
Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one line
down, press the Down arrow key.
 Page Up & Page Down:
To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the Page Up
key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.
 Home & End keys:
To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move the
cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.
Editing keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i). Backspace key.
It has a backward arrow () marked on it.
√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same
line).
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate
letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
iii). Insert (Ins) key.
√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode&Overtype mode.

When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace a
character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).
(e). Special PC operation keys.
They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
TAB key ( ).
It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a certain
text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g., 10mm,
20mm, etc.
A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear.
CAPS Lock.
Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner of the
Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off, all the text
typed will appear in small letters.
SHIFT key ( ).
This special key works in combination with other keys.
√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key& press an alphabet
key to get the letter in its capital form.
√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on top of
certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.
To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a certain key;
press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
ENTER key (↵).
√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a
word processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line or
paragraph.
√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the

computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the screen.
ESCAPE (ESC) key.
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to
quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.
CONTROL (CTRL) key.
It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to give
the command for saving the text/object.
Commonly confusing keys.
Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are
working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is wrong.
The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.
Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and
between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.
The slash (“/”) is used as:
- A division symbol when writing a formula.

- A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (“\”) is used:
- In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.

- In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.
The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.

Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is
printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical key
top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words,
but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of
the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The Underscore takes the
places of the blank space.
Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.
Single quote (‘) &Double quote (“).
Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.
Accent grave (`) &Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in Mathematics,
foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home subdirectory.
The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).
Slash (/) - used for division,

Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Practical Keyboard skills.
When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:
1). Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground, maintaining an alert posture.
2). Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3). Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.
Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys.
The home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the thumb
on the Spacebar, while those of the right hand are the apostrophe (‘), semicolon (;), L, K with
the thumb on the Spacebar.
4). Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers, and that you
press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g., to press Q, use the small
finger on the left hand, while to press J, use the index finger on the right hand..
MOUSE.
A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -
1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor to
move on the screen as required.
3). The Sensor Buttons (Right&Left) – used for making selections.
4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.
Using the Mouse.
To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table. When
you move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer moves across the
computer screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the mouse.
To select an option/ item on the screen;
 Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
 Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.
When using the mouse, observe the following rules:
a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.

b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the right
button.
Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.
Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the item
you want to select.
To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left button
(Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly accomplish
common tasks.
Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an object/item
on the screen.
Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without moving
the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the right
mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This
list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is because; the
commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.
Shortcut menu:
 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.

 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to
another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
1. Point to the item you want to drag.

2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still holding
down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.
LESSON 4
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
COMPUTER SYSTEMS.
The term System can be defined as a collection of independent entities that collectively work
together to achieve a desired goal.
All things can be viewed as being made up of small independent components (subsystems) that
come together to form a bigger more complex system.
For example;
(1). A School can be seen as a system with students, teachers, Accounts department, and the
Administration as subsystems. The school system itself is a subsystem of the ministry of
education.
COMPUTER SYSTEMS.
What is a Computer system?
 The term Computer system refers to the complete set of devices required to use & operate the
computer.
 Computer system is the complete set of devices that make a computer work as one unit.
 A collection of entities that work together to process and manage information using computers.
A computer system consists of the computer itself & supporting devices for input, output,
processing & storage of data such as disks, Monitors, Printers, etc
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
A Computer system consists (or is made up) of 4 basic elements that are interrelated and work in
unison. The four elements are:
(1). Hardware.
(2). Software.
(3). Liveware (Computer user).
HARDWARE.
Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make up a computer
system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.
Hardware include all mechanical & electronic elements found in the computer, e.g., the System
Unit, Transistors, Diodes, bus systems such as electronic paths (channels), the Input devices (e.g.,
Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g., Monitor) & the Storage devices.
Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer, view the output on screen,
print out our work, store and process the work.
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided into 4 major categories:-
1). Input devices.
Input devices are used to communicate with a computer. They enable the computer user to
enter data, information & programs into the computer. They also let the user issue commands
to the computer.
An Input device converts the input information into machine-sensible/ readable form.
Examples.
* Keyboard. * Mouse.
* Key-to-disk. * Key-to-Tape.
* Scanner. * Light pen.
* Trackball * Video digitizers.
* Graphics pads (Tablets). * Joystick / Game paddles.
* Speech Recognition devices. * Digital & Web cameras.
* Voice input devices, e.g. Microphones.
* Document readers, such as, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark Reader
(OMR) &Optical Character Reader (OCR).
*Point Of Sale terminals, such as, Bar code readers, Kimball Tag readers, Card readers, &
Badge readers.
2). Central Processing unit – CPU (Processor).
The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU& the Control unit.
The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory. It interprets
& processes all the instructions from the Input devices.
The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains all the major
components of a computer system.
3). Output devices.
Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the computer. They
display the results of all the information that has been processed.
They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a form that can be
understood by people.
Examples.
* Screen (Monitor/ Visual Display unit – VDU). * Printers

* Audio Response units. * Graph Plotters.
* Sound output devices, e.g. Speakers. * Microforms.
4). Storage devices.
These are devices used to store data & programs in computers. They include; Hard disks,
Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes, Optical disks (CD-ROMs), and Random
Access Memory (RAM).
Note. All these storage devices differ inthe way (technology) they store data& the capacities
of data they can hold.
Characteristics of Computer Hardware.
1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.

2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.
SOFTWARE.
 These are the programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform a no. of
specific functions.
 Software is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity
that happens inside the computer during data processing operations.
Software also includes the associated documentation (descriptions of the programs).
When used in a computer, Software instructs the computer to carry out specific processing tasks,
e.g. produce the year end Balance sheet.
Characteristics of Computer Software.
1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.

2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the computer
programming languages, e.g. BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
3. It is not possible to see a program in memory as it exists in magnetic spots, however, you can
see & touch a listing of the program on the computer screen.
4. Software enable computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software is meant
to put ‘life’ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy to
change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.
LIVEWARE
Liveware is a term used to refer to the computer end-user. They are the people who coordinate
the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer system to perform useful tasks.
They include; Data entry operators, Computer Operators, Programmers, System Analysts, Data
Processing Managers, Database Administrators, Computer Librarians, and the other staff directly
or indirectly involved in the running of the system operations.
Apart from the hardware and software elements, the user is also seen as an integral part of the
computer system as shown in the figure below;
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS OF A MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM.
A microcomputer consists of 4 electronic parts:
1). Input devices.

2). Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called the Processor.
3). Output devices.
4). Memory storage devices, which consist of Main memories & Secondary memories.
Control Unit (CU)

- Interprets stored instructions;
- Issues commands to all elements of
Input device the computer Output device
Input data & Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU) Gives out information
instructions Performs arithmetic & logic operations (result of data processing)
Main memory (Primary storage)

Bus Bus
- Holds data, instructions & results of
processing
Fig. 1.2: A computer model
 Data & instructions to be processed are supplied to the computer memory by the user with the
help of Input devices. Secondary (Backing) storage
 The CPU performs the To desired
supplement Main storage
operations on the data and the results of calculations/
processing are communicated to the user through the Output devices.
 The data and/or instructions not being used immediately by the computer are held permanently
in the Backing storage, for retrieval any time it is required by the user.
INPUT DEVICES.
Before a computer can process any data, it must be given the data & program instructions by use
of an Input device.
Input is a term used to describe all that goes into the computer memory (usually the raw data &
instructions) to await processing.
Input involves entering data & instructions into the computer by use of suitable devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES.
An input device performs the following functions/ tasks:
1. Accepts data& instructions from the user into the computer system.
2. Read data from the medium on which it is stored.
3. Convertsthe human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable form (i.e. a form that can
be understood by the computer)
4. Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from the user.
5. Data input can either be Online or Off-line.
Once the data is entered into the computer, it finally enters the Main storage.
Classification of Input devices.
Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data into a computer.
These include.
(a). Keying devices.

(b). Pointing devices such as the Mouse, Trackball, etc.
(c). Scanning and other data capture devices, e.g., Scanners, Digital cameras, etc.
Data capture devices are those devices that automatically capture data from the source.
(d). Speech recognition or Voice input devices such as Microphones.

(e). Touch screen and Digitizers.
KEYING DEVICES.
Type of keying devices
 Traditional keyboard
 Flexible keyboard
 Ergonomic keyboard
 keypad.
POINTING DEVICES.
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
Examples of pointing devices are; Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, and Light pen.
MOUSE.
A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small ball and is used to control the movement of the
cursor (or, a pointer) on the computer screen.
Types of mouse
 Traditional mouse
 Optical mouse
 Cordless mouse
The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). It issues commands to the
computer by activating certain simple graphic images called Icons displayed on the screen.
Advantages of using a Mouse.
1. The mouse is easy to learn & convenient to use. This is because; it is used to select options
(icons) displayed on the screen.
2. It is inexpensive.
3. Most modern software includes an option to use it.
4. It performs operations much easier &much more quickly than a keyboard.It is very fast to
work with as it lets the user provide simple “point” & “click” instructions to the computer.
5. Can be used in art and design work because; it allows diagrams to be drawn & modified
easily.
Disadvantages of using a Mouse.
1. The mouse cannot be used to input text easily.

2. It is relatively slow for selecting menu options. A user who is familiar with the keyboard
commands can select the options more quickly.
3. It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
4. The mouse requires a flat surface to operate.
TRACKBALL.
A Trackball works just like the mouse, but instead of moving it on a flat surface, it has a ball fixed
on its top which is rolled using the index finger.
As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen. The user can then click its button to execute
the selected command.
The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that, a Trackball doesn’t require a flat surface for
movement.
Note. Today some computers come with a trackball on top of a Keyboard and a Mouse.
LIGHT PEN.
A Light Pen is a hand-held device similar in shape to a ball-point pen, and has a light sensitive
point. It consists of a pen-like device called a stylusconnected by a cable to a computer terminal.
A Light pen is used together with a graphic VDU that is able to sense light shining on the screen
using special hardware & software.A Light pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the
light emitted by the display using a photosensitive detector at its base.
When the pen is moved across the screen, its position is sensed because of the light it produces.
√ A Light pen provides a direct input mode. It can be used to read data directly from the source
document. It allows the user to point directly to an object on the screen, thus identifying it to
the screen.
√ Light pens can be used to read bar-codes on the different items.
√ It can also be used to select items from a given list of ‘menus’ displayed on the screen by
simply pointing the pen at the item required & then pressing a button on the pen.
√ Light pens are usually used as design aids - they can be used to draw images on the screen,
which can be printed. They can also be used to indicate a point on a screen or pad, for
example, to select options for drawing.
TOUCH-SENSITIVE SCREENS.
A Touch-sensitive screen uses the human finger as the input medium, (i.e. one can select items or
options from a given list by touching the screen with a finger).
This method of input is usually used with a VDU, which is able to sense the touched points on the
screen.
When the user touches the screen with a finger, it blocks out the light emitted from that portion of
the screen. The computer detects the position of the finger. The screen can then determine which
part is being touched, and therefore, which selection is required.
Touch screens are mostly used in public places like banking halls, hotels, in airports (to provide
guidance information), etc.
Notes.
• Both the Light pen & the Touch provide fast input modes.
• There is no typing or printing required; however, they operate under the influence of complex
programs.
JOYSTICKS / GAME PADDLES.
These are hand-held Input devices, which enable the user to interact with a program. They are
used for playing computer games.
A Joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever. It is an analogue-to-digital converter
where the input involves moving the control lever sideways, upwards or downwards to control the
movement of the cursor on the screen.
Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in
playing video games.
A Game paddle may consist of a button, which can be pressed by the user to input data to the
program. When the program senses that the button has been pressed, it takes the appropriate
action, such as, firing a missile or reversing the direction of a tank.
A Game paddle can also consist of a dial which when rotated; it conveys information to the
program. The program must immediately act on the information supplied by the dial setting, e.g.
a goalkeeper may be moved across the face of the goal to intercept a shot.
Note. Data processing should be very fast.
DIGITIZERS.
The Digitizers are input devices that convert graphical drawings or images on the paper or other
material into digital data and convey them to the computer memory.
Digitizers are slow, but easy to handle and errors are hardly present.
1. GRAPHICS PADS/ TABLETS.
Graphic Tablets are used for entering drawings directly into the computer.
A Graphics tablet consists of a pad or tablet (that is sensitive to touch) & a pointing device,
which is similar to a ball-point pen called a stylus.
A paper is placed on the graphic pad & the user can trace lines and draw pictures using the
pen. As the stylus moves on the tablet, the tablet senses the pressure on it & translates it into
digital signals giving its corresponding position on the screen. It then converts this ‘pressure’
into x-y co-ordinates, which describe what is being drawn. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can display the drawings on the screen or have them printed.
Uses of Graphic Tablets.
Graphic tablets are mostly used;
(a). In Engineering & Architectural design as it lets the user create his/her own images. It is
very easy for the user to ‘try out’ different designs.
(b). In Computer-Aided Design work as diagrams & maps can be traced or drawn &
transferred into the computer memory to be further worked on using Graphics programs.
(c). By Banks & Insurance companies to verify signatures. A signature written on a pad is
compared against another formerly stored in the computer.
(d). Pads are also good at detecting forgeries.
2. VIDEO DIGITIZERS.
These consist of special hardware & software, which converts video signals frame-by-frame
into a digital representation in computer memory, which can be saved on disk, if necessary. A
sequence of frames can have graphics, cartoons, text added, etc.
DIGITAL CAMERAS.
A Digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be streamed (entered)
directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a
special cable.
There are 2 types of digital cameras; one that can take still (motionless) images, i.e., photographs,
and another that takes motion pictures (video).
VOICE INPUT DEVICES (Speech Recognition Devices - SRD).
Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone connected to a computer system
(through some extra circuitry) is used to enter data in form of spoken words into the computer.
The SRD accepts spoken commands & convert them into electronic pulses/ signals, which can be
processed by the computer.
The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed& filed for identification.
Uses of Voice Input devices.
(a). Voice input is a fast & easier method mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those
with impaired hands.
(b). In Security & Access control – Each person has a unique ‘Voiceprint’ that can be used for
identification. This approach could be used in; -
- Electronic Money transfer.
- House/ Car security using voice activated locks.
- Office security for room access.
(c). In Voice-activated toys & games.
(d). In Quality control & automation (computerization/mechanization) in factories.

A checker whose hands are busy does not have to stop working to make entries in log books,
instead he/she can simply give a running (spoken) comments on the goods he/she is
examining. For example, in Japan, speech input is used to order robots about.
(e). In Automated materials handling – in airports, handler’s give spoken commands that direct
the luggage to the appropriate conveyor belt.
(f). In Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – A designer, e.g. of buildings, working at a terminal can
call up design patterns which are frequently used, instead of having to punch catalogue nos.
into a Keyboard.
Limitations (disadvantages) of Speech Input/Recognition devices found Today.
1. Homophones – some words have same sounds.
2. Word separation.
The speech must be “clipped” i.e. each word must be followed by a short period of silence.
This enables the device to recognize the end of each word. If this is not done, the device
might not be able to tell the difference between ‘Command” and “Come and”, depending on
the accent of the speaker.
3. Speaker variability.
The speed, tone (quality of sound), accent, loudness and pronunciation of an individual
speaker can vary
Voice input is complex to develop, and it does not take care of speech related problems such
as accents and tone. This implies that the device must learn the unique speech of an
individual.
4. Limited vocabulary understood & the no. of speakers they can recognize.
Most speech systems can recognize a limited, standard vocabulary of spoken words. The
simplest SRD can recognize the voice of only one speaker. .
The device must also be ‘taught’ the voice patterns of the speaker. For example, if a device
can store a vocabulary of 25 words, the user will speak the 25 chosen words into the device.
The device then stores the patterns for the spoken words. Later, when the user speaks a word,
the device compares the pattern of the word spoken with those patterns it had previously
stored. If a match is found, the word is recognized. If not, the speaker may be requested to
repeat the word or use a synonym (a word that means almost the same thing).
5. The response rates of these devices are still relatively slow.
When you compare the no. of words in English & the total no. of words that can be said at a
given point, show that speech recognition is slow.
6. Speech input is complex to develop &is still at the early stages of development.
SCANNING DEVICES.
These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly.
IMAGE SCANNERS.
A Scanner is used to input pictures or photographs into the computer. This is because a Keyboard
or a Mouse cannot perform these tasks.
Scanners are usually used to capture existing documents in an electronic form into the computer
for further processing or incorporating into other documents.
It converts text & graphics into machine sensible format. Once the text & graphics are scanned,
the images can be manipulated by changing the colors, the sharpness and contrast.
There are 2 main types of Scanners: -
(a). Page scanner:
This is adesktop machine that looks like a small photocopier. It scans a whole page at a time.
An example is the Flatbed scanner.
Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real object or a picture by placing it on a glass plate
exactly the way a photocopying machine works. The text or the picture scanned is displayed
on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.
(b). Hand scanner:
A Hand scanner is held in the hand and passed over a document.
Scanners are very useful when large amounts of existing documents need to be converted into
electronic form for feeding into a computer system.
For example, if the contents of the Bible are to be entered into a computer system, you can either
type everything using a Word-processor, or scan each of the pages and import them into a word-
processor, which is faster and also more accurate.
Each character is compared to all known shapes or patterns so that the appropriate code can be
entered into the computer.
Scanner Problems.
1. The scanner is on but there is no image when you scan.
♦ Make sure the DMA, IRQ and Address jumper settings on the interface board matches the
settings you selected in the Scan Mate installation program.
♦ Check the brightness control dial on your Scanner. If the dial is at the brightest settings,
you may not be able to see the image.
2. The light on the scanning window cannot turn off.

This shows that there is a conflict with resident software on DMA channel.
3. The images printed look blotchy (discoloured/ spotted).
To prevent this, do not rescale the image. If you scale the image, you will lose some of the
details when you print. If the image is too big, scan at lower resolution.
4. The Scanner turns off as soon as you start scanning.

This shows there might not be enough RAM to scan the images.
5. The scanned image on the screen is much larger than the original.
This occurs if your image is displayed at a lower resolution than you scanned.
Note. The Size of your screen image depends on your Monitor’s size & your VGA card.
DOCUMENT READERS.
A Document reader is an input device, which can read data directly from source documents, such
as bank cheques, & convey it to the computer in form of electronic signals.
Types of codes on documents that can be recognized by a Document reader: -
(i). Marks – short lines made by hand, usually in pencil on a document.

(ii). Characters – hand-written (e.g. on meter-reading) or printed in magnetic ink on cheques.
(iii). Printed lines – e.g. the bar codes.
Document readers can be classified into; Optical readers and Magnetic Readers.
Optical Readers.
Optical readersuse the principles of light to sense the document contents or to capture data. A
special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to
be entered into the computer. The readerconverts the data into digital form, and then passes it to
the computer for processing.
There are 2 types of Optical readers: Optical Character Reader (OCR) &Optical Mark Reader
(OMR).
Magnetic Readers.
They use the principles of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been written
using magnetized ink.
Example; Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).
OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR).
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a data capture technique, which enables the computer
to read printed or hand-written documents directly.
The characters are formed onto the document by a Typewriter or computer Printer using a special
type font. Handwriting can also be recognized if the characters have been carefully/well formed.
The reading is done by OCR, which can be connected directly to the computer. An OCR is able
to distinguish one character from another by its shape.
As the OCR reads/ scans the document, each character reflects different amounts of light, which is
sensed by the OCR using a photoelectric device& converts the shape sensed into electronic
signals. These signals represent a particular pattern.
Note. The Reader has a memory that stores reference patterns for a given character set or font.
The sensed pattern is then compared with the stored patterns of the characters, which the reader
can recognize. If a match is found, the character sensed is identified; otherwise, the document
may be rejected by the reader.
Uses of Optical Character Recognition devices.
OCR devices are used by companies that do a large amount of processing on a regular basis. For
example, Public utility companies, Insurance companies, Airlines, Banks & the Postal service (for
reading postal codes).
 Public utilities – OCR is used to process documents produced as output and which can be re-
used as input by the computer. For example, an Electricity bill has a returnable slip, which is
printed with all the information required for re-input into a computer, i.e., customer code and
amount owing. If the customer pays the exact amount stated, the returned portion of the bill is
used for direct input to the computer.
 Used in Sales Order forms.

The forms can be printed by the computer with standard data, e.g. Stock codes, Account code,
etc. The Salesman then enters details of the order form and returns it for OCR processing.
 Used in Stock-taking sheets.

The computer can print out stock sheets in OCR characters. The stock checker then enters the
actual stock quantities on the form in careful handwriting. The sheet can then be optically read
into the computer for amending the stock records.
Disadvantages of OCR.
(i). The document should be handled carefully (e.g. it should not be folded or creased) for
accurate reading.
(ii). Document size & type area may be limited for accurate reading.
(iii). It requires special typing & character formation and a paper with the required quality.
The user must make sure that characters are well-formed; if they are not, reading errors may
arise, making output results unreliable.
OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR).
The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. These positions can then be
marked by, let say, a pencil.
The OMR detects the presence or absence of a mark on a form by sensing the reflected light of
these positional marks. The reader is then used to convert the marks into computer-readable data
& send the value of the sensed data into the computer in form of electronic signals.
The accuracy of an OMR depends on the marks being made properly. If a mark is too light or not
solid enough, it may be misread, giving rise to errors.
Uses of OMR.
OMR forms are used in situations where the data to be input is simple, or the volume of data is
large enough since using other methods would be more expensive.
 Used in marking Multiple-choice examination papers where the answers are filled in a form
with special pencils.
The OMR can sense the presence of a pen or pencil mark. The person taking the test makes a
pencil mark in the box, which he/she thinks corresponds to the answer. An ‘OMR’ is then used
to ‘read’ the answers given by sensing the marks made. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can then check the answers given and grade the paper.
 In Insurance premium collection.

 To read marked research questionnaires.
 In Supermarkets for stock recording.
 Traffic surveys.
Comparative advantages of OMR vs OCR.
(i). Speeds up data input. They ensure faster & more accurate processing of data.
They read data directly from the source document & enable data to be given directly to the
computer for processing.
With an OCR it is possible to read up to 10,000 A4 sized documents in 1hr.
(ii). They read data directly from the source document & therefore, no data preparation is
required.
(iii). Errors are easily corrected.
(iv). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery.
(v). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence reliable.
(vi). The sensitivity of an OMR can be altered to allow for different surface, pencils and inks.
(vii). OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR.
(viii). With an OCR, no typing or transcription/recording process is involved & therefore, not
prone to transcription errors.
Comparative disadvantages of OMR and OCR.
(i). They are expensive methods of input, because they require specialized techniques &
equipment.
(ii). Verification of marked data is difficult.
(iii). Documents may be difficult to design, understand and fill in.
(iv). The document reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document design.
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR).

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is the machine recognition of characters printed
with Magnetic Ink.
The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron (II) Oxide that gives them a
magnetic property.
After forming the characters onto the document, the inked characters are magnetized by passing
the document under a strong magnetic field.
During the reading process, the magnetized characters cause current to flow through the read head
depending on the magnetized surface area occupied by individual characters.
The reader differentiates characters depending on the magnetic patterns that bring different
amount of currents. The MICR recognizes these patterns & conveys them into the computer in
form of electrical signals.
Uses/ applications of MICR.
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used in banks to process the many cheques
being written each day.
The MICR mostly uses a font known as E13B, which consists of 14 characters (i.e. digits 0-9,
& four special characters).
A cheque is usually pre-printed with the Identification number of the bank, the Account
number of the customer, Serial number of the cheque, Branch number, using a special ink
containing particles of Iron Oxide (Magnetic Ink). When the cheque is presented for payment,
the amount is written on the cheque in magnetic ink, using a special device. The cheque can
then be read by a MICR. The data read is then transmitted directly to the CPU for immediate
processing, or can be stored on magnetic disk for latter processing.
 In Local Authorities for payment of rates by installment.
Advantages of MICR over OCR.
(i). An MICR can read data faster & accurate since the information on the document is usually
pre-printed.
(ii). Difficult to forge.
(iii). Document can still be read when folded, written on, etc. This means that, MICR is more
‘robust’.
(iv). A wider range of fonts can be used, including hand printing & normal type. However, there
is no standard-type font.
(v). Faster than OCR. It is possible to read about 2,400 A4 sized documents 1 minute.
POINT-OF-SALE (Pos) TERMINALS.
This is a general class of Input devices of which a Bar-code reader is an example.

A POS terminal can be used as an Input device when online processing is required. Data arising
out of a transaction (e.g. the purchase of an item) is entered on the terminal and is immediately
POS terminals are widely used in the Banks & computerized Wholesale or retail industries, such
as Supermarkets.
Each item in the store has a code; Universal Product Code (UPC) printed on it, that identifies the
item.
The POS terminal consists of a Numeric keypad & a few Control (Functional) keys for entering
data, a Screen and a Printer to print out the list of items and price for the customer.
The Item code, Quantity&Price of the goods purchased by the customer is entered into the POS
terminal directly by the operator. The terminal produces the customer receipt. The details of the
sales are then entered directly into a backing storage device and the Stock level is also
automatically decreased.
A Bar code reader, a Credit card or a Kimball tag Reader could be attached to a POS terminal
to reduce the data entry.
BAR-CODE READER.
This is a device used to read the bar-codes printed on many items in Supermarkets&Pharmacies.
Each item is given a code known as Bar-code (a Bar-code is a set of parallel bars of varying
thickness & spaces of varying widths representing a number code). A space represents a “0”
while a bar represents a “1”. The coded data can be read by using the principles of light.
A computer is used to store the code of the items, item description, price, amount in stock, etc.
When a Bar-code reader is moved across the bars by the Cashier, the reader scans the bar codes
printed on the item using a laser beam, which generates electrical pulses corresponding to the
reflected light received. The bar code is then converted to a number (which is the code for the
item).
The interpreted data is sent to the computer memory in form of signals. These pulses are
compared with standard codes stored in the computer and is used to look up the price of the item.
The details of the price & description are printed out on a receipt for the customer. The Store
Inventory may also be updated at the same time.
Bar codes are also used in Library lending Systems. Each user is given a library card, which is
coded with his library User Number. The relevant details of the user; let say, Name, Address,
Telephone number, category of user (e.g., Staff or Student), No. of books borrowed, date of
expiry of the card, etc are stored in a file on a disk.
When the user wishes to borrow a book, a Bar-code reader ‘reads’ his card, and transmits the code
to the computer. The computer uses the code to retrieve the user’s record from disk.
The Library Assistant will then update the user’s record by entering the relevant information such
as the name (or number) of the book, the date borrowed & the date on which it is to be returned.
Note. Bar-codes cannot be used on goods such as Fresh Fruits&Vegetables.
Advantages of using a Bar-code reader.
(i). They are very fast & accurate provided that the bar-code has been printed clearly. For
example, if the bar-code is soiled by dirty hands or has broken bars, errors may occur when
an attempt is made to read the code.
(ii). It is a cost-saving method.
(iii). Saves time. The prices do not have to be attached to each item in the store because the
items details are already held in a master file.
(iv). Does not require special skills to operate.
(v). It improves customer convenience.
Disadvantages of using a Bar-code reader.
(i). Requires standby facilities.

(ii). Requires very expensive equipments.
(iii). The prices are not stamped on the product, and therefore, high chances of incorrect data
being entered.
KIMBALL (PUNCHED) TAGS.
Some manufacturers use Kimball tags; small paper punched cards attached to clothes or other
commodities on sale mostly in supermarkets. The data is incorporated in the small punched holes.
The holes alternate with spaces to represent data in binary digits.
An optical scanning method is used to read the Kimball tag and extract the product code & price
from it. The tags are removed at point of sale and transferred to the data processing department
for their contents to be used in updating the stock files.
Note. POS terminals, Bar-code readers & Kimball tags speed up customer service & also ensure
accuracy. They may also be used to manage inventory, accounts & maintain up-to-date
sales information.
Advantages.
(i). Data is already coded, hence easy to process.

(ii). No transcription requirements.
Disadvantages.
(i). Difficult to handle because they are small.

(ii). Store small volume of data.
CARDS / BADGES.
These are small rectangular cards made of plastic that incorporate data in both machine-sensible &
human-sensible forms, e.g. Credit cards.
Ways of Coding data onto badges: -
 Magnetized marks, e.g. a short strip of magnetic tape sealed into the card’s surface.
 Optical marks.
 Punched holes.
The cards are read using Badge readers. The data recorder machine records data on these badges
automatically, once manually inserted, using magnetized marks, optical marks or punched holes.
For reading, the badge is slotted into the reading unit where the converter machine (the reader)
accepts the contents of the badge and conveys them directly to the computer as input for
processing.
The badges are used in banks as Credit and Service cards, e.g., in the Automated Teller Machine.
The Badge contents are usually static, though some cards contents can be altered by the reader,
e.g., Phone credit cards whose currency value keeps on changing until zero currency value is left.
(a). SMART CARDS.
A Smart card is a special type of badge whose data can be changed by a special badge
reader.
A Smart card can be used as a form of electronic money. As the customer purchases an
item, the badge reader can deduct units from the card. This process continues until the card
has no more currency units left.
(b). CREDIT CARDS.
A Credit card has a strip of magnetic tape fixed on it. The tape contains coded information,
which is usually the owner’s code. The card is inserted into a slot where magnetic data may
be picked. Details of the transaction are then recorded against the credit card no. & the
owner’s account is credited with the transaction.
Uses of Cards / Badges.
 In Car parks – badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry to or exit from a car park.
 In Banks – Credit and Service cards, i.e. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) give out cash
automatically when customer inserts a plastic card & follows the instructions issued.
 In Access control – Access control cards are used in many offices to control access to buildings
or rooms for security reasons.
 In Production control – Punched cards can be used to hold data in a factory such as employee’s
details, etc, which is used for production scheduling (arrangement), stock control and job
costing.
DIRECT INPUT FROM INSTRUMENTS.

Sensors are devices that can be connected to computers & are used to record physical quantities
like Temperature, light, humidity.
Examples of direct input instruments: -
(a). Sensors used to record temperature, light, humidity in a Green house to ensure the best
conditions for plant growth.
(b). Thermostats connected to a Central heating system controlled by a computer in order to
monitor temperature & to help save electricity.
(c). Pressure pads on a road connected to computer-controlled traffic lights to speed traffic flow.
(d). The continuous logging of temperature data in order to monitor & subsequently control a
chemical process. The automatic capture of data for use in such processes is usually known
as Data logging.
Advantages of using devices, which can read data directly from source documents.
(i). They ensure faster & accurate processing of data. This is because the data is read directly
from the source document, and no data preparation is necessary.
(ii). No typing or recording required, and therefore, not prone to transcription errors.
(iii). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery.
(iv). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence reliable.
(v). Errors are easily corrected.
(vi). Difficult to forge.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) / PROCESSOR.
The CPU is described as the computer’s ‘brain’ that monitors all the computer operations. It is the
unit inside the computer where all software instructions, math and logic operations are carried out.
In Microcomputers, the CPU is implemented in a single silicon device called a Microprocessor

(Computer chip), which is made by combining a very large no. of transistors together using a
technology referred to as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
Notes.
 The CPU is one of the most expensive components of the Motherboard & also a very delicate
piece of equipment.
 The CPU has a label, such as “486” or “Pentium” to show its type, and the chip
manufacturer’s logo on it.
 It has a large fan (known as the Heat sink) screwed on top of it, that keeps the CPU cool
while the system is on. This is because the CPU gets very hot when it is in operation.
Functions of the Processor (Central processing unit).
1. To control the use of the Main memory in storing of data & instructions.
2. To control the sequence of operations within the computer.
3. To give commands to all parts of the system.
4. To carry out data processing.
Basic features (functional elements) of a Microprocessor system.
The Processor is made up of 3 major/ main components;
(i). Control Unit (CU).

(ii). Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
(iii). Main Memory Unit (MMU).
Other components include;

√ Registers.
√ Accumulator.
√ Buses.
Note. The elements making up the Computer system communicate through electronic paths called
Buses. The buses carry data, instructions, information, control commands and power between the
communicating elements.
CONTROL UNIT (CU).
The CU acts as the manager of the computer. Its main work is to control, supervise & co-ordinate
all the activities of the various units of the computer, enabling the machine to perform useful
tasks.
The CU is usually described as the Nerve centre of a computer system. It co-ordinates & controls
the activities of the different components of the computer system in the same way that the brain
directs the actions of the body.
The CU carries out the fetching, decoding & execution of the instructions. It fetches/ selects the
required instruction from Main storage, stores it in a no. of special Registers, interprets the
instructions, and causes the instruction to be executed by sending appropriate signals to the
appropriate hardware devices.
In order to execute an instruction, the CU must do the following:
 Fetch (get) the instruction from the Memory.

 Decode the instruction, i.e., determine what the instruction is saying. For example, whether to
ADD or COMPARE two numbers.
 Get the data required by the instruction. E.g., the two numbers.
 Activate the right circuits for the instruction to be obeyed, e.g. call into action the circuits
which perform addition.
Note. The CU automatically repeats this cycle of operations until either it is instructed to stop or
the last instruction has been executed.
In order to enable the Control Unit to carry out the various functions, certain registers are used.
(a). Sequence Control register (also known as the Program Counter).
It controls the order in which the instructions are carried out.
It contains the address of the next instruction in the computer program to be executed.
For the next instruction to be executed, it must be brought from the memory into the
Processor. When an instruction has been fetched from memory, the Program Counter is
increased by 1, and is then ready to find the next instruction.
Therefore, the Sequence Control register sequentially points to the address of the
instruction to be carried out, reads it into the Instruction Register, and automatically moves
to the next instruction in the processing sequence.
(b). Instruction Register.
It stores a copy of the instruction being processed.
Note. An instruction has 2 parts;

 Operation part, e.g., Multiplication.
 Address part.
The Instruction Register is connected to the Instruction Decoder.
(c). Instruction Decoder.
It decodes (interprets) the instruction received from the Instruction Register& sends
signals to the control switches of the computer.
(d). Address Registers.
Each location in a memory has its own address, which allows us to get directly to any
program instruction or item of data stored within the memory.
Address – A label, name or a number identifying a storage location, or a device from which
information is received or to which it is transmitted.
Address Registers are 16-bit registers used for the storage of addresses. They are
connected to the Address Bus.
The Address part of the instruction goes to the Address Register, which retrieves the
required data item in the address indicated and copies it in the ALU so that the operation
instruction may be executed.
Address modification – the process of changing the address part of a machine instruction
by means of coded instructions.
(e). System Clock.

In order to be able to fetch & execute instructions, the CU uses a timing signal provided by
a System Clock attached to the CPU. The Clock is an electronic system that is used to
control the Processor on when to fetch the next instruction from the Main memory.
The Clock sorts out all the internal paths inside the Processor to make sure that data gets
from the right place & goes to the right place.
The clock is an Oscillator that generates timing pulses (at a frequency of several
Megahertz) to synchronize the computer’s operations & ensure that the operation occurs at
the right time.
The CU performs 1 step of the instruction in 1 clock pulse. The speed of processing will
depend on:
(i). CPU Frequency, i.e., time duration of 1 clock pulse.

(ii). The no. of steps involved in executing a full instruction.
(iii). The Access time of the computer, i.e., the time required to access any one memory
address.
Functions of the Control unit.
1. It co-ordinates & controls various parts of the computer system, namely; Main memory, ALU
& the Peripheral devices.
2. It maintains order & controls all the operations or activities inside the Processor.
The CU controls the activities of all the other units of the computer by using the appropriate
control signals. For example, it instructs the ALU on which arithmetic or logical operations
are to be performed.
3. It connects the required circuits to enable the ALU to process the data in storage, as specified
by the program.
4. It directs sequence of operations, i.e., it generates synchronization signals & manages
commands exchanged between the ALU, I/O units & the Memory.
5. It retrieves and interprets instructions from the Main storage & makes the computer to execute
these instructions by giving commands to the rest of the computer elements.
6. It controls the transfer of unprocessed data to the Main storage & results from the Main
storage.
7. It stores the results in the memory.
8. It determines the location of the memory that contains the next instruction to be retrieved.
9. It monitors the CPU operations & identifies problems, such as equipment malfunction,
illogical instructions or erroneous data finding its way into the system, and flashes them on the
computer screen.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU).
This is the part of the Processor that performs all the arithmetic operations, such as adding or
multiplying figures, &logical operations needed to solve a particular problem.
For example, if two numbers are to be added or multiplied, this is done by the ALU.
The ALU also performs Logic Functions, e.g., AND, NOT, OR, TRUE, FALSE & IF.
Functions of the ALU.
The ALU has 2 main functions:
1. It carries out the Arithmetic operations.

2. It performs logical operations and comparison on data.
Other minor functions include;
√ It performs output of variable (logical) functions.
√ It performs branching of prefixed conditions.
ACCUMULATOR.
 It is a storage device in the A.L.U, where all the answers from both arithmetic & logical
operations are stored temporarily before being transferred to the memory.
 A Register in the ALU in which operands are placed, and in which arithmetical results are
formed.
COMPUTER BUS.
A computer bus consists of a set of parallel wires connecting the Processor to the other devices of
the computer.
 It is a communication path/medium within the computer that allows different elements of the
computer to communicate with each other.
 An electrical connection linking internal sections of a computer, such as Processor, Expansion

cards, and peripherals such as Keyboard and other Input devices.
 A parallel collection of conductors that carry data and control signals from one unit to another.
There are 3 major types of computer buses:
(i). Data Bus.
It is a bi-directional (2-way) bus that carries information & data to and from the Processor,
i.e., it carries data from the Processor to the memory during Write operations & from
memory to the Processor during Read operations.
The Data bus usually carries data for processing.
It consists of 4, 8 or 16 lines each carrying 1 bit at a time.

Note. The Data Bus determines the Bus Width of the microprocessor. Its size indicates the
moving capability of information of the chip.
(ii). Address Bus.
It is a unidirectional (1-way) bus from the Processor to the external devices. It usually
contains the address of the memory location or device to be acted on by the Processor (i.e. it
conveys addresses).
The Address bus is wide (usually between 4 – 32 lines) to enable it to address as many
devices as possible.
The size of the Address Bus tells you how much memory the chip can handle.
(iii). Control Bus.
It’s a unidirectional (1-way) bus that carries command (i.e. timing & control) signals from
the Processor. These signals are necessary to coordinate the activities of the entire system.
For example, the command for the Printer to prepare to receive data is a control signal from
the processor.
They usually have 3 – 10 lines.
Note. Buses are implemented as actual communication lines. They may be Internal buses, which
are usually laid down as a circuit on the chip itself, or they may be External buses, implemented
as cables.
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS.
There are 2 basic factors (parameters/ considerations) used to classify Microprocessors.
1. Clock speed.
2. Width of the Data Bus.
ADVANCED CPU’s.
Larger computers such as Supercomputers, Mainframes & Minicomputers use Processors made of
separate, high speed sophisticated components. That is, the CPU components in large computers
are not all on one chip.
RISCProcessors.
The RISC processors are used in manufacture of Minicomputers.
RISC machines are much faster than Micro-processor based machines, i.e. in RISC machines, the
time required to execute an operation is much shorter compared to the time a Micro-processor
would take to execute the same operation.
RISC chips generally use 128 or fewer instructions to execute their tasks. This means that, the
processor has few instructions to locate. They can execute these instructions more quickly & are
therefore very fast.
Again, each instruction is exactly 32 bits long. So, the processor does not waste any power
determining where the instructions begin or end. This makes RISC processors more superior.
They are also cheaper to produce.
Most of the 64-bit RISC machines are manufactured by: -
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

 Sun Microsystems.
 Hewlett-Packard, and
 IBM (International Business Machine Corporation).
CISCProcessors.
CISC chips use between 200 – 300 instructions. Therefore, the processor has more instructions to
look up.
The instructions are usually between 8 -120 bits long. This means that, a CPU devotes at least
part of its circuit time determining where instructions begin and end, making them run slowly.
Factors that affect the performance of a Processor.
- Overheating.
- Incorrect configuration (construction / arrangement).
- Failed components.
- Running the processor at the wrong speed.
- Jammed or clogged or too small heat-sink / cooling fan.
- Incompatibility.
- Processor inserted the wrong way.
MEASURING THE MEMORY SIZE OF A COMPUTER.
The size of a computer’s memory is the no. of ‘units of storage’ it contains. The unit of storage
can be a Bit, a Byte, or a Word.
A Bit is the smallest unit of storage & can be used to store a 0 or a 1.
A Byte is the amount of storage needed/ required to store 1 character.
A Character is any letter, digit or symbol, which can be obtained by pressing a key on the
Keyboard.
Note. 1 Byte can be used to store 1 character.
A Word is a collection of bits. It can also be described as a group of bits or characters considered
as an entity and capable of being stored in one storage location.
The no. of bits in a word is called the Word Size. The most common Word sizes are 16, 32 & 64.
On a given computer, a Word is the amount of storage normally needed to store an instruction.
Memory sizes.
Characters
1 Byte A group of 8 bits 1
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 (a thousand) bytes 103 1,024
1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (a million) bytes 106 1,048,576
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (a billion) bytes 109 1,073, 741,824
1 Terabyte (Tera) 1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion) bytes 1012 1,099,511,627,776
A computer memory is made up of many storage cells called Bytes. Each cell (byte) is capable of
storing 8 bits (binary digits) and has a unique numeric address.
Generally, the memory size of a computer is usually measured in Bytes. The prefix K is taken to
be 1,024 bytes.
For example, when the size of a computer memory is quoted as being, say, 256 Kbytes, this
implies that, there are 262,144 memory cells or the computer has (256 x 1,024) = 262,144 bytes of
memory.
When planning to acquire computer equipments, the individual or organization should carefully
weigh the merits and demerits of the methods used to finance the equipment
The requirements analysis for selecting a computer system should cover the following:
1. Identify all requirements of the user.

2. Evaluate hardware requirements that will meet the user’s needs.
3. Evaluate software requirements that will meet the user’s needs.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
The various factors to be considered in selecting a computer system are categorized as follows;
(1). Economic factors.
- Cost comparisons.
- Acquisition methods.
- Return on investment.
(2). Hardware factors.

- Hardware performance, reliability, capacity, and price.
- Firmness of delivery date.
- Accessibility of back-up facilities.
- Presence or absence of modularity.
- Effective life of the proposed hardware.
- Compatibility with existing systems..
(3). Software factors.
- Software performance and price.

- Firmness of delivery date on the proposed software.
- Availability of useful and well-documented packaged programs.
- Ease of use and modification.
(4). Service factors.
- Maintenance terms and quality.

- Training facilities offered and the quality of training provided.
- Programming and conversion assistance offered.
- Facilities provided by the manufacturer for checking new programs.
(5). Reputation of a manufacturer.
- Financial stability.
- Clean record of keeping promises.
HARDWARE FACTORS.
Some factors considered when selecting a computer hardware are:
(a). Processor Speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operation. The Processor speed is the speed at
which the system Clock synchronizes the operations of the CPU & can be measured in Hertz
or Megahertz (1MHz = 1 million cycles per second).
The processing power of a computer depends on its Processor speed&the amount of data it
can handle at the same time.
(b). Memory capacity (amount of Main memory –RAM).
All computers have some amount of Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM is a section of
the Main memory, which is used for holding data & instructions required immediately by
CPU to perform a task.
(c). Warranty (Service contract/ assurance/ guarantee).
A Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and
conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.
A Warranty is usually the duration in which your computer is supposed to work without any
problem.
A good warranty should cover the following points:
1. Scope of cover, such as 6 months, 1 year, etc.

2. Callout response and liability agreement. .
3. Preventive maintenance.
(d). Cost of the system.
The cost of a computer system depends on:
1. Its Processing capability.

2. Its Size.
The cost of a computer is directly related to the size. Portable computers are more
expensive than their desktop equivalents, because of the superior technology involved to
manufacture smaller components without losing performance abilities.
3. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive that their
equivalent clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale services.
(e). Upgradeability of the computer.
The type of the computer purchased should be upgradeable, i.e., it should allow upgrading of
the Processor & the Hard disk to make it suit your needs. The RAM memory can also be
upgraded/ increased by simply adding new memory modules into the memory slots on your
Motherboard.
(f). Compatibility of the system.
The hardware facilities of the computer should relate well with the different kind of devices
available. It must also support Plug-and-Play facilities.
This ensures that the computer system operates in a systematic, reliable, & efficient manner
as required by the user.
(g). Portability.
The size of the computer should be small so as to enhance portability. In other words, it
should be sufficiently light & hence easily transportable.
(h). User needs.
The computer hardware selected should be able to accommodate the user programs as well as
any other device which might be added; both hardware and software.
User needs also determine the type of data that will be processed. Therefore, the type of
hardware chosen should be the most appropriate to satisfy the needs. For example, in a
Supermarket, a special device called a Point of Sale (POS) Terminal is most suitable to record
transactions.
(ix). Popularity of the computer manufacturer.
The computer must be from a well-known manufacturer. This can only be detected by use of
the brand names such as Compaq, Dell, IBM, and Hp.
(x). Availability of hardware spare parts.
The computer spare parts, i.e., Input and output devices, should be readily available.
(xi). Monitor.
Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on Size, resolution, and the
technology used to make it.
Currently, Flat panel displays have become a new market standard quickly replacing the
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
(xii). Multimedia capability.
Multimedia is the combination of video, audio, text, and images to provide an interactive,
creative, and effective way of producing and communicating information.
A multimedia system should have Speakers, CD/DVD drive, Sound card, and a SVGA
monitor. It should also have software that supports multimedia capability.
SOFTWARE FACTORS.
The following factors should be considered when selecting software:
(a). Authenticity of the software.
The term Authenticity refers to genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item.
When acquiring software from the vendor, make sure it is the original copy that is
accompanied by the license and certificate of authenticity of the developer.
You should only use software of the major Software houses.
(b). Documentation of the programs.
Documentation refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to
install, use and maintain the software.
These include; Installation guide, Maintenance guide, User guide, a Reference manual, etc.
This documentation enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.
(c). User needs (requirements) of the software.
The needs of the user determine the type of operating system and application programs that
should be purchased..
(d). Reliability and security.
People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to confidential and
private information.
(e). User friendliness of the software.
The software purchased is expected to be “User-friendly”. User-friendliness is a measure of

how easily the user can be able to operate the computer.
Features/characteristics of User-friendly software.
 It should be easy to learn & use and also suit people with little or no computing
knowledge.
 The programs should enable the end-user to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, manage computer files, diagnose & repair computer problems that
enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
 The software should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing
manuals.
 The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the software complete
required tasks should be minimal.
 The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
 The software should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to reason
about what is going on and apply what has been learned.
(f). Cost of the Software.
The software purchased should be relatively cheap, and should be able to meet one’s needs.
Note. One cannot just buy a program because it is cheap. There are many other factors that
may force a person to buy far much more expensive software even with cheaper alternatives
available.
In case the off-the-shelf software does not fit the needs of the users, it would be advisable to
develop in-house software, even though they may be a bit more expensive.
(g). Compatibility and System requirements of the software.
Software compatibility refers to the ability of the computer to run depending on the system
setup (configuration).
Different programs will be loaded to different types of hardware. For example, some
software may only run on a computer that has 32MB or RAM and above. Any computer,
whose configuration is lower than this, is said to be incompatible.
Therefore, the programs selected should relate (fit) well with/within the existing computer
resources, e.g., hardware facilities and ensure that the computer system operates in a
systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the user.
Some software are not compatible (well suited), e.g. Apple Programs. Otherwise, it is
important that one reads the installation guide and system requirements that comes with the
software in order to avoid disappointment.
(h). Portability of the software.
Portability refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one
computer.
The software should be Portable, i.e. it should also be able to run on several different types
of computers with very little or no modification (without re-writing the code).
Note. Although, most software in the market today are portable, some developers produce
software which can be installed on one machine only. This means that, if one has, say 20
computers, he/she should buy a license for each.
(ix). Standards of the software.
The software should be standardized, i.e. the version of the program should not be too low or
too high.
(x). Popularity of the software.
Before buying particular software, its current users should be interviewed to find out whether
the software is successful and famous in the market.
ACQUISITION (PROCUREMENT) OF A COMPUTER.

Introduction.
Introducing a computer into the business is an act that should be considered with great concern,
because it involves capital expenditure, and as such, it should only be done if it is necessary and
its acquisition should be in a cost-effective manner.
Before acquiring the computer and its related facilities, one should investigate the effects of
introducing the computer into the organization. This is to ensure that adequate returns are
expected from such an investment.
Computer costs.
The cost of introducing a computer into the organization depends on Size, Nature & the
application requirements of the affected organization.
Small & simple organizations may require less sophisticated computer installations. Big &
complex business organizations may require complex configuration and sophisticated related
facilities.
The costs for installing a computer system may be classified as;

1. Initial costs.
2. Recurrent costs.
Initial costs.
This is the initial capital expenditure onto the computer facilities when they are being acquired.
These costs depend on the Type, Nature and the Model of the facilities to be acquired.
The costs are influenced by the method used to acquire the computer and its related facilities.
The organization should consider ways or plans of acquiring the following facilities:
Facility Examples
Hardware C.P.U and Peripherals
Software System and Application programs
Storage Media Tapes, Disks, Cassettes, etc.
Training Managers, Analysts, Programmers, Operators, etc.
Computer room Construction, Environmental conditions, Equipments, etc.
Others Feasibility study, Programming, Changeover costs, etc.
Recurrent costs.
Once the computer facilities have been acquired and the system becomes operational, the
operating costs for the computer system have to be met by the organization.
Examples of such costs are:

(i). Depreciation costs – the charges on depreciating machines & other equipments, e.g., Air
conditioning facilities.
(ii). Wages of staff, e.g., Analysts, Programmers, Operators, etc.
(iii). Administration expenses, e.g., Telephone bills, Insurance cover, consumable costs, etc.
(iv). Other general expenses, e.g. conducting seminars, on-job training for staff, etc.
LESSON 5
Computer installation
SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION
THE MOTHERBOARD (also called System Board or Circuit board).
Computers, like all electronic circuit devices are made of printed Circuit boards (electronic
boards on which copper wires have been printed to form circuit paths).
The Motherboard is the main part (large circuit board) of your computer that every thing else
plugs into.
It is usually a sheet of olive green or brown fiberglass with several thin gold lines on it and chips
sticking off it.
By itself, the Motherboard is just an empty plate. It’s the hardware that sits on it that does the
work. On it, we have the CPU, SIMM sockets, BIOS and slots.
The Motherboard provides a convenient method of inter-board connection. It is where all

electronic components such as the Microprocessor, Memory chips, Interface chips, and Bus
connections are assembled.
The motherboard also contains a no. of expansion slots in which Interface cards are slotted
(plugged in).
The little gold lines are called Buses and act as roadways of information between all these
features. The buses enable the parts to communicate and perform the functions of your computer.
INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) PORTS.
A Port is a connection or socket used to connect a device, such as a Printer, Monitor, Mouse,
Scanner, etc to your computer.
I/O Ports are the sockets found at the back of your computer where you can connect external
computer devices to the interface cards inside the computer. They allow access in & out of the
computer for cables.
There are several types of external ports: -
1. Parallel (LPT) ports.

2. Serial (Com) ports.
3. USB ports.
4. SCSI ports.
PARALLEL PORTS.
The standard PC parallel port was originally designed for sending information to Printers or
Scanners. That is the reason why they are sometimes referred to as Line Printer Terminal
(LPT) ports.
They are D-shaped with holes for 25 pins.
It is used mainly to connect Printers, Scanners, and sometimes external Hard drives, CD-ROM
drives, Tape devices & Network adapters to your computer.
Parallel ports transmit data using an 8–bit parallel interface & are therefore, used for devices that
accept information 8 bits at a time. They transmit data byte-by-byte. They are usually faster than
Serial ports.
Note. The SCSI Port is an example of a parallel port.
SERIAL PORTS.
They are sometimes referred to as Communication (COM) ports.
Are also D-shaped with 9 or 25 pins.
They are used primarily to connect devices such as serial Mice, external Modems, and sometimes
Printers to the System unit. They can also be used for computer-to-computer connection.
The Serial port has 2 data lines, one for data in & the other for data out.
Transmission rates of Serial ports are slower than those of Parallel ports. This is because, Serial
ports transmit data bit-by-bit. Therefore, they are used for devices that accept information 1 bit at
a time (or for devices that are a bit slow).
UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB) PORTS.
Many new PCs come with USB ports. USB ports support a wide range of desktop peripherals,
e.g., Keyboards, digital Cameras, etc.
USB combines the best features of SCSI architecture with an advanced Plug-and-play standard. It
replaces the traditional Serial & Parallel ports with a single port that is extensible through the use
of hubs and devices daisy-chained in a tree arrangement.
USB was designed to deliver a data transfer rate of up-to 12Mbits/sec to & from the PC. It also
supports low-speed mode of 1.5Mbit/sec for devices like Keyboards, Mice and Joysticks.
USB is “user-friendly
Advantages of USB ports over Serial & Parallel ports.
(i). Devices are powered by the bus – there is no need for external power adapters. USB allows
unpowered devices to draw up to 500 mA over the connector cable.
(ii). Can support a max. of 127 daisy-chained devices, because of its high bit addressing system.
SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) PORTS.
Pronounced as Scuzzy.
SCSI is a device interface used by PCs, Apple Macintosh computers and many UNIX systems.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) card is used for attaching to peripheral devices that
require high speed data transfers between the device and memory.
The SCSI cards provide parallel high-speed data transfer in the range of 10 MB/s to the memory.
It connects peripherals to your computer via standard hardware interface, which uses standard
SCSI commands.LESSON 6
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Definition.
 An Operating system is a set of programs that is used to manage the basic hardware resources
of a computer.
 This is the main program that controls the execution of user applications, and enables the user
to access the hardware & software resources of the computer.
When the computer is switched on, the OS programs run & check to ensure that all parts of the
computer are functioning properly.
Operating system’s platform.
In a data processing environment, the user sees a computer as a group of application programs that
enable him/her to accomplish specific tasks.
However, application programs do not use the hardware devices directly. They send messages
through the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware to
perform a particular task.
The user communicates his/her intentions to the OS through the use of a special instruction set
known as Commands.
User
(Runs Application programs)
Application software
(Send users requests to the OS)
As in this diagram, the OS is a layer of software on top of the bare hardware, and is used to
manage all parts of computer hardware & also act as an interface between the user & the
computer.
The OS monitors & controls computer operations so that the user can do useful work on the
computer, and it also enables Application programs use the hardware in a proper, orderly and
efficient way.
An OS consists of a special program called a Supervisor (Kernel/ Executive), which is stored in

ROM of the Main Memory. The Supervisor/Kernel contains the most necessary commands and
procedures & controls the running of all other programs, each performing a particular service.
NB. The programs that make up the Operating system are too large to fit in main memory at one
time. These programs are usually installed on a direct access backing storage device, such as the
hard disk.
When the Supervisor needs a particular program, it is read from the disk & loaded into the RAM
memory, where it can be executed.
Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating systems were
developed).
i). Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need internal control.
ii). To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.
iii). Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they are allowed to do
for security.
iv). To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can be processed
through the system in a given period of time.
v). Improve communication between the user & the computer.
vi). To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
vii). It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.
When an error occurs that can cause the computer to stop functioning, a diagnostic message
is displayed. The meaning of the message is then checked in the computer operations
manual.
viii). Reduces job setup time.
When one job is running, other programs can be read onto the job queue. The Input/Output
devices can also be made ready without delay.
ix). Most computers allow many programs to be run & also many users to use the system at the
same time.
Devices/resources under the control of an Operating System.
A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable movement, storage

and processing of data & information.
As a resource manager, the OS manages the following basic resources/ devices: -
1. Processor.
2. Main memory (RAM).
3. Secondary storage devices.
4. Input/Output devices and their Ports.
5. Communication devices and their Ports.
6. Files.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.
The OS creates a working environment in which the user can run programs. The general
functions of the operating system are:
1. Processor management.
The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes.
A Multi-tasking computer system can run several applications simultaneously. At times,

several tasks may require processing, hence creating competition. However, the CPU can only
execute one program at any one time.
Therefore, access to the CPU must be carefully controlled & monitored. The OS must decide,
which program will be allowed into the system, and for how long.
To do this, the OS arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a
particular task to allow the processor to service another task.
2. Memory allocation & loading of programs.
 Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed, and moved out of
memory when they are no longer required. Therefore, before processing starts, the OS
ensures that the programs are transferred into the available memory location in the Main
memory from the backing store, e.g. a disk.
 At any one given time, a number of tasks may require the memory so that they can be
accessed & processed by the computer. The computer memory is a scarce resource, and
therefore, the OS must determine which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution
and which one will be sent back to secondary storage to wait.
 The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in use and by which program, and what
parts are free.
 The OS also handles the data files used by the programs that are being executed by the
CPU.
 In addition, the OS ensures that storage space is provided for data generated by programs &
during data transfer operations such as, disk copying or printing.
3. Input/Output devices & ports management.
 Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O) devices. The OS controls the input from
& output to the various devices. It also tries to monitor the state of each I/O device and
signals any faults detected.
 During the course of their execution, programs will request the use of an Input or Output
device. In a multi-user system, conflicts are likely to occur when one program requests a
device that is being used by another program. Therefore, the OS will control allocation of
I/O devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts that arise.
 Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS has to control the
flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as information. It
ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right time.
 The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer, e.g., printer
port.
4. Management of secondary storage devices.
The OS manages the storage & retrieval of data on secondary storage devices. It also utilizes
the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the computer by temporarily
holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for sometime.
5. Management of communication devices & ports.
Communication refers to how the various devices and programs in & out of the computer
system send & receive messages from one another and from the processor.
The OS controls the communication process between the various tasks & the computer.
To achieve external communication, an external device is usually connected to a
communication port using cables or wireless communication media.
6. File management.
The OS is concerned with the logical organization of the information (the File System) and
provides a means through which files can be sorted, retrieved & shared.
It also provides a means of protecting data files & programs against unauthorized access and
corruption.
7. Job scheduling.
The OS arranges & loads programs in order to provide a continuous sequence of processing &
also provide the appropriate responses to events.
The processor can handle only one task at a time. Therefore, in a situation where more than
one application program is occupying the main storage, the OS has to determine which task
will be processed first and ensures that the one that is currently being processed is closely
monitored to avoid wasting time in the processor.
The jobs are allocated priorities so as to ensure that there is continuous processing until all the
jobs within the memory are executed. This ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at any
given instance.
Some of the job scheduling functions include:
 Controlling the loading & running of programs.

 Communicating directly with users and/or the operator.
 Dealing with user commands to organize files and run programs.
NB: A Job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer, e.g., one or more
computer programs, files, & instructions, to the operating system.
8. Job sequencing.
The OS keeps a list of jobs/tasks currently being run and monitors them as they move in & out
of the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the processor to
execute them and to know how & when to fetch instructions & data for each task.
9. Resource control and allocation.
The OS controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used for input, output and
storage.
The OS determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time. To do this, it gives
each resource a unique identification number called an Interrupt number so that, when two
tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher priority interrupt is
granted control.
This prevents an undesirable situation called deadlock that occurs when a particular task holds
a needed resource & refuses to release it for use by other tasks.
10. Error reporting & correction routines.

The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of any errors that occur during program
execution. It does this by monitoring the status of the computer system & performing error
checks on both hardware and software.
When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the cause of the error,
and prints diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting appropriate routines of how the error
can be corrected.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be suspended permanently.
E.g., the user program will prematurely terminate when it encounters an illegal operation, such
as, dividing a no. by 0 or if it attempts to read a data file that had not been opened.
11. Interrupt handling.
An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program.
Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number called the
Interrupt Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when an interrupt occurs, control is passed to the
Kernel, which determines the cause of the interrupt. The processor stops executing the current
program to wait for the corrective response of the user. Control is returned to the program that
was interrupted once corrective action has been taken.
Some causes of Interrupt.
i). An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
The Kernel saves vital information using the dying power supply so that it can be
restarted when power is returned.
ii). Arithmetic or logic errors.
When the ALU detects that an error has occurred, (e.g., the output may be requested to a
non-existent device) it generates a signal that causes an interrupt. Control is transferred
to the Kernel, which indicates the appropriate error correction routines.
iii). Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
The I/O control for each device & its associated hardware normally takes care of parity
checking. If a parity error is detected, the Kernel is notified by an interrupt.
Device driver - a software that the OS uses to control a specific piece of hardware.
12. Interfaces the user to the system’s hardware.
The OS provides quick means of communication between the computer user & its programs.
The user requests the services of the OS by use of commands & the OS communicates the
messages regarding the processing to the user through, either the screen or printer. Thus, a
form of ‘conversation’ is established between the OS & the computer user.
13. Logging & accounting.
The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the computer’s resources, e.g., CPU time,
memory usage, & the peripherals are being used. It also keeps a complete record of all that
happens during processing (usually in the form of a printed log).
14. The OS protects hardware, software & data from improper use. They ensure that application
programs use the hardware in an efficient way.
Examples of operating systems:
 DOS (Disk Operating System).

 Windows operating system.
 MacOS (Macintosh).
 Unix.
 Linux.
Characteristics of an operating system.
An OS should have the following characteristics:
a). Reliable.
The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware on which it runs. If a software or

hardware error occurs, the system should be able to detect the error and either try to correct
the problem or try to minimize the damage to the users of the system from the error.
b). Protected.
A user doesn’t want other users to interfere with him. Therefore, the system should protect
users from being affected both by errors of other users and by malicious attempts at
tampering.
c). Efficient.
The OS is usually a complex program that uses a large part of the hardware resources for its
own functions. The resources consumed by the OS are not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient, & should manage user’s resources to
minimize their idle time.
d). Convenient.
Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.

Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to use. In addition, in order to allow the
sharing of resources, the OS must be in complete control of the allocation of the computer
resources.
e). Predictable.
User demands on the system are generally unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to
get service that does not vary widely over extended periods of time. An estimate as to when
the user will get his input should be given.
SYSTEMS.
The OS determines determine the type of processing that a computer system is able to perform,
since it controls the allocation & use of the computer resources.
Operating systems can be classified according to:
1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently.

 Single-tasking (program) operating system.
 Multi-tasking operating system.
2. Number of users the system can support at the same time.

 Single-user operating systems.
 Multi-user operating systems.
3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer interact).
 Command line.
 Menu driven interface.
 Graphical user interface (GUI).
Classification according to tasks handled concurrently.
Single-tasking OS.
Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be processed at a

particular time.
This means that, the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must then exit
from the program before loading & running another program.
Example of a single user OS;
 MS-DOS.
Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.
A Multi-tasking OSallows a single CPU to execute/process more than one program, all of which
are in memory, at the same time.
Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case, the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for
processing, executing statements from one program, and then from another.
The programs to be run are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins execution of the first one.
When the request is satisfied, the second program is brought into memory and execution starts on
the second program, and so on.
Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to work on several programs at the same time.
It works on the programs on sequence, one after the other, and that at any given instant it executes
instructions from one program only. However, the computer works so quickly that it appears to
be executing the programs simultaneously.
Classification according to number of users.
Single-user OS.
A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one person. It allow only one user/person to
operate the machine at a time in an interactive, conversational mode, and runs only one user
program at a time, e.g. MS-DOS.
Multi-user (or multi access) OS.
A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many people) to interactively use/access the
computer at the same time.
Examples;
 UNIX,
 Novell Netware,
 Ms-Windows 2000,
 Ms-Windows NT,
 Linux, etc
Classification according to Human Computer Interface (HCI).
The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction between the
computer & the user, and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.
The HCI enables communication to & from between the user and the computer.
User-friendliness.
HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user finds helpful, and
easy to learn & use.
Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.
i). It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.
ii). The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing manuals.
iii). The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the system complete
required tasks should be minimal.
iv). The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be protected from unexpected
system actions, including system failures.
v). The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise between users & also as
users grow in competence.
vi). The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
vii). The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to reason
about what is going on and apply what has been learned.
Types of User interfaces.
There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -
1. Command driven interface.

2. Menu driven interface.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Command driven interface.
This is an interaction between the user & the computer that requires the use of commands
The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line. The computer then reads
instructions from the command line and executes them.
Example;
To copy a file called Fruits.Dat from Hard disk C to Floppy disk A using MS-DOS; type
C:\ >COPY Fruits.Dat A:\ (press the Enter key for the command to be executed).
Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer what to do.
Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is more difficult to learn. The user must know
what commands are available, what they do & how they should be typed. For this reason,
commands are most popular with experienced technical persons, such as computer Operators,
Programmers or in situations where the end-user continually works with the same program and
has therefore mastered the commands.
To make commands more user-friendly, the following points need to be observed: -
1. The command words used should be descriptive VERBS that clearly convey the intended
action, e.g., PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE, etc.
2. Unique abbreviations should be provided for more experienced users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN,
DEL, CHKDSK, etc.
3. Multiple items on a single command line should ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces.
E.g., PRINT can be used in the following ways: -
 PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the default printer.

 PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three documents on the default printer.
Examples of Command line interfaces:
 MS-DOS,
 Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.
Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces
 They are more difficult to learn.

 The user must know the command to type.
 It is less user-friendly.
 It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.
Menu driven interface.
This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands displayed on the screen
to choose from & a simple means of selecting between them.
To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the cursor until it is
positioned at the desired choice & then press the activation key so that the system can start acting
upon the information given.
This interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users who may have difficulties in
remembering commands.
There are 2 types of menus: -
(a) Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used mostly in Windows.
(b) Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus are made to appear above or below an
item on the screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.
Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface called the DOS Shell or DOS Editor.
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces

 Menus provide many options to select from.
 The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master any commands.
 They are easier to use.
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of commands to the
computer by activating certain small graphic images displayed on the screen called Icons.
To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a Mouse.
GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted with graphic adapters able to support high-
resolution graphics.
Examples of GUI based OS;
 Presentation manager of OS/2,

 Ms-Windows,
 Linux,
 Apple Macintosh.
Features of a graphical user interface.
 Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
 Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
 There is use of pull-down menus.
 Programs open by displaying windows.
Advantages of using GUI based OS
 They are user friendly.

 Easy to learn & use.
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system.
The following factors should be considered when choosing an operating system for a computer;
1. Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g., RAM memory size, hard disk capacity, type of
processor, etc.
2. Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM or IBM compatible, or an Apple computer?
3. Hardware compatibility.
4. User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications intended for the computer.
5. User friendliness or Human computer interface, i.e., is it Command line based, Menu-driven
or a Graphical user interface?
6. Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft Windows based OS are very common.
7. Portability.
8. Cost – how expensive the OS is.
9. Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or hanging (stop responding to commands).
10. The method of communication with the computer, e.g. the number of peripherals.
11. The method of operating the computer.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS.
Windows operating system was developed as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for PCs running
on MS-DOS.
It provides a friendly interface that allows the users to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen using a pointing device, e.g., a Mouse or a trackball. These
graphical capabilities make a program easier to use.
Microsoft Windows takes its name from the on-screen “Window” that it uses to display
information.
 A Window is a rectangular portion/ area of the screen that Windows sets aside for a specific
task.
 A Window is a rectangular area on a display screen in which text and graphical images may
be displayed.
Examples of Windows operating systems:
 Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000 Professional, 2003, NT, Millennium (Me), XP, and Vista.
 Linux,
 UNIX,
 MacOS.
 OS/2.
Common features of Windows operating systems:-

1). They all have similar user-interfaces. For example;
 Windows.
 Pointing device – a device such as a mouse or trackball, that enables the user to select
objects on the display screen.
 Pointer – a symbol (arrow) that appears on the display screen, and can be used to select
objects & commands.
 Icons – small graphical pictures that represent commands, files, or applications. By moving
the pointer to the icon and pressing a mouse button, one can execute a command or convert
the icon into a window.
 Buttons – items used to initiate a process in an application.

 Menus – they provide choices that let the user execute commands by selecting them.
 Desktop – this is the area on the display screen where icons are grouped.
2). It is user-friendly. Windows is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options used
in particular applications are usually displayed on the screen in form of Icons.
3). All Windows operating system support multiple users & have the ability to Multi-task, i.e.,
they allow one to run more than one program at the same time, each in its own window.
4). It is easy to exchange information between Windows applications, i.e., it is easy to transfer or
copy information from one program to another.
5). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. For example, Open, Save, Print,
etc & therefore, you don’t need to learn a different set of commands for each application.
6). Ability to handle long file names, e.g., Windows 95 and later versions accept file names of up
to 255 characters including spaces.
7). Most Windows operating systems have Plug and play (PnP) features. They automatically
accept a new hardware once it is connected to the computer.
Advantages of Windows Operating Systems.
i). It is easy to open programs, find documents, and switch between programs.
ii). Windows provide facilities such as the Windows Explorer, which enable one to browse
through & manage you files, folders, and drives easily.
iii). Windows can support long file names, making it easier to find and organize files.
iv). Windows has improved Video, CD & sound capabilities, and can fully support MS-DOS-
based games.
v). Windows makes it easier to install new hardware devices onto the system. It is able to
recognize and sets up a certain Plug-and-Play hardware whose card has been inserted in the
computer automatically.
vi). Windows allows true Multitasking, i.e. it allows the user to run more than one (several)
program at the same time, each in its own window.
vii). Windows is user-friendly, i.e., it is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options
used in particular programs are usually displayed on the screen in form icons.
viii). Windows supports a wide choice of networks & transmission protocols. It also has facilities
for sharing files & devices.
ix). Windows has facilities that allow people to work with all types of electronic
communications, e.g., it allows people to send text messages, transfer files, and also hold
digital live face-to-face conversations with family friends & business associates around the
world.
x). Windows includes My Briefcase, a file synchronization tool & a utility for transferring files
over a direct cable link or dial-up networking.
xi). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. E.g., Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, there is no need to learn a different set of commands for each application.
xii). Windows allows movement of text or items from one program to another. i.e., it is easy to
exchange information between Windows applications.
xiii). Windows has facilities that enable the computer to save power resources by putting the
computer on standby or hibernation.
xiv). Windows includes a Help system that makes your computer easier to use. It helps you find
answers to your questions easily, or get up-to date technical support from the WWW.
Differences between Ms-Windows & Disk Operating System.
Ms-Windows MS-DOS
1. There are icons 1. No Icons
2. Uses both the Mouse & Keyboard as Input 2. Only the Keyboard is used as Input device.
devices.
3. There is use of Menus. 3. It is command-based.
4. User-friendly. 4. Not user-friendly.
5. Windows fully supports networking. 5. DOS cannot support networking.
6. Requires a computer with high memory size. 6. Uses less memory compared to Windows.
7. Windows can support DOS, i.e. it is possible 7. DOS cannot support Windows, i.e. it is not
to run DOS-based programs in Windows. possible to run Window-based programs in
MS-DOS.
8. Uses Multi-coloured screen. 8. Uses monochrome (1 coloured) screen.
9. It is a Multi-user OS. 9. It is a single-user OS.
10. It is a multi-tasking OS, i.e. can support more 10. It is a single-tasking OS, i.e. can only support
than 1 program at a time. one program at a time.
11. Comes in different versions. 11. MS-DOS is an operating system by itself.
12. Uses folders for storage of files. 12. Uses Directories to organize files.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS.
Windows operating system was developed as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for PCs running
on MS-DOS.
It provides a friendly interface that allows the users to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen using a pointing device, e.g., a Mouse or a trackball. These
graphical capabilities make a program easier to use.
Microsoft Windows takes its name from the on-screen “Window” that it uses to display
information.
 A Window is a rectangular portion/ area of the screen that Windows sets aside for a specific
task.
 A Window is a rectangular area on a display screen in which text and graphical images may
be displayed.
Examples of Windows operating systems:
 Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000 Professional, 2003, NT, Millennium (Me), XP, and Vista.
 Linux,
 UNIX,
 MacOS.
 OS/2.
Common features of Windows operating systems:-
1). They all have similar user-interfaces. For example;

 Windows.
 Pointing device – a device such as a mouse or trackball, that enables the user to select
objects on the display screen.
 Pointer – a symbol (arrow) that appears on the display screen, and can be used to select
objects & commands.
 Icons – small graphical pictures that represent commands, files, or applications. By moving
the pointer to the icon and pressing a mouse button, one can execute a command or convert
the icon into a window.
 Buttons – items used to initiate a process in an application.

 Menus – they provide choices that let the user execute commands by selecting them.
 Desktop – this is the area on the display screen where icons are grouped.
2). It is user-friendly. Windows is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options used
in particular applications are usually displayed on the screen in form of Icons.
3). All Windows operating system support multiple users & have the ability to Multi-task, i.e.,
they allow one to run more than one program at the same time, each in its own window.
4). It is easy to exchange information between Windows applications, i.e., it is easy to transfer or
copy information from one program to another.
5). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. For example, Open, Save, Print,
etc & therefore, you don’t need to learn a different set of commands for each application.
6). Ability to handle long file names, e.g., Windows 95 and later versions accept file names of up
to 255 characters including spaces.
7). Most Windows operating systems have Plug and play (PnP) features. They automatically
accept a new hardware once it is connected to the computer.
Advantages of Windows Operating Systems.
i). It is easy to open programs, find documents, and switch between programs.
ii). Windows provide facilities such as the Windows Explorer, which enable one to browse
through & manage you files, folders, and drives easily.
iii). Windows can support long file names, making it easier to find and organize files.
iv). Windows has improved Video, CD & sound capabilities, and can fully support MS-DOS-
based games.
v). Windows makes it easier to install new hardware devices onto the system. It is able to
recognize and sets up a certain Plug-and-Play hardware whose card has been inserted in the
computer automatically.
vi). Windows allows true Multitasking, i.e. it allows the user to run more than one (several)
program at the same time, each in its own window.
vii). Windows is user-friendly, i.e., it is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options
used in particular programs are usually displayed on the screen in form icons.
viii). Windows supports a wide choice of networks & transmission protocols. It also has facilities
for sharing files & devices.
ix). Windows has facilities that allow people to work with all types of electronic
communications, e.g., it allows people to send text messages, transfer files, and also hold
digital live face-to-face conversations with family friends & business associates around the
world.
x). Windows includes My Briefcase, a file synchronization tool & a utility for transferring files
over a direct cable link or dial-up networking.
xi). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. E.g., Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, there is no need to learn a different set of commands for each application.
xii). Windows allows movement of text or items from one program to another. i.e., it is easy to
exchange information between Windows applications.
xiii). Windows has facilities that enable the computer to save power resources by putting the
computer on standby or hibernation.
xiv). Windows includes a Help system that makes your computer easier to use. It helps you find
answers to your questions easily, or get up-to date technical support from the WWW.
Differences between Ms-Windows & Disk Operating System.
Ms-Windows MS-DOS
1. There are icons 1. No Icons
2. Uses both the Mouse & Keyboard as Input 2. Only the Keyboard is used as Input device.
devices.
3. There is use of Menus. 3. It is command-based.
4. User-friendly. 4. Not user-friendly.
5. Windows fully supports networking. 5. DOS cannot support networking.
6. Requires a computer with high memory size. 6. Uses less memory compared to Windows.
7. Windows can support DOS, i.e. it is possible 7. DOS cannot support Windows, i.e. it is not
to run DOS-based programs in Windows. possible to run Window-based programs in
MS-DOS.
8. Uses Multi-coloured screen. 8. Uses monochrome (1 coloured) screen.
9. It is a Multi-user OS. 9. It is a single-user OS.
10. It is a multi-tasking OS, i.e. can support more 10. It is a single-tasking OS, i.e. can only support
than 1 program at a time. one program at a time.
11. Comes in different versions. 11. MS-DOS is an operating system by itself.
12. Uses folders for storage of files. 12. Uses Directories to organize files.
LESSON 7
STORAGE MEDIA
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER MEMORY.
Computer storage is divided into 2:
1. Main memory (Primary memory).

2. Secondary storage (Backing/ Auxiliary storage).
MAIN MEMORY.
It can also be described as the Primary storage, Internal Memory, Immediate Access storage,
Semi-conductor memories, Core memory, etc.
This is the storage (memory) found within the computer itself.

It is used to hold data, programs & instructions required immediately (or currently being used) by
the Processor.
A computer can only obey data and program instructions that are stored in the Main memory.
It is Online (very close) to the central Processor, and therefore, any data within the Main memory
is directly accessible to the Processor.
The Primary storage generally consists of the following functional areas:
(a). Program storage area.
Holds instructions from both System software & Application programs, which enter the
central processor from an Input device.
(b). Working storage area.
Is used to hold the data being processed as well as the intermediate results of such
processing.
(c). Input storage area.
It temporarily holds data that has been read from an Input device. Since Input devices
operate at slower speed than the Processor, part of the Input storage area serves as a Buffer.
A Buffer helps free the CPU to get on with other work while the slower I/O operations are
completing.
(d). Output storage area.
Holds the finished results of processing unit released to the user.
General features/ characteristics of the Main memory.
(i). Its operation is wholly electronic, and therefore, very fast, accurate and reliable.
(ii). Data must be transferred to the Main storage before it can be acted on by the Processor.
(iii). It provides direct data access, i.e., data is instantly accessible from the Main memory & the
Processor can act directly on the data.
(iv). It is of low/ limited storage capacity.
The Internal memory of the computer is designed in such a way that it reaches a capacity
beyond which it cannot extend.
(v). It is volatile.
For example, the RAM (the section of the Main memory that stores the user programs,
application data, instructions and intermediate results during processing) loses its contents
immediately when the power is switched off.
The Main memory is therefore, used to store temporary programs and data.
(vi). The speed of the processor depends on the Main memory.
(vii). It is very expensive, due to the technology involved & the elements used in making them.
Question. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of Primary storage.
Functions of the Main memory.
1. It stores data awaiting processing.

2. It stores instructions waiting to be obeyed.
3. It holds the program instructions & the data currently being processed.
4. It stores intermediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output devices, i.e. it stores
data awaiting output.
5. The size of the Main memory affects the speed, power & capability of the computer.
6. All inputs & outputs are transmitted through the Main memory.
Ideally, the Main memory is used to store all data requiring processing in order to achieve
maximum processing speed.
Classification of Primary Memory.
The Main memory can be classified into 3 different sections:
(i). The fast Microprocessor Internal Registers.

(ii). Read-only memory (ROM).
(iii). Random Access memory (RAM).
READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM).
This is a memory that can only be read, but cannot be written to, i.e., the user can only read the
information in it.
ROM provides permanent storage of data, i.e., the contents in ROM cannot be changed at will.
This is because the program instructions and the associated data stored in the ROM are developed
& installed during the manufacture of the computer hardware by the computer manufacturers &
therefore, they cannot be changed during normal computer operations; thus the term “Read only”.
ROM is a Non-volatile memory - its contents are retained (remain intact) when power is
switched off. Therefore, it cannot be affected by switching the computer on & off.
ROM forms a small proportion of main storage – it contributes to about 30% of Internal memory.
ROMs are used in situations where the data or instructions must be stored/ held permanently. It is
used to store vital data & programs, which need to be held in the Main memory all the time.
For example, they are used to store essential files especially those the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.
Common uses of ROMs.
The main functions of the ROM are:
(i). It stores Firmware (bootstrap programs) –i.e., the essential files the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.
(ii). It stores the system data & instructions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the
computer system hardware.
For example, it stores the Operating system program, which is necessary for the initial co-
ordination of the hardware & the other OS programs.
(iii). It stores Control programs, used for the operation of the computer & peripheral devices.
For example, the BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the information.
(iv). It stores Translation programs (Code converters), used for converting a user’s program
into Machine language.
E.g., TURBO PASCAL, which translates Pascal programs written by users.
(v). It stores Special functions (facilities) peculiar to a given machine.
(vi). It stores Character generators for Printers and Video displays.
(vii). It stores ROM Lookup tables.
Types of ROM memories.
1. Masked ROM.
2. PROM (Programmable Read only memory).
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read only memory)
Masked ROM.
This is a ROM that can only be produced by the manufacturer.

The bit patterns corresponding to the desired contents of this memory must be supplied by the user
in a standard format. .
Programmable ROM (PROM).
This is a ROM that can be programmed or “customized” directly by the user using a special
PROM programmer to suit the needs of a particular task.
Customizing is the process by which a standard product is adapted for use in a particular
situation.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).
This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed a no. of times.
There are 2 main types of EPROMS:-
(a). The UV-Erasable Programmable ROM.
(b). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

It is also called Flash BIOS. This ROM can be rewritten through the use of a special
software program, that uses electrical pulses.
Note. This is the way Flash BIOS operate, allowing users to upgrade their BIOS.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).
It is a type of main memory, which is used by the computer to store data & programs temporarily
during the times when they are needed in the Main memory.
The term “Random Access” means that, data in any area of the RAM can be reached or accessed
in the same amount of time.
RAM provides “Read and write” facilities, i.e., it allow instructions to be written & read out, and
also to be changed at will. Therefore, the computer user/ programmer can control or manipulate
the data stored in RAM.
For example, it is this memory that is accessed during installation of programs; deleting, moving
& copying of files.
Read refers to the retrieving (recovering) of information from memory, while Write refers to the
storing of information in memory.
RAM is a Volatile memory, i.e. the contents of RAM are usually lost (rubbed off) when the
power supply or the computer is switched off.
RAM forms the major proportion of Main storage – it contributes about 70% of the Internal
memory. It is the memory used in large quantities in Main memory, and every computer must
specify its size.
Uses of RAM.
The functions of the RAM are:
(i). It stores data & instructions awaiting processing.

(ii). It also stores the instructions which are being obeyed or whose parts have been obeyed by
the computer.
(iii). Stores the intermediate results - the results of computer working/ calculations, before they
are communicated to the users through the Output units.
Note. The RAM are usually stores Application programs (computer user developed instructions
for solving specific tasks), such as Word processing or Spreadsheets.
It also stores user data, to be manipulated by the computer using the user input Application
programs. Therefore, the RAM of the Internal memory serves the user.
Types of RAM.
(a). Static RAM (SRAM).

A Static RAM is able to maintain its data as long as power is provided to the memory chips.
It does not need to be re-written periodically. In fact, the only time the data on the memory is
refreshed or charged is when an actual “Write” command is executed.
SRAM is very fast & is currently being used in the Main Processor as a small amount of
high-speed memory called the Cache memory.
(b). Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
A Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store information. The information is stored in the
Capacitors as a charge. Like any charge, the electrical charges in individual memory
capacitors of a DRAM will drive away (leak) causing the data to either be lost or changed
within a few milliseconds.
This means that, unlike SRAM, a DRAM must undergo the Refreshing process, i.e., it must
be re-written continually in order for it to maintain its data. This is done by placing the
memory on a Refresh circuit that re-writes the data several hundred times per second.
Refreshing involves reading the information out of, and then writing it back into the
memory, thus restoring a full charge.
DRAM is used widely for most computer memories because it is cheap & small.
Advantages of Static RAM over Dynamic RAM
(i). SRAM is much faster than DRAM & it able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It doesn’t require refresh cycles like DRAM – can retain its data forever.
Disadvantages of Static RAMs.
(i). They are of low data density, i.e. it stores less data bits.
(ii). SRAM chips are physically large & much more expensive than DRAM chips.
Advantages of Dynamic RAM over Static RAM
(i). DRAM has a much higher packing density than SRAM, i.e., a DRAM chip is able to store
more information than a SRAM chip of the same size.
(ii). DRAM chips are small in size.
(iii). A DRAM can store a lot of information in a very small space, and therefore cheaper (less
expensive) that SRAM. This is the main reason why DRAM is the memory used mostly (or
in large quantities) as the Main memory in Microcomputers.
Disadvantages of a Dynamic RAM.
(i). It is much slower than SRAM & is not able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It requires refreshing in order to retain the information in its memory cells.
The charge stored in the capacitor of a DRAM leaks & most of the charge cannot be retained
for long or may be lost within a few milliseconds. To preserve the information, the charge
must be refreshed every 1 or 2 milliseconds by use of a Refresh circuit, which can be
incorporated within the CPU.
Exercise (a).
1. Outline THREE characteristics of Main storage.
Since the memory chips are too small, they must be combined and put on a medium that can be
worked with and added to a system. To achieve this, the designers place the memory chips on a
small fiberglass card to create the SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) or DIMM (Double
Inline Memory Module).
These cards are placed in a socket on the motherboard, and then fastened/ bolted in. This design
eliminated problems of the past, and made upgrading memory a simple task.
SECONDARY STORAGE (also called Auxiliary or Backing memory).
Secondary memory is used by the computer to hold programs, data files & backup information
that is not needed immediately (not currently in use) by the Processor.
However, contents in a secondary storage media can be quickly transferred into the computer’s
Main memory for processing when required.
It is also used by the computer to supplement the computer’s main (internal) memory in case of
mass storage purposes.
This storage is provided by less expensive devices such as:
(i). Magnetic disks (Hard disks &Floppy diskettes).

(ii). Winchester disks.
(iii). Magnetic tapes.
(iv). Cassette tapes.
(v). Punched cards.
(vi). Zip disks.
(vii). Optical disks, which include CD-ROMs &WORM (Write once Read Many) disks, and
(viii). Digital Video Disks (DVDs), which can be connected to the computer.
Most of these storage media are magnetic based, i.e., they use the principles of magnetism to store
data and instructions in form of binary.
The data is stored permanently in Disk drives. The disk drives can either be fixed inside the
computer, as in the case of Hard disks, or inserted anytime you want to read or write in them.
What is a Disk drive?
 A Disk drive is a computer device for reading or writing data from or into a storage media.
 A Disk drive is a hardware on which files can be stored.
 A Disk drive is a unit that houses a disk.

Examples;
 Hard disk drive (HDD or drive C:).

 Floppy disk drive (FDD or drive A:).
 CD-ROM drive.
 DVD-ROM drive.
 Tape drive.
 Zip drive.
A Disk drive can be used as an Input device, Output device or Secondary storage device.
Characteristics of Secondary storage devices.
(i). They provide slow access of information – they process data very slowly compared to
primary storage.
Modern secondary storage devices normally operate in milliseconds. It can take between
25 – 50 milliseconds to locate information in a disk drive.
(ii). They have high data storage capacity.

Disks & Tapes can store large amounts of data and instructions; however, the amount of
storage is limited by the no. of disk packs or tapes you buy.
(iii). The devices are cheap.

(iv). They are non-volatile. Secondary storage units store data permanently.
(v). Used for mass storage of data & program files not currently being operated on, but which
will be transferred to the main storage when required.
THE NEED FOR SECONDARY STORAGE IN COMPUTERS.
1. The amount of storage needed on a typical Microcomputer system might be greater than the
storage space available in the Main memory. This requires the use of backing storage
devices, which can be used to store large quantities of information.
2. Whatever is in memory is lost when the computer is switched off. Thus, there is a need to
store programs & data in secondary storage devices from which it can be retrieved when
needed.
3. Primary storage is expensive, thus the need for secondary storage devices which are cheaper.
FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES.
(i). Used to store backup data & instructions that is not needed immediately (or not currently in
use) by the CPU. This helps in creating space for another data to be stored in the memory.
(ii). Used for transportation & distribution of data & software, i.e., for transferring files from one
machine to another.
(iii). Used to back up files (keep copies of data & programs) for safe-keeping.
Whatever is in memory is lost (or can be corrupted) when the computer or the power supply
is switched off. Disks can therefore be used to store programs & data, which can be
retrieved when needed.
(iv). Used to install new software.

MAGNETIC DISKS.
A Magnetic disk is a round platter made of a plastic or a metal & coated with a magnetic
material, which is used for storage of information.
Magnetic disks can be used:
(i). Store backup data that is not being used currently.

(ii). To install new software.
(iii). To transfer/ transport files from one machine to another.
(iv). To back up small amounts of files for safekeeping.
Magnetic Disk storage – A storage device or system consisting of magnetically coated disks, on
the surface of which information is stored in the form of magnetic spots arranged in a manner to
represent binary data. The data are arranged in circular tracks around the disks and are accessible
to reading and writing heads on an arm which can be moved mechanically to the desired disk and
then to the desired track on that disk.
Data recorded on a magnetic disk can be read/ retrieved in 2 ways: -
(a). Sequentially or Serially – whereby data from a given track are read or written sequentially as
the disk rotates.
(b). Directly.
Illustration.
Suppose there are 5 records stored on track 0, and 5 records on track 1.
In Sequentialaccess/retrieval, the records from track 0 are read, followed by the records from
track 1, and so on until all records have been retrieved.
In Direct data access/ Retrieval, the records are accessed directly, in any order, moving the
Read/write heads to the track that contains the data required.
For example, suppose you want to read record 99, followed by record 20, then followed by record
43. If the records are located on tracks 19, 3 & 8 respectively, then the read/write head will move
to track 19, then back to track 3 & then to track 8.
In order to read record 99, there is no need to access records 1 to 98; the head can proceed directly
to where record 99 is located.
The storage capacities of disks are commonly expressed in terms of the no. of bytes of data they
can hold.
A Magnetic disk can be of 2 forms: -
(i). Floppy diskettes (Soft disks).

(ii). Hard disks.
FLOPPY DISKETTES.
A Floppy disk is a disk that can be inserted in & removed from a disk drive.
The 3.5-inch disk is inserted via a slot in front of the System unit/ cabinet.
Floppy disk units are single-drive units able to hold a single disk. The disk unit is incorporated
physically into the body of PCs. Such disk drives are called Internal disk drives.
A Floppy disk is made from a thin, flexible plastic circular material. The plastic material is
coated with a magnetic substance (usually Iron Oxide), which enables data to be recorded on the
disk.
The plastic disk is protected in a rigid smoothly lined plastic envelope; that safeguards the
recording surface against external influences, e.g., touch and dust accumulation onto the recording
surface.
Floppy diskettes can bend easily.
The diskettes are relatively cheap and conveniently handled. However, they are only suitable as
storage media in Microcomputer systems because, they store relatively low volumes of data and
have a short life.
The storage capacity is influenced by the no. of sides of the plastic base coated with magnetic
material & the storage density, measured in bytes. The common storage capacities are 360, 720,
& 1,440 bytes.
In single-sided disks, data can only be recorded on one side, whereas in double-sided disks, data
can be stored on both sides.
The disks come in different densities. The Low density (single-sided) disks, which hold 720KB
of data &High-density (double-sided) disks, which usually hold 1.44MB of data.
Uses of Floppy diskettes.
Floppy diskettes are used: -
(i). To distribute software on microcomputers.

(ii). To collect or input data for subsequent transfer and input to another system.
(iii). As backup media for small hard disks.
Common types of Floppy drives.

The diskettes come in different sizes.
1). 3.5-inch drives, which accept the small 3.5” disks.

2). 5¼-inch drives, which accept the big 5¼” disks.
3). 8-inch drives.
The 3.5” & 5.25” diskettes are used in Microcomputers, while the 8” diskette is normally used in
Minicomputers & Mainframe computers not for storage but as a data collection/capture medium.
The diskettes can only be read by drives that are designed to read/write onto them, i.e., a low-
density 3.5-inch drive will only read and write the low-density diskettes.
However, most high-density drives are able to read and write both low-density & high-density
diskettes.
Physical Appearance of a 3.5-inch Floppy disk.
(i). Permanent label.
- It is incorporated on the diskette when it is bought.

- It has on it an arrow indicating the direction of inserting the diskette into its drive,
information about the diskette, such as the no. of tracks per inch, the version of the
diskette, e.g., Single-sided Single density (1S1D) & the trade name of the diskette.
(ii). Temporary label.
This is the label, which is attached onto the diskette by its user to specify, e.g. the name of
the owner, name of programs maintained on the diskette, etc.
(iii). Security tags.
Are used to safeguard the contents of the diskette. When the hole is covered by the shutter
(a plastic band), the diskette cannot be written to or its contents altered.
(iv). Spindle hole.
It is the hole used by the disk drive to hold/ clump the diskette over its turntable for the
drive motor to spin the diskette past the Read/Write heads so that the reading or writing
operations can be performed on the recording surface(s) of the diskette.
(v). Read/Write region (Read/write head slot)
This is where the diskette’s recording surface is exposed. It is used to give the heads of the
disk drive access to the disk
Comparison between 5¼-inch and 3½-inch diskettes.
5.25-inch Floppy B: 3.5-inch Floppy A:

Densities Low-density High-density Low-density High-density
Capacity (Bytes) 360KB 1.2MB 720KB 1.44MB
Tracks 40 80 80 80
Sectors 9 15 9 18
Heads 2 2 2 2
Type Flexible Flexible Rigid Rigid
DS – Double-Sided. HD - High-Density.
• Both types are either of low density or High density.

• The 5.25 inch diskettes are flexible, while the 3.5 inch are rigid.
• 5.25 inch diskettes have a max. of 15 sectors, while 3.5 inch diskettes have a max. of 18
sectors.
• The 3.5-inch disks store more data, and are better protected. They have now replaced the
5.25-inch diskettes, which are only used on existing 8088 PCs.
The disk surface is divided into concentric circles called Tracks. The Tracks are further sub-
divided into Sectors, which are used for data storage. Data or information is recorded on the
Tracks & sectors. Typically, each sector is 512 bytes.
The tracks are described as concentric, because they allow the moving around one track from a
given start point and end up at the starting position.
HARD DISK.
Hard disk is made of metal & is usually rigid/ firm.
Hard disk is not removable like the floppy disk, but it is fixed inside the computer. However, it
works on the same basic principles as the floppy disk.
A hard disk is made up of one or more platters (disk plates), arranged one on top of the other to
form a disk pack. The platters are made from a metallic material, usually an Aluminum alloy or
Glass in order to make them light.
The glass platters have enough Ceramic within it to resist cracking & also they can better resist
the heat produced during operation.
Each platter is coated on both sides with a magnetic material, usually Iron Oxide, which enables
data to be recorded on the platter. This is why many platters are brownish orange in colour.
The mixture (of the magnetically sensitive substance) is poured on the platter, then spinned to
evenly distribute the film over the entire platter.
The disk pack plates are held on a rotational Spindle, which is used by the drive motor to rotate
the plate surfaces past the Read/write heads in order for the read & write operations to be
performed on the recording surfaces.
Data is written on & read from the disk using Read/write heads in the disk drive, under the
influence of the computer’s command signals.
The heads are attached to a device or an access arm called the Head Actuator, which is used to
move the read/write heads across the platters to the destination track.
There is usually 1 Read/write head on each side of a platter & all the heads are attached to a single
actuator shaft so that the heads move in unison. Each head has springs to force it into the platter it
reads.
When off, the heads float between the surfaces of the platters, which are held in a vacuum that
enables it to spin/ rotate around very quickly.
When the drive is running, the platters rotate causing air pressure that lifts the heads slightly off
the platter surface. The disk rotates & the heads can move in & out over the surface to record or
read data on the various tracks.
Notes.
 The Read/Write heads do not touch the disk plate’s recording surface. They fly over to avoid
the R/W head’s ‘crash’, which may result in the wearing away of the magnetic coating over the
recording surfaces that may cause loss of the recording property of the magnetism.
 The distance between the head & the platter is very small such that the drive must be
assembled & repaired in a very clean room because one dust particle can throw the whole drive
off.
DATA STORAGE IN A HARD DISK.
The surface of each disk is divided into a no. of concentric circles called Tracks, each track being
divided into Sectors.
The storage capacity of a hard disk is much higher than that of a floppy disk, & is therefore able to
store much more data than a floppy disk of the same size because of technical differences.
The storage capacity of the hard disk is determined by the no. of recording surfaces, no. of tracks
per surface & the recording density.
The computer identifies the record sought for by using its track no., or cylinder no. & the sector
no. for its direct retrieval.
HARD DISK ACCESS MECHANISMS.
In order for a drive to read or write to a disc, it must be spinning at a constant speed. Floppy disk
drives only begin rotating whey they are required to read or write data. However, Hard disks spin
continuously, often at 3,000 revolutions per second.
The Read/write heads are capable of crossing the disk surface from one track to another very fast,
making it possible to locate a data file or even a particular record/item within a file on the disc
very quickly.
Terms used to define Access Times in Hard disks.

The Hard disk is a Direct Access Storage Media (DAS/m). Its Access Time is obtained in same
manner as that for the diskette. However, the Access Time is influenced by:
 The arrangement of the Read/Write heads.
 The rotational speed, which is faster than that of the diskette.
If the disk pack is removable from the unit, the disk drive or unit is referred to as an
Exchangeable Disk Unit (EDS). If the disk pack is permanently held in a unit, the disk drive or
unit is referred to as a Fixed Disk Unit (FDU).
Disk unit - is the device in which the disk pack is placed.
Features of a Fixed Disk unit.

√ It has a motor that rotates the drive at a high contact rate.
√ The unit houses a no. of non-removable disks.
√ In a Fixed-Head drive, there isusually 1 read/write head for each track on a given surface.
Example:
Suppose the R/W head is positioned over track 20 & the data required is on track 20. Then this
data can be read as the disk rotates past the head.
Suppose the data required is on track 64. Then the access arm must first move the R/W head
from track 20 to track 64. Once the head is positioned over track 64, the data is then read.
 After the head is positioned over the desired track, it has to wait for the right sector. The
time taken for the disk to rotate from its present position to the position on the track at which
the data starts is called Rotational delay (latency) & is measured in Milliseconds.
The faster the hard drive spins, the shorter the rotational latency time.
 The time taken to read & transmit the data to the computer is called the Transmission Time.
For a moving head drive, the time taken to access data (i.e., Access Time) usually ranges
between 25 – 100 Milliseconds for a hard disk system & 100 – 600 milliseconds for a floppy
disk system.
Advantages of Magnetic Disks.
Magnetic disks (Floppy disks & Hard disks) are the most commonly used medium for online
secondary storage in microcomputer systems because of the following reasons: -
(i). They are cheap (Low cost).
Although disk drives are expensive, the use of removable disk packs enables storage capacity
to be increased very cheaply.
E.g., to improve the storage capability of a floppy disk system, you simply need to buy
additional disks at low cost.
The cost of Hard disks has decreased making them to be widely used on microcomputers.
(ii). Have relatively fast access times for data stored anywhere on the disk.
For hard-drives, the data Transfer rate between memory & disk is 300,000 – 2 million
characters per second, while that of floppy disks is between 30,000 – 150,000 cps.
(iii). Have high storage capacities.

Hard disks can store tens of millions to hundreds of millions of characters while floppy disks
can store between 100KB – 2 MB of data.
(iv). They are re-usable - the disk space can be re-used by simply recording new data over old
data. Also, the data stored in a magnetic disk can be easily corrected or updated.
(v). They are Non-volatile - information is stored permanently.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disks.
(i). Data stored on magnetic disk is not human-readable, i.e., to verify the accuracy of data
stored on the disk, a computer run has to be made, which reads the contents on the disk.
(ii). A disk is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort
(deform/disfigure) data on the disk causing disk-reading errors.
(iii). Require enough skills to manage the disks effectively.
Differences between Hard disks & Floppy diskettes.
Floppy diskette. Hard disk.

1). Can be inserted in & removed from a disk 1). It is not removable like the floppy disk, but
drive. It can also be transferred between permanently housed in a disc unit inside
computers. the computer.
2). Made of a flexible plastic material & can 2). Made of a metal & is usually rigid/ firm.
bend easily.
3). Consists of a single platter/ disk. 3). Made of more than 1 platter arranged one
on top of the other to form a disk pack.
4). Cheaper. 4). Relatively expensive than floppy disks.
5). Floppy disk drives only begin rotating 5). Hard disk drives spin continuously, i.e.,
when they are required to read or write they start rotating when a computer is
data. switched on.
6). Have a spindle hole. 6). Have a rotating spindle that holds the disk
plates together in a disk pack & is used to
rotate the disk pack when reading or
writing onto the disk.
7). Low storage capacities compared to hard 7). Hard disks have a much higher storage
disks, e.g. a Floppy disks store between capacity than floppy disks, e.g. can store
100KB – 2MB of characters. between 10 - 80 million characters.
8). Slower accesstimes, e.g. the data transfer 8). Have faster access times for data stored in
rate between memory & the disk is it than a floppy disk, e.g. the data transfer
between 30,000 – 150,000 characters per rate between memory & the disk is
second. between 300,000 – 2 million cps.
ZIP DISKS.
Zip drives act as either external or internal devices.
 The Zip disk is found in a hard plastic case, and like the diskette, it uses a magnetic material
for double-sided recording & reading.
 Zip drives are larger & their read/write heads can operate more efficiently than those on a
regular floppy disk drive.
 Zip disks are usually portable.
 Each disk can hold up to 100 MB.
MAGNETIC TAPES.
These are the storage media mostly used in Mini and Mainframe computers.
A Magnetic Tape reel is made of a plastic ribbon/ band coated on one side with a magnetic
material that enables data & instructions to be recorded/ stored on the tape.
Magnetic Tape – a tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective
polarization of portions of the surface.
The reels of the Tape are stored in a protective case, which safeguards the recording surface of the
reel from environmental destructions, e.g., touch, dust, direct sunlight radiations, etc.
Usually, a plastic ring (the Permit ring) is affixed on the Permit Ring Groove, which is on the
case, before the tape is mounted in its deck. The Permit ring is used to protect/ safeguard the
contents of the tape.
If the permit ring is affixed, the tape surface can be written to & read from, hence it is possible to
alter the contents of the tape. If the permit ring is not affixed onto its groove, the tape surface can
be read but cannot be written to; hence the tape user cannot alter the tape contents.
The width of the tape is divided into Tracks, while the length is divided into vertical columns
called Frames. Each frame is made up of 7 storage unit areas (bit positions). These frames are
used to store individual characters across the tape width.
The recording surface of a tape has 7 or 9 tracks running along its length. Each recording position
on a track can be magnetized to represent a ‘1’, while that which is not magnetized represents a 0.
Thus for a 9-track tape, each frame contains 9 bits & is used to represent 1 character.
A tape is usually ½ (0.5) inch wide & 2,400-feet long. The characters are recorded across the
tracks on the tape.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes as secondary storage medium.
(i). Tapes have a high storage capacity (or high data recording density), i.e. they can store lot of
information in a small space.
Usually 1-inch of the tape can store between 1,600 – 6,400 characters. This also means that,
a tape can allow a complete hard disk to be backed-up without the need to changemedia
during the process.
(ii). Tapes are cheaper compared to other removable storage media.
(iii). Have high data transfer rates.

Reels of a magnetic tape have a transfer rate of approx. 10,000 – 1 million cps, whereas
incassette tapes, the transfer rate is about 1,000 cps.
(iv). Tapes are re-usable. When information on a tape is no longer required, it can simply be
‘written over’ with new information.
(v). The domestic cassettes can also be used as storage media in small home computers where the
speed of retrieval is not a necessity and the volume of the capacity of the cassette is enough.
This is because domestic cassettes operate on the same principles as the magnetic tapes.
Disadvantages of storing records on Magnetic Tapes.
(i). Data stored on a tape must be read/ accessed sequentially, one record after another.
E.g., if you need to update the 100th record, all the previous 99 records must be read, pass
under the Read/Write head (or at least skipped over) to reach the record the user is
searching. Hence, slow data, instruction and information retrieval.
This means that, if you need to process records in a different order, let say, record 100
followed by record 5, followed by record 50, the processing would be slowed down a lot
because the tape would have to move back & forth. However, if the records have to be
processed in sequence, i.e. from the first to the last, it would be fast.
(ii). Data stored on magnetic tape (& disk) is not human-readable.

E.g., if you wish to verify the accuracy of data stored on the tape, a computer run would
have to be made, in order to read the contents on the tape and print it.
(iii). Tapes have short life spans (average of about 2 yrs).

(iv). A tape is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort (deform)
data on the tape causing tape-reading errors.
(v). Tapes do not fully use their recording surface.

An inch of tape may hold 1,600 - 6,400 characters & the IRG may be 0.5-inch. This means
that, almost a ⅓ of the unused space on the tape is wasted.
MAGNETIC TAPE CARTRIDGE & CASSETTE TAPES.
They operate on the same principle as ½-inch reel-to-reel tape.
The domestic Cassette tapes are very similar to magnetic tapes. The only difference is that
Magnetic tapes are wider & longer than the domestic cassettes.
Many cartridges are designed to overcome the bother of loading and unloading tapes.
A tape cartridge gives greater protection against dust & dirt and then makes the tape trouble-free.
Tape cartridges provide an effective way to copy the contents of disks to guard against data loss.
On cassettes tapes, characters are stored serially down the length of the tape, one at a time. This
slows down the processing speed of the information stored on the tape.
Advantages of Cassette Tapes.
(i). They are very cheap & convenient, making them to be a widely used form of secondary
storage in many home computers.
(ii). It can store hundreds of thousands of bytes of data.
(iii). Can be re-used.
(iv). An ordinary cassette player can be used to record & play back the data on the tapes.
Therefore, no expensive Input/Output device needs to be bought.
COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC DISKS & MAGNETIC TAPES.
Similarities.
(i). Both are coated with magnetic materials.

(ii). Have high data storage capacities, i.e. can store hundreds of thousands of bytes of data.
(iii). Have high data transfer rates.
(iv). Hold data permanently, i.e. are Non-volatile.
(v). Cheap and convenient; hence, the reason why they are mostly used for secondary storage in
PCs.
(vi). Require drives in order to read or write data from or into a disk or tape.
(vii). Data stored a magnetic tape & disk is not human readable, i.e., to verify the accuracy of data
stored on the tape or disk, a computer run would have to be performed.
(viii). Both are adversely affected by dust, stroke & magnetic fields, which can distort data stored
in them causing data reading errors.
(ix). Tapes or disks do not fully use their recording surfaces. The Inter-Block Gaps in tapes
occupy a large space; while in disks, a space has to be left for purposes such as copying &
moving of files, defragmentation of the disk, etc.
(x). Both tapes & disks are re-usable. When information on a tape or disk is no longer required,
it can simply be “written over” with new data.
(xi). Data in them can be read sequentially, e.g., when playing music or watching a movie on a
disk.
Differences.
Magnetic Tape Magnetic Disk

1). Consist of a strip of plastic, i.e., reels of 1). Consist of round platters made of plastic or
tape. metal.
2). Only 1 side of the tape is coated with a 2). Both sides of the platters can be coated
magnetic material for recording data. with a magnetic material for recording
3). 1 track of the tape is not used for data data.
storage, but for parity check, i.e., to 3). The whole disk surface can be used for
ensure that data recorded & transmitted is recording data. However, in hard disks, the
accurate. top most surface of the 1st plate & bottom
most surface of the last plate are not used
for recording data as they can easily be
scratched.
4). Requires tape drives to write information 4). Require disk drives to read or write data in
to & read data from the tape. the disks.
5). Data is stored on a tape in form of records 5). Data is stored on the disks in files, folders
that are organized in blocks. or directories.
6). Have Inter-Block/Record Gaps (blank 6). Have no blank spaces between the tracks
spaces) separating two successive blocks on the recording surfaces. However, they
or records. use a recording method known as Tunnel
Erasure; which is used to keep each track
of data separate from the others.
7). The records on a tape are read 7). Data recorded on a disk can be read
sequentially, i.e. one record after another sequentially or directly.
in the order they occur on the tape.
8). Data is recorded across the tracks on the 8). Data is recorded on concentric circles on
tape or serially down the length of the the disks called tracks.
tape.
PUNCHED CARDS & PUNCHED PAPER TAPES.
These are paper media, which were used as storage media by the early computers.
They been replaced by the magnetic media, due to the following reasons:
(i). They are bulky.

(ii). Provide slow input.
(iii). They are non-reusable.
(iv). They can be destroyed due to dust.
(v). Costly to produce - the punching & verification are tedious and expensive.
OPTICAL DISKS.
Optical disks use Lasers to read or write data. When writing, a laser beam is used to align a
permanent data pattern on the disk surface. When reading, the data contents are sensed by the
pattern of light reflected from the beam by the data on the disk surface.
There are 2 types of Optical disks:
1. CD-ROMs (Compact disc Read-Only Memory)

2. WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.
CD-ROMs (Compact Disc Read Only Memory).
What is CD-ROM (Data CD)?
A CD-ROM (also known as a data CD) is a compact disc used to store computer data.
 CDs (Compact discs) were originally developed for the music industry. They use small disks
identical to the ones that hold music to hold computer information.
 They have higher storage capacities than traditional Magnetic disks.

The current CDs can hold about 650 MB of data compared to the 3.5” floppy diskette, which
can only hold 1.44 MB of data.
This storage capability enables programmers and other data distributors to write more
sophisticated programs for computer users, because they are no longer limited by data storage
space.
The CD-ROM Technology
A CD is made by having information burnt into the Polymer material using a laser. The
indentations appear as fine circular tracks in the CD.
Data is written on the CD in a continuous spiral running from the center of the CD to its outside
rim. All the bits in a file are written one after the other from beginning to end, then the next file is
written, and so on.
A logical format (or file system) structures the raw bits on the CD in a virtual tree of directories
and files, which makes it easier for both humans and computers to use the information.
ISO 9660 is a worldwide standard specifying the logical format for files and directories on a CD-
ROM.
To use the CD-ROM discs, a CD-ROM drive is needed.
The devices in a CD-ROM drive are only able to read back pre-recorded sound or data by using a
laser and detecting the pattern of light reflected from its beam.
The current CD-ROM drives use Multi-session&Multi-speed technologies due to the intense
requirements of most multimedia applications.The Multi-session technology allows data to be
written to a CD again & again until it reaches its maximum capacity (650MB).
The Multi-speed technology increases the rotational speed of the disk, thus increasing the data
transfer rate of a CD-ROM drive.
Uses of CD-ROMS (CDs).

Typical uses for CD-ROMs include:
(i). Archiving data.

(ii). Backing up a hard drive or other media.
(iii). Creating a test copy of a CD before having it factory-duplicated.
(iv). Disseminating information to field offices.
(v). CDs are the primary methods of installing software.
Most software companies distribute application software in CD-ROMs.
(vi). CDs are used in Multimedia (the integration of text, motion video, graphics, & sound).
Programmers pack Multimediain the CD-ROMs enabling consumers to enjoy the work of
multimedia inventions.
(vii). To provide reference works, catalogues, directories, encyclopedias, software front
descriptions, graphical images and sound.
Types of Compact Discs:
There are 2 types of Compact Discs (CD-ROMs): -
 CD-Recordable (CD-R) discs.

 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) discs.
CD-R (Recordable).
A CD-R holds data permanently, i.e., once written, it cannot be erased or overwritten.
CD-R can be used to store or backup a lot of data (about 650MB), thus making it suitable for
businesses that need to record/ store a lot of information.
Advantages of CD-R
(i). Good for permanent data storage.

(ii). Less expensive per disc than CD-RW disc (CD-R discs are cheaper compared to CD-RW).
(iii). Readable on virtually all CD-ROM and CD-R drives.
(iv). Use when you do not need to erase the data.
(v). CD-R drives can write faster than most CD-RW drives.
Disadvantages of CD-R.
(i). The disc can only be written once, (i.e. once something has been recorded on a CD-R, it
can’t be erased or written over again).
(ii). The future of CD-R drives seems to be in doubt since CD-RW drives can accomplish the
same thing as CD-R drives.
Note. In a CD-R drive, there are 2 speeds listed.

The faster of the two speeds is the speed at which the drive reads information from a disc, while
the slower one is the speed at which the drive records information onto a CD-R
CD-RW (ReWriteable).
It is possible to record data on a CD-RW more than once. With CD-RW drive you can also erase
the contents of a CD and re-write new information to it.
In addition, CD-RW drives can play audio CDs, use the regular CD-ROMs & read CD-R discs.
This makes CD-RW drives very desirable.
Most CD-RW drives can also record to CD-R discs, making it possible to use CD-R discs with a
CD-RW drive.
Advantages of CD-RW.
(i). Used when you need to erase the data and re-write new information (e.g., updating files).
Data written to a CD-RW is not permanent, i.e. it can be overwritten or erased.
(ii). Used to make a practice CD or to test the contents of a CD before making a permanent one.
(iii). More cost effective for near line data storage requirements than CD-R.
Disadvantages of CD-RW.
(i). CD-RW drives& media are expensive/more costly than CD-R drives.
(ii). CD-RW are slower than CD-R & CD-ROM drives.
It takes about 1hr to format CD-RW discs & about ½ an hour to copy 250 MB of data to the
disc, while CD-R discs take a few minutes to format and have the same write time.
(iii). Data can be read and written to CD-RW discs only by CD-RW drives.
(iv). CD-RW drives are currently facing stiff competition from the DVD-Recordable (DVD-R)
because the DVD-R can store more information than CD-RW.
Note. Both CD-RW & CD-R can be read by standard CD-ROM drives.
WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.
A WORM disc looks like a CD. Also, data is read from the disk in a similar way to that on a CD.
The WORM disc surface has 40,000 Tracks, 25 Sectors and a total storage capacity of 1GB.
Data is written into the disc by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disc by means
of a high precision laser beam.
The WORM discs are exchangeable.
WORM discs are non-erasable & are less prone to data loss compared to Magnetic disks.
Access speed of a WORM disc is slower than that of Magnetic disks.
To use the WORM discs, a WORM disk unit/drive is needed. The drive is similar to magnetic
disk unit.
An example of a WORM drive is the CD-R, which uses the same size of disks as CDs and once
written using the CD-R drive, it can be read in a CD-ROM disk drive as well as in a CD-R drive.
Uses of WORM disks.
√ WORM drives store large amounts of data.

√ They are used to put data online for reference purposes.
Advantages of Optical discs as secondary storage media.
(i). Have very high storage capacities. This enables them to be used for multimedia
applications.
(ii). Have relatively high access speeds.
(iii). Are Non-volatile, i.e. information kept in them is permanent. Therefore, they are more
secure against alteration.
(iv). Are cost effective (cheap) especially if used for large storage volumes.
(v). They are robust – they resist temperature, electromagnetic fields, and not affected by water
or dust.
(vi). Have very high data transfer rates.
Modern CD-ROM drives have data transfer rates of between 150 – 4,800 KB/second.
(vii). Some Optical discs allow data to be written to them a no. of times, e.g., CD-RW.
Reasons why Optical discs (CD-ROMs) are not mostly used in microcomputer systems as
secondary storage media.
1). CD-ROMs require special writers to write to the disk. The CD Writers are usually expensive,
thus limiting the utility/ usefulness of CD-ROMs as computer storage devices.
2). Are expensive (not economical) especially if used for low storage volumes.
3). Require CD-ROM drives to use the discs, which are not installed on most desktop computers.
4). Most CD-ROMs are produced by the manufacturer or can only be written once. Therefore,
they are not reliable especially for businesses that may need to re-programme the CDs to suit
their needs.
5). Are slow to prepare, i.e., it takes time to format & also to copy data into the discs, e.g. CD-
RW disks take about 1hr to format & about ½ an hr to copy 250 MB of data to the disc.
6). The Access speed of an Optical disk is low.
DVD (Digital Video Discs).

A DVD looks like a CD-ROM. However, a DVD can store much more information.
For example:
A single-sided DVD can hold 4.7 GB of information (a 133 minutes of full-motion video), while a
double-sided DVD can hold 17GB of information (the equivalent of 8 hrs of studio quality video);
enabling most movies to be stored on a single disc.
This amount of storage gives software programmers flexibility when it comes to designing
programs. They are able to store all the high-quality graphic images, digital sound & tools they
want in a single DVD.
Currently, DVDs are used primarily for movies. The DVD videos offer superior pictures &
sound, the ability to play audio CDs in a DVD player, and pictures that are sharp & clear than
VHS videotapes.
To use a DVD, your computer should have a DVD-ROM. To read the DVD-ROM, a DVD-ROM
drive is required.
In order to enjoy all the functionality of a DVD, the computer must have a Motion Picture
Expert Graph (MPEG) decoder card or MPEG software. This enables the user to view full
screen video or video clips from a DVD video disc.
DVD drives are reasonably/ fairly priced.

DVD drives can read all other ROM formats - audio CDs, CD-ROMs, CD-R, CD-RW & DVD-
ROM discs.
The current DVDs are not recordable, i.e. they don’t have the ability to record information.
HANDLING PRECAUTIONS FOR MAGNETIC MEDIA.
(i). Should be stored in optimum temperature ranges, e.g. 10 oC – 52oC for diskettes.
(ii). Should be protected in their cases when not in use in order to safeguard their recording
surfaces against environmental influences such as dust, touch, direct sunlight, radiations,
etc.
(iii). When loading/ mounting the media into its reading/writing unit, care should be taken to
avoid brushing the recording surfaces against the mechanical components of the drive.
(iv). Should never be brought near moving or magnetic bodies. Such bodies might cause the
demagnetization of the recording surfaces (i.e., remove the magnetic property from the
surfaces) making recording in terms of magnetism impossible.
(v). Put on the power before mounting the media and off after removing the media from the
drive. This is because the fluctuation in power might also cause de-magnetization.
Physical storage considerations.
Recording density – The no. of useful storage cells per unit of length or area.
For example,
- The no. of characters per inch on a magnetic tape or punched card.
- The no. of bits in a single linear track measured per unit of length of the recording medium.
Volume - A term used for any individual physical storage medium that can be written to or read
from. E.g., a fixed hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, a disk cartridge or tape cartridge.
Formatting - Before a diskette can be used, it must be formatted. This prepares the disk so that
the drive can use it.
Initialization - Before a disk is recorded, it has to be initialized, i.e., writing zeros to every byte
on every track. This eliminates all trace of any existing data.
Fragmentation - When data is written on a newly formatted disk, it is usually written to unused
contagious sectors. If data is erased, then the deleted sectors may leave spaces among used
sectors. Overtime, after many inserts and deletes, these free sectors may be scattered across the
disk. In such a phenomenon, the disk is said to be fragmented.
OUTPUT DEVICES
When the computer processes the data (or after the computer finds the solution to the problem), it
displays the results (or communicates the solution to whoever posed the question) by use of an
Output device.
The term Output is used to describe all that comes out, from the computer memory, or from the
processing stage of a data processing system to the external environment.
Output therefore, involves receiving information (processed data) from the computer through a
suitable device for external use.
An output device provides the user with the results from the computer.
FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT UNITS.
1. Transmit the intermediate results & final results to the users.

2. Convey messages, e.g. error messages, to the operators.
3. Provide immediate response to queries/ questions.
4. They are used when writing onto the secondary storage media.
5. Accept the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form & hence cannot be
easily understood) & convert these coded results to human readable form.
The output produced by computers can be put into 2 broad categories: -
(a). Human-readable output, which serves the informational needs of people. This is a form of
output that is readily understandable by human beings, e.g., printed or drawn output.
(b). Machine-readable output, which is required/used for subsequent input to the computer. In
this case, the output may be temporarily stored on machine-readable media.
For example,
In the production of a payroll for a company, a payroll report is produced listing the amount each
employee must be paid. This report can then be used by the person responsible for issuing
cheques.
At the same time, an updated employee file is produced, say, on a tape. The tape will be used as
input to the computer for the next payroll run.
The quality, validity and usefulness of the output is influenced by the output facility used. The
following factors/ considerations determine the choice of output equipment and media.
(i). Suitability of the application.

(ii). The speed at which the output is required.
(iii). Whether a printed version is required.
(iv). The volume of the data.
(v). Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits to be derived.
DIVISIONS OF OUTPUT.
Output can further be classified as: -
1. Hardcopy output.
2. Softcopy output.
SOFTCOPY OUTPUT.
This is where the end results are displayed on a screen. The user can see the results, but cannot
touch them.
The output lasts for a short-time only, i.e., it is available only as long as it appears on the screen.
Examples of Softcopy Output devices.
 Visual Display Units (VDU) / Monitor.

 Audio Response Units.
 Speakers.
HARDCOPY OUTPUT.
Hardcopy implies that the output is permanent, i.e. it can be retained for an indefinite period.
The user can see & touch the results.
Hardcopy is desirable if the information or the results of the computer working is to be maintained
for future reference/ use.
Examples of Hardcopy Output devices.

 Printers.
 Graph Plotters.
 Microforms.
VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)/ MONITOR.
Visual display unit (or a Monitor) is a television-like screen, which displays the data that is being
typed at a Keyboard. It also displays the information that has been processed by the computer in a
human-sensible form.
In many cases, an ordinary television set can serve as the display unit.
The display is meant to provide a means of visually checking whether the information that has
been entered is correct.
The output displayed on a monitor screen is called a Softcopy output.
Classes of Monitors.
(a). Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) – found in most desktop microcomputers.

(b). Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) – used by Laptops and Notebooks.
- The resolution of a CRT is adjustable, while that of an LCD is often set.

- The CRT can display an almost unlimited no. of colours, but the LCD can display a
limited no. of colours.
- LCD’s are backlit by a series of light bulbs. Notebooks use only 1 light bulb in order to
conserve power, but desktop LCD’s can use up to 4 bulbs.
These bulbs can be replaced by the user. They also have a life span. Therefore, after
sometime, you will notice that the screen starts becoming dimmer. Take the LCD to the
vendor for a bulb.
Advantages of LCD over CRT.
1. The screen of a LCD is much thinner & smaller than of CRT.

LCD screens come in 14 or 15-inch sizes. A 15” LCD has a 15” viewable screen; a size that is
only slightly smaller than a 17” CRT.
2. LCD’s have no flicker.

3. They consume low power than the CRT.
The performance of a computer Monitor depends on 3 factors: -
(a). Size of the screen.
(b). The number of colours it can display.
 Monochrome monitors - display only 1 type of colour (Black for Background &White
for Foreground).
 Colour monitors - display a variety of colours.
Examples; Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA), Super
Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The higher the no. of colours displayed, the more realistic the images.
(c). TheScreen resolution (or sharpness of the image), which is determined by the no. of pixels.
The Viewing angle - the picture appears clear when viewed straight on or a certain amount
of degrees off the center; but when you are too far over to the side, the picture grows too dim
to see.
A VDU can be used to display lines of text as well as graphics (images, pictures & drawings).
When used for output of text, a typical display unit is made of 24 lines; each line consisting of
between 40 – 80 characters.
When used for output of Graphics, the screen is considered to be composed of a no. of dots
arranged in rows & columns.


Each dot is called a Picture element (or Pixel).
A Pixel is a screen dot & is a direct mapping of the information (e.g. character) in the Video RAM
contained in the monitor’s Adapter card.
To display an image on the screen, the selected pixels are brightened or darkened.
The term Resolution is used to describe the no. of pixels per unit area of the screen. E.g., the no.
of pixels per cm2.
If there are few pixels per unit area, the display is said to be of a Low-resolution. If there are
many pixels unit area, we talk of High-resolution display.
The higher the screen resolution, the finer & the higher the no. of different images that can be
displayed.
Note. Specific applications require certain resolutions to be able to run, e.g., Microsoft Windows.
MORE ABOUT MONITORS & DISPLAY ADAPTERS.
Monitors do not have a direct impact on the performance, but have a significant impact on the use
of a PC. A bad quality monitor can hinder the use of an otherwise high-tech PC.
Display – Presentation of information such as by projection on a screen, an Audio message, a

computer print-out, etc.
Display Adapter Card (also called Video Card or Graphics Card).
The real brain of a display operation is the Video Card. It is inserted into the slot on your
computer’s motherboard as an expansion card. It then speaks to the monitor about what the
computer is asking it to do.
The Video card determines how fast graphics display, how many colours can be used, etc.
For a Monitor to work to its best, it must be fitted with a Video card capable of bringing out the
best in it.
The Video Card receives image data from the Processor in form of digital information & stores it
in video RAM. The digital information is then converted into analogue display signal, which is
fed to the monitor.
How a Monitor Works.
The inner surface of the screen is coated with a Phosphorus material that emits/ produces light
when struck by an electron beam. Whenever the electrons hit the phosphor, it glows, producing
images.
When the Monitor is plugged into the Video card, it gets a scan frequency (or a signal) giving the
timing of the screen redraws.
The electron beam must cross the screen in synchronization with the scan signal of the Video
card. The beam starts at the top left of the screen, crossing to the right. As it does this, it excites
the phosphor dots. On reaching the right side of the screen, it returns to the left side in order to
refresh the line of pixels underneath the first one. It continues this process down the screen,
returning to the top to do it over again when it has finished the entire screen.
During the process, the beam excites those phosphor dots, which the video card tells it to.
Therefore, the card gives instructions to the electron gun to excite some pixels; hence, forming
pictures.
On a Colour monitor, each pixel contains 3 separate dots, one for each of the primary colours of
light; Red, Yellow, &Blue. Combining these colours together produces the range of colours that
we all know.
Screen burnout.
This is a term used to describe the damage caused to the inner surface of the screen display.
Inside the Monitor, an electron beam is aimed at a Phosphor-coated screen. If a screen display is
static, the electron beam continually strikes the same place on the screen surface, and eventually
burns a hole in (or wears away) the Phosphorus coating. This might take several days or weeks to
occur.
Note. Damage to the screen cannot be repaired. The damage is visible by turning & inspecting
the screen surface closely. If an image can be seen, then the screen has suffered damage (i.e. it
has burned out).
Factors that determine how severe the screen burnout is.

(i). Type of Phosphorus coating used on the screen’s inner surface.
(ii). Length of time the screen image remains constant.
(iii). The brightness & contrast of the screen.
How to avoid screen burnout.
Screen burnout can be avoided by applying the following common sense principles: -
1. Switch the Monitor off, if you wish to be away over long periods.
2. Turn down the screen brightness, if leaving the machine unattended.
3. Using a “Screen Saver” program.
Types of Monitors (Displays or video Adapters).
(1). Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA) display.
This was the original type of Monitor, but now it is obsolete.
It supported colour, but could only display a limited no. of colours. Usually, it supported 4
colours at a time.
It also ran at a low graphics resolution of 640 x 200 pixels.
(2). Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) display.
It is a low-grade adapter. It was developed to improve the capabilities of CGA.
An EGA display works with a 9-pin connector and an EGA video card.
They have a resolution of 640 x 350 pixels, which is better than that of CGA monitors.
They also offer two brightness levels for each primary colour dot, thus, displaying a wider
range of colours. EGA screens can show 16 different colours.
(3). Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) display.
It was introduced by IBM in 1987 for use on earlier IBM PS/2 systems. The VGA Video
card contains all the circuitry needed to produce VGA graphics, and like all expansion cards,
it plunges into a slot on the motherboard via an 8-bit interface.
VGA is able to display photographic quality images on a PC, i.e. it offers clean images at
higher resolutions. It is able to build an image that is 640 x 480 pixels in size.
With a VGA, a PC has to deal with 640 x 480 x 3 bits every time a picture changes.
The standard VGA can produce about 256 colours at a time from a palette of 262,144
colours.
The VGA can also be used in Monochromes. It is able to translate colour graphics into
graphics using 64 different shades of grey. This, in effect, simulates colour on a
monochrome monitor.
VGA video card requires a VGA monitor, or a monitor capable of accepting the analog
output of a VGA card.
(4). Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) display.
SVGA is much more advanced than VGA.

In most cases, one SVGA card can produce millions of colours at a choice of resolutions. It
is able to show 256 colours at a resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels.
SVGA is able to support 1024 x 768 x 3 bits potentially changing 50 times per second.
Note. EGA, & VGA monitors are not interchangeable. A VGA monitor won’t even plug into a
CGA or EGA card. A SVGA monitor is not supposed to work with a standard VGA card.
Advantages of VDU/ Monitors.
(i). The speed of output is fast – a Monitor displays the output almost instantly/ immediately.
(ii). It displays the information enabling the operator to visually verify/confirm if the data is
correct.
(iii). Enables the operator to monitor his/her performance & improve productivity.
(iv). Used when saving the information to a secondary storage media.
(v). Minimizes paper work, hence reducing the cost incurred on stationery.
(vi). Hardware costs are minimal since no extra equipments are needed as long as the VDU is
available. The screen is cheap, if bought as individual device.
Disadvantages of VDU.
(i). Produces softcopy output, i.e., the output is temporary & can get lost when the power is
switched off.
(ii). It is impossible to produce multiple copies.
(iii). It causes fatigue to the user’s eyes, especially when stared at for a long duration.
(iv). Can lure computer operators into not keeping hardcopy records.
(v). Screen might not allow the viewing of the full area of data.
Factors to consider when selecting/ buying a Monitor: -
1. Compatibility with the adapter card: The monitor must be capable of displaying the
pictures that the display adapter card can generate. Otherwise, the display will be unstable.
The Video card must be compatible with your computer’s bus.

2. Memory: You should have at least 2 MB of Video memory, but if you have a larger monitor,
start with 4 MB of memory. Look for a video card that has room for expansion in the future in
case you have to buy a larger monitor.
3. Monitor size: This is the distance diagonally across the face of the monitor. The larger the
monitor size, the more the viewable picture area.
4. Resolution and Refresh Rate: Both features depend on each other. They work hand-in-hand
to produce a clean image.
Refresh Rate (sometimes referred to as Scan Rate) is the no. of times per minute that a
computer screen image is renewed (or the rate at which each pixel on a screen is re-drawn).
The Refresh Rate is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Make sure you know the refresh rate of your monitor. The recommended refresh rate is 60 Hz
& above. The higher the refresh rates, the better.
A low refresh rate results in an image that flickers (shines unsteadily), resulting in eye-strain.
The standard for flicker-free images is 85 Hz. To detect flicker, look slightly above or to the
side of the monitor. Sometimes, it helps to be in a darker room.
Your Video card plays an important role in all this. If your card cannot provide support for
the resolutions and refresh rates of the monitor, the picture will look degraded. When pairing
a video card with a monitor, at least make sure that it is capable of delivering a 72 Hz refresh
rate at any resolution supported by that monitor.
Note. In order to stop images fading on the screen, they must be refreshed (sent to the screen)
at least 50 times per second. Each pixel on the screen has 3 bits of information (corresponding
to Red, Green, & Blue) attached to it, and all of them have to be redrawn at high speed.
The higher the resolution, therefore, the more strain is placed on the performance of the
monitor’s Adapter card.
VOICE OUTPUT DEVICES (Audio Response Units -ARU).
An ARU converts data/ information from the computer memory (which is in electronic form)
through various specialized additional circuitry into waveforms/ sound for the receiver to hear.
The sound can be spoken language, musical notes or beeps. This output is obviously Softcopy.
Voice output is useful where reading is not necessary or is impossible and where fast output is
required.
For example, Voice output is used:

 As a learning aid.
 In emergency situations for messages.
 In answering services, e.g. Post office talking clock.
When an ARU is used to produce speech, it is called a Speech Synthesizer.

A Speech synthesizer is a useful form of output especially when communication with a computer
is made using telephone lines. A user dials the computer & makes an inquiry. The computer
output is passed through the Speech synthesizer, which is located near the computer. The output
is converted to a spoken reply, which is sent to the user over the telephone line.
Speech synthesizers are being included in many consumer products. For example,
 A Bathroom scale with a synthesizer can tell a person his weight, and whether he has gained
or lost weight.
 In Cameras, they can tell you if your film or exposure is set wrongly.
 A washing machine with a synthesizer can tell you if and when to add more detergent, or the
fabric conditioner.
Advantages of Voice Output.
(i). It is very fast, making it useful in emergency situations to relay messages.

(ii). Can be used for distant communication, especially if done over Telephone lines.
(iii). Useful where reading is impossible - can be used by visually disabled people.
(iv). Errors are easily corrected. For example, when used in a washing machine, it can tell you if
and when to add more detergent, or the fabric conditioner.
Disadvantages/ Limitations of Voice Output.
(i). The output is not permanent.

(ii). It may be boring, especially for prolonged output.
(iii). Cannot be used by people with hearing problems.
(iv). If the message is conveyed through beeps, it may be hard to understand.
PRINTERS.
A Printer is an output device that facilitates the transfer of information from a computer to a
paper. It is used when a permanent record of the output may be needed on paper.
Printed output is usually referred to as Hardcopy output, which means that the document can be
kept indefinitely for future reference or use. The printed output can be distributed conveniently to
reach the recipients of such information/results.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS.
Printers are basically classified in 3 ways: -
(1). In terms of Print speed.

- Low-speed.
- High-speed.
(2). According to the amount of text it can print per given period of time.
- Character Printers.
- Line Printers.
- Page Printers.
(3). The method used to produce the characters on the stationery/ paper.
- Impact Printers.
- Non-impact Printers.
CHARACTER (SERIAL) PRINTERS.
 Characterprinters are usually low-speed printers that print 1 character at a time.

 Are comparatively slow & less costly than Line or Page printers.
 Have printing speeds that vary from 10 to over 200 characters per second (cps).
 They usually use the Daisy wheel or Dot-matrix printing mechanism.
LINE PRINTERS.
 They usually print one whole line at a time.

 Are more expensive than the Character printers, but less costly compared to the Page printers.
PAGE PRINTERS.
 Print 1 whole page at a time.

 Are faster & relatively more expensive than both Line printers & Character printers.
 Page printers are Non-impact printers, i.e. there printing operation is silent.
 They provide high quality outputs.
E.g. Laser printer.
BASIC METHODS OF PRODUCING PRINT.
(a). Impact or Non-impact printing.

Impact printers.
An Impact printer works like a typewriter where a piece of metal or plastic with a raised
letter strikes an inked ribbon against a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the letter on the
paper.
Each character print is provided by an appropriate character symbol on the print head
element.
The inked ribbon lies between the printing head element & the paper, so that the ribbon
ink can be used to pass the character images on the print-head element onto the stationery
during the print head hit impact.
Note. Impact printers can further be classified as Character or Line printers.
Non-impact printers.
In Non-impact printers, the print-head element does not come into contact with the
stationery/ paper.
They use Thermal, Chemical, or Electrostatic principles to produce the characters on the
paper.
They need special papers.
Comparison between Impact & Non-impact printers.
Impact Printers Non-impact Printers

1. Use Inked ribbon. 1. Use thermal or electrostatic principles.
2. Slow. 2. Faster.
3. Able to produce multiple copies by use of 3. Almost impossible to produce multiple
carbon papers. copies.
4. Cheaper. 4. Costly due to the technology involved.
5. They are noisy because the character to be 5. Printing operation is silent because there is
printed is pressed against an inked ribbon no print-head element hitting against the
onto to the paper by a print-head element. stationery.
(b).Dot-matrix or shaped-character printing.
Dot-matrix printers produce each character by printing the appropriate dot combination.
Shaped character printers produce each character by use of the whole character symbol
just like as in an ordinary typewriter.
PRINT SPEEDS.
The speed of a printer is expressed in Characters per second (cps), Lines per minute (lpm), or
Pages per minute (ppm).
There are basically 2 types of printers: -

 Low-speed printers.
 High-speed printers.
Each type is then classified further based on the technology used for producing the output & the
amount of text it can print per given period of time.
1. LOW-SPEED PRINTERS.
They usually print between 10 cps to approx. 300 lpm.
Note. All Character printers can be classified as low-speed printers.
The different types of low-speed printers are: -

 Dot-matrix.  Daisy wheel.
 Golf ball. Thermal printers.
 Inkjet printers.
2. HIGH-SPEED PRINTERS.
Are able to print between 300 to approx. 3,000 lines per minute.
High-speed printers are broadly classified into: -
(i). Line printers.

(ii). Page printers.
LINE PRINTERS.
Note. Line printers have a high speed as compared to the Character printers. For example, if a
line of 80 characters is to be printed, the character printer need to strike against the stationery
through the inked ribbon 80 times before all the character images forming the line are passed
on the stationery. A Line printer only strikes once for the whole line of 80 characters to be
printed onto the stationery through the inked ribbon.
There are 3 types of Line printers: -
 Drum printers.
 Chain printers.
 Electrostatic printers.
Advantages of using Printers.
(i). Produces a permanent output that can be maintained for future reference.
(ii). The information can be conveniently distributed to reach the recipients of such information
or results.
(iii). The advanced models of printers with colour capabilities can produce styled prints.
Disadvantages of using Printers.
(i). Very expensive, if bought as an individual device.

(ii). Some Printers are Noisy.
(iii). Not possible to produce multiple copies, especially the Impact printers.
(iv). Their speed of output (i.e., the printing) is slow.
Factors to consider when selecting a Printer.
The following factors are to be taken into consideration while selecting a printer.
1. The Cost involved.
This will include the printer’s initial price, the costs of maintenance & the cost of consumable
items, e.g. printing papers, ribbons/cartridges, etc.
2. Volume of printing expected.
This will help in selecting a printer in terms of print speeds.
3. The nature of the reports to be generated & their recipients.
The printing quality, such as the capability to print graphics & colour printing should be
considered with respect to the needs of the recipients.
4. The capability for the selected printer.
These include multiple copy production, print styles, page width, etc.
5. Compatibility with other computers.
This will involve the interface with the computer system being used and/or make of particular
computer.
6. Environment in which the Printer will operate.

7. Reliability of the Printer.
8. Application it is required for & also the available application software packages.
9. Stationery (type of paper) used by the printer.
10. Documentation.
Printer driver - A program that controls how your computer and printer interact.
Tip. You might get bad work when you send graphics to a non-graphic printer or when you use a
wrong driver.
Question. Explain how the factors identified in this chapter could influence the choice of printer
to be used on a computer system.
Comparison between a Screen and a Printer.
Screen Printer
1. Produces a softcopy (displayed) output. 1. Produces a hardcopy (printed) output.
2. Output is temporary, i.e. the display gets 2. Output is permanent, i.e. can be maintained
lost when the power is switched off. for future references.
3. Cheaper, if bought as individual device. 3. More costly.
4. Output is silent, since there are no 4. Output is noisy. Impact printers have
mechanically moving parts for the printing head elements that hits against the
display to appear on the screen. paper in order to transfer the character
images onto the stationery. Non-impact
printers are considerably silent.
5. Impossible to produce multiple copies. 5. Using Impact printers, it is possible to
produce multiple copies.
6. Output is fast. 6. Speed of output (printing) is comparatively
slow.
7. Print quality is high. 7. Some printer’s quality is low while others
produce better quality prints.
8. May cause fatigue to the user’s eyes 8. The printed information is more convincing
especially when stared at for a long to the recipients (humans).
duration.
9. Have different print styles, e.g., Italics 9. Styled prints are only possible with
and colour displays are possible. advanced models with the colour
capabilities.
GRAPH PLOTTERS.
These are output devices that produce graphics, such as diagrams, maps, images, statistical charts
etc, on paper.
Plotters use pens of different types, varying thickness & different colours, in order to plot. The
pens are usually under the direct or indirect influence of electronic pulses output by the computer.
Plotters are described/ named depending on the type of the base onto which the stationery is
placed for the graphical output to be produced onto the paper.
The 2 commonly available Graph plotters are: -
(i). The Drum plotter.
(ii). The Flatbed plotter.
Characteristics of Graph Plotters.
- They are large in size.

- They use Ammonia papers.
- They use special ink.
- Have a wide carrying capacity.
Uses/ applications of Graph Plotters.
Graph Plotters are used: -

 In Computer Aided Design (CAD) – are mainly used for printing large architectural or
engineering drawings. In this case, the computer is used to form the graphical design & the
Plotter produces the output.
 In Weather forecasting for drawing Isobars on weather maps.
 In Statistical work for producing graphs or complicated mathematical formulas.
 In Cartography to produce contour maps.
 In Craft & Textile industry for drawing designs.
Advantages of Graph Plotters.
(i). Can produce information in an easily understandable form.

(ii). Their presentation is quick & reliable.
(iii). They produce large graphical designs of high quality, which are easy to read & use.
(iv). A Plotter can be used to print even on A1 sized papers, while the largest paper size that can
be used with a normal printer is A3.
Disadvantages of Graph Plotters.
(i). They require Graphic software, which is usually very expensive.

(ii). Graph plotters operate at low speeds, hence are normally connected in an Off-line mode to
avoid wasting the computer time.
COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM).
This is the process of transforming digital data produced by the computer into human-readable
form & recording it in reduced physical size into a photographic film.
This method of output provides photographed type of computer output stored as microscopic
filmed images into the microform.
Microforms are photographically reduced documents on films (magnetic media).
There are 2 forms/ classes of the Microform: -
(i). The Microfilm, which is a film reel of 16mm.

(ii). The Microfiche - a rectangular shaped sheet of film, measuring about 10 x 15 mm.
A typical microfiche can hold the equivalent of 300 pages of printed paper.
Both the Microfilm & Microfiche are small.
Differences between Microfilms and Microfiche.

Microfilm Microfiche
1. Microfilm is a photograph film. 1. Microfiche is a normal paper.
2. Can store about 3,000 pages of A4 sized 2. Can store about 98 pages of A4 sized paper.
paper. 3. Displays sketches.
3. Displays real images in reduced form. 4. Expensive.
4. Cheap. 5. Has a short life span.
5. Has a long life span. 6. Can be viewed by naked eyes.
6. Requires special devices for viewing.
Advantages of Microfilms over Microfiches.
(i). Microfilms last longer than Microfiches.

(ii). Microfilms display real images, making it easy to read & understand.
(iii). Microfilms are cheaper compared to fiches.
(iv). Microfilms require special devices for viewing while Microfiches do not.
Illustration of the COM process.
1. The computer displays the results onto the screen.

2. The contents are then photographed onto the microform (an online operation).
Alternatively, the computer can write the output into a storage medium, e.g. Magnetic tape.
3. The data on the tape is then read by transcriber machine called the Microform recorder&
displays them on a screen connected to the machine.
4. The contents being displayed on the screen are then photographed by a high-speed camera
using microfilm onto the microform.
Since the transcriber machine is not under direct influence of the computer, the operation is
Off-line.
5. The film is then developed.
6. If necessary, duplicates are made using the Film duplicator.
In some systems, a separate device is needed for each of these stages. In others, the tape drive is
not needed, instead the computer sends the output directly to the Microfilm recorder.
Also, some recorders are capable of processing the film, so a separate film developer is not
needed.
In order to view a film, a Microfilm viewing station is used. This magnifies the images on the
film so they can be easily read.
The station usually has a Printer connected to it to produce hardcopy, if required.
Applications of COM.
Microfilm output is conveniently suited to applications/ areas where: -

 There is bulky storage of information.
 The volume of output is high, say, 100,000 pages per month.
 The data must be stored for long periods and use or update is not frequently necessary; as in
case of old copies of customer’s files in banks, or back copies of newspapers. Such data is
usually referred to as Archival data.
 In Postal services, where the cost of mailing a microfiche is considerably less than mailing the
equivalent bulky report.
Examples of areas where the COM is used in:
 Libraries for books, catalogues, references, etc.

 Government authorities - to retain/ keep Town plans, maps, statistics, etc.
 Banks, Insurance companies, etc to store personnel or customers records.
 National Registration Board for security purposes.
 Registration of Motor vehicles, i.e., for Logbook and details of the vehicle.
 Immigration department – issuing of passports (originals and passports).
 National Archives.
 Thomas de la Rue – concerned with printing of money (both original & copies).
Advantages of using the COM.
(i). Saves on stationery and space.

(ii). Capable of producing many copies.
(iii). A very fast form of output -usually faster than printing.
Using the COM, the equivalent of 30,000 – 40,000 lines of output can be produced per
minute (which is 20 times faster than the fastest Impact Line printer).
(iv). Not bulky, hence conveniently transportable.
(v). The microform contents are not easily read using naked eyes, hence guaranteeing the
security of the reports.
(vi). It lasts longer as compared to paper medium output.
(vii). Compared to paper, the film costs are low. However, the initial cost is high, because the
necessary equipment is expensive.
Disadvantages of Microforms.
(i). They are expensive.

(ii). Cause eye-strain if an attempt is made to read microform contents.
(iii). Requires special equipment for viewing the contents of the microform & for producing full-
sized copies.
(iv). The contents in a microform are not easy to update.
(v). They are less convenient.
1. devices for output.

(i). VDU (monitor/ screen).
(ii). COM.
(iii). Voice Output.
(iv). Printer.
√ High volume of output – a high-speed Laser printer will print 146 pages per minute.
√ Output quality is very high (400 – 1200 dpi) – it can produce both text & diagrams or
pictures of high quality and therefore can be used to produce manuals and small
publications.
(b). What printers are suitable for producing business letters?
(c). What factors should you consider when selecting or purchasing a Printer?
1. Describe in brief the difference between:
(a). A Flatbed plotter and a Drum plotter.
(b). Microfilm and Microfiche.
LESSON 8
DATA PROCESSING.
Data processing deals with how data is organized & processed in the computer.
DATA:
 Data is a collection of facts & figures, which can be processed to produce information.
 Data are the facts relating to an activity in a given environment.

The activity can be Accounting, Inventory control, etc. Environment can be business,
scientific, education, etc.
Examples:
 In an educational environment, when students sit for exams, the grades obtained represent the
data to be processed by the computer. In this case, data can be Names of students &Marks
obtained.
 In a business environment, data can be the No. of Hours worked, names of employees, Stock
 Data can also be described as Raw data, if they are not yet processed, i.e. if they do not convey
particular meaning to a given activity within any given environment.
It therefore means that, Data are unprocessed information consisting of details relating to business
transactions. For example, in a Payroll system, data are employee’s names, basic salary,
department number, marital status, etc.
DATA PROCESSING:
 The collection, manipulation & distribution of data (i.e.) letters, numbers & graphic symbols,
to achieve certain objectives.
The processing may involve calculations, comparisons, decision-making and/or any other
logic to produce the required result.
 The activity of manipulating the raw facts to generate a set of meaningful data (described as
Information), which is able to convey some meaning.
 Those activities, which are concerned with the systematic recording, arranging, filing,
processing, and dissemination of facts relating to the physical events occurring in a business.
Data processing is a very important activity in any organization of any size or nature because it
generates information for decision-making.
If the data processing uses complicated processing tools or aids, e.g. the computer, it is described
as Electronic Data Processing (EDP).
INFORMATION.
 Information is data, which is summarized and processed in the way you want it, so that it is
useful in your work.
 Information is an assembly of meaningful data items.
The information in Payroll activity includes; Net pay, Total Tax deductions, etc. In Stock
Control, the information generated includes; Closing stock, Total cost of the items, Purchases,
Sales, etc.
The information is obtained by applying some processing procedures onto the raw data being
input. For example, to get the Net pay in a Payroll activity, the procedure would be;
Net pay = (Basic salary + Allowances + Overtime, if any) – Taxes.
Information is the end product of data processing available at the right place, the right time and in
the right form.
The information generated by the data processing activities is very important in the working
strategies of any organization, because it is used by the organization to make decisions.
Characteristics/ Features of good Information.
It should: -
(i). Have and serve a purpose.

(ii). Be relevant to its purpose.
(iii). Be complete, accurate, and comprehensive.
(iv). Have been obtained from a reliable source.
(v). Be communicated to the right person and in the right time (i.e. it should be timely).
(vi). Be clear and understandable by the user.
(vii). The user must have confidence in it.
Relationship between Data, Data Processing, and Information.

Data are the facts which relate to any particular activity, and do not have any specific meaning.
Information is data with a definite meaning.
Data processing is the process, which transforms data into information.
In a Manufacturing industry, data may be compared to raw materials and Information to finished
products. Just as raw materials are transformed into finished products, raw data are transformed
into information.
In order to generate information from data items, a set of processing activities have to be
performed on the data items in a specific sequence depending on the desired final result.
Performing these processes is known as Data processing.
Raw data Dataprocessing Information UserDATA

PROCESSING CYCLE.
Data processing cycle refers to the various stages involved in converting data into information.
Basic stages in the Data processing cycle.
There are 5 primary elements/functions of data processing system. They include; Input,
Processing, Storage, Output, and Control.
ORIGINATION OF DATA
Data originates from Source documents,
Time cards, Sales orders, Purchase
orders, Invoices, etc
PREPARATION OF DATA FOR
INPUT
Data is Transcribed, sorted, etc.
INPUT OF DATA
Data is recorded in medium suitable
for Input & handling by the data
processing system, e.g. Punched cards,
floppy disks, etc
STORAGE OF DATA
Data is stored in Filing cabinets,
Microfilms, floppy disks, magnetic
tapes, etc.
PROCESSING OF DATA
Data is entered into the data processing
system, Processed, Sorted, Calculated,
Compared, Analyzed, etc
OUTPUT OF INFORMATION
Output consisting of printed or
typewritten forms, etc
Summaries, Reports, & documents are
prepared.
DATA COLLECTION.
Data Collection is the process involved in getting the data from the point of its origin to the
computer in a form suitable for processing.
Note. Data collection starts at the source of the raw data & ends when valid data is within the
computer in a form ready for processing.
DATA CAPTURE & DATA ENTRY.
Data Entry:
Nowadays, most end-users input data to the computer using Keyboards on PCs, Workstations, or
Terminals.
Data can originate in many forms, but the computer can only accept it in a machine-sensible form.
Problems of Data Entry.
1. The data to be processed by the computer must be presented in a Machine-sensible form (i.e.
in the language of a particular input device).
Note that most of the data originates in a form that is not machine-sensible. Therefore, the
data must undergo the process of Transcription before it is suitable for input to the computer.
2. The process of Data collection involves getting the original data to the “processing center”,
transcribing it, sometimes converting it from one medium to another, and finally getting it into
the computer. This process involves a great number of people, many machines, and much
expense.
Data Capture:
Data Capture is the process of obtaining data in a computer-sensible form at the point of origin.
Obtaining of data in a computer-sensible form helps to avoid many of the problems of data entry.
The captured data may be stored in some intermediate form for later entry into the main computer
in the required form. If data is input directly into the computer at its point of origin, the data entry
is said to be On-Line. In addition, if the method of direct input is a terminal or workstation, the
method of input is known as Direct Data Entry (DDE).
STAGES IN DATA COLLECTION.
The process of data collection may involve any number of the following stages depending on the
methods used.
1. Data Creation.
This involves 2 basic alternatives:
(a). Source documents.
Source document is the original document used to record data and/or instructions.
Most of the data is in form of a manually scribed or typewritten documents, i.e. the data
is on clerically prepared source documents.
(b). Data capture. This involves preparing the source document itself in a machine-sensible
form so that it may be used as input to the computer without the need for transcription.
The prepared source document is then read directly by a suitable device, e.g. a Bar code
reader.
Data capture eliminates the need for transcription.
Note. Themethod and medium adopted for data creation will depend on factors such as Cost,
Type of application, etc.
2. Data Transmission.
This will depend on the method & medium of data collection involved/adopted.
If the computer is located at a central point, the documents will be physically “transmitted”,
i.e. by the Post office or a Courier to the central point.
The data can also be transmitted by means of Telephone lines to the central computer. In this
case, no source documents would be involved in the transmission process.
3. Data Preparation.
Data Preparation is the term given to the transcription of data from the source document to a
machine-sensible medium.
There are 2 parts involved in the data preparation:

(a). The original transcription itself, and
(b). The Verification process that follows.
4. Conversion of data from one medium to another.
Data is prepared in a particular medium & converted to another medium for faster input into
the computer.
For example; data might be prepared on Diskette, or captured onto Cassette, and then
converted to magnetic Tape for input.
The conversion will be done on a computer that is separate from the one for which the data is
intended.
5. Input.
The data, now in magnetic form, is put into the computer and subjected to validity checks by a
computer program before being used for processing.
6. Sorting.
This stage is required to re-arrange the data into the sequence required for processing.
Sorting is necessary for efficient processing of sequentially organized data in many

commercial and financial applications.
7. Control.
In all the stages of data collection, control must be established and applied where necessary.
In other words, Control is usually applied through out the whole process of data collection.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION.
The following are alternatives that can be used to collect data:

(i). Use of Data Capture devices such as Scanners, Kimball Tags, Point-of-Sale systems, Bar-
code readers & Magnetic strip readers.
TYPES OF ERRORS IN DATA PROCESSING.
The System designer must guard against the following types of errors:
(a). Transcription (copying) errors.

(b). Missing source documents.
(c). Source documents whose entries are omitted, illegal and suspicious/doubtful.
(d). Program faults (errors).
(e). Machine hardware faults.
Note. Machine hardware faults are less common because modern computers have self-
checking facilities & usually signal any internal failure.
DATA INTEGRITY.
(i). Accuracy:
(ii). Timeliness:
(iii). Relevance:
DATA CONTROL.
The quality of Input data is important to the accuracy of output. Control must be instituted as
early as possible in the system & everything possible must be done to ensure that data is complete
and accurate before being input to the computer.
Objectives of Data Control.
The objectives of Control are:
(i). To detect, correct and re-process all errors.

(ii). To ensure that all data is processed.
(iii). To preserve the integrity/reliability of maintained data.
(iv). To prevent and detect fraud/deception.
Note. Control must be designed into the system & thoroughly tested. Failure to build in adequate
control may cause expensive systems to fail. In addition, all users must be fully consulted to
ensure that adequate controls are implemented.
Types of Data Controls.
The following are controls that can be used to ensure data accuracy:
(1). Verification:
This is the process of checking & ensuring that data has been transcribed/ written out
correctly.
Verification is whereby several computer users are given data to enter into the computer and
the results are compared. Or else, a second transcription is compared with the first one. If the
results are different, then there is inaccuracy in that data.
This method is mostly used to verify password changes.
Note. Verification calls for manual intervention, hence errors are possible. Note that some
copying/transcription mistakes that bypass the verification stage are difficult to isolate during
verification, e.g. the confusion of l (letter l) and 1 (one). In this case, l might be input instead
of 1 and vice versa, hence such mistakes go undetected.
The main types of errors, which might occur are: -
(i). Missing data.

(ii). Duplicating of data.
(iii). Use of outdated records.
(iv). Incorrect batches of input data.
(v). Incorrect recording at the source.
(vi). Incorrect data preparation.
(2). Manual controls.
This involves considerable checking of the source documents.

Such checks may be:
 Inspecting the source documents to detect missing entries, illegible entries, illogical or
unlikely entries.
 Comparing the document against stored data to verify entries.
 Re-calculating to check calculations made on the document.
VALIDATION CHECKS.
A Computer cannot notice errors in the data being processed in the way that a Clerk or Machine
operator does.
Data validation is the process of preventing wrong data from being processed. It involves
checking whether the results generated by the computer are valid or applicable. During input or
data preparation, the data must be checked for transcription errors, through a process known as
Verification.
Once the data is brought into the computer memory directly from an input device, immediately
before processing, the data is again subjected to checks built in the program described as
validation checks, to check the data integrity or the conformity of the data to the processing
requirements.
Data validation includes testing for the following:
(a). Test for reasonableness.

The computer program checks whether the data is reasonable, e.g., number of people should
not be represented in decimals, i.e. 9½ children.
(b). Test for numbers.

E.g., numbers should not be given as alphabets.
(c). Test for alphabets.

E.g., alphabets should not be represented as numbers.
These checks can be made at 2 stages:
(1). Input stage: When data is first input to the computer, different checks can be applied to
prevent errors going forward for processing. For this reason, the first computer run is often
referred to as Validation or Data vet.
(2). Updatingstage: Further checking is possible during data processing (or when the data input
are being processed).
The program checks the consistency of the input data with existing stored data. This check is
possible during the input run if the stored data is on-line at the time.
Note. Validation is an online process (i.e. validation checks are build into the computer programs
using the input data, so that incorrect data items are detected and reported). Since the checks are
under the influence of the computer, they are not prone to errors.
METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING.
(1). MANUAL SYSTEMS.
In Manual systems, the data processing activities are carried out manually by the human
Clerks assisted by some calculating tools such as Slide rule, Logarithms, etc.
In individual business units, the transactions are recorded on the source documents, which are
taken to the data processing department for processing. Human beings work on source
documents mentally or with the aid of some simple manipulation tools.
The files maintained are updated appropriately to reflect the correct image of the business.
The records are stored in form of Ledger cards, in the filing trays or in cabinets. The Ledger
cards contain the sales data (the amount owed by customers) and purchases data (the
amounts owed to suppliers).
The Information (in the form of business documents) is generated, e.g., Statements of
Accounts, and sent to the customers.
Control is carried out/ monitored by the Supervisor guided by the instructions written down in
a Procedure manual.
In Manual systems, the data being used by one individual becomes inaccessible to another
individual.
(2). MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.
Mechanical systems are data processing systems whose activities are carried out by Keyboard
devices operated by human beings. The devices include; Accounting machines, Cash
registers, Calculators, etc.
Data is keyed in by the Machine operator, manipulated by the machine, and the output is
obtained in form of printed documents.
Once the machine is switched on & given the relevant instructions, it works on the data input
automatically.
Note. The instructions, in this case, may be pressing the relevant Keyboard button, e.g.
pressing the button for addition, after a set of values have already been keyed in or as they are
being keyed in.
The control activity is carried out automatically by the machine itself or by a human machine-
operator guided by the instructions laid down in a Procedure manual. Other control strategies
include; Self-experience on the job and Supervision.
(3). ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS.
Electronic Data Processing (E.D.P) systems use electronic machines, such as Computers, to
process data. This is because of the volume of data to be processed, and timing of the
information expected from such processing activities.
Data that is to be input into an ED.P system should be first prepared into machine-sensible
form. This means that, data cannot be input directly through the terminal or Keyboard,
connected online to the computer system. In such a case, the Key-to-disk data preparation
method could be used. The contents of the disk are input using the reading/writing unit of the
disk. The disk pack is mounted onto its drive and the computer is activated to read or transfer
the contents of the disk into its memory, where the data are held temporarily to await
processing based on the instructions given.
The processing is done automatically by the computer under the influence of a set of
instructions (programs).
The master files are stored in the mass storage media, e.g. Disk. The disk contents are updated
accordingly during the processing run.
The type of output generated by the E.D.P system is influenced by the type of output device
used, e.g. hardcopy outputs are produced through the Printers, while Softcopies are produced
through the Screen displays.
The control of the Electronic systems is automatic under the influence of the Control unit
(CU) of the computer, whose actions are influenced by stored programs.
Comparison between Manual, Mechanical and Electronic Systems.
Functions Manual Systems Mechanical Systems Electronic Systems

- Human observation - Human observation - Keyboard
Input - Keyboard - Keyboard - Data entry terminals
- Written records - Written records - Document readers
- Human brain - Conventional - Computer’s C.P.U.
Process - Calculators machines, e.g.
- Written procedures Calculators, Cash
registers, etc
- Human voice - Human voice - Visual Display unit
Output - Written documents - Written reports - Voice Output
- Calculator display. - Printed reports. - Printed output.
- Photographed output.
- Human brain - Manual files or - Computer’s Main memory.
Storage - Manual files folders. - Storage media - disks, tapes,
- Written records etc
- Human brain - Machine influence - Computer’s Control unit
- Written procedures on - Written procedures on (CU).
Control manuals. manuals. - Stored programs.
- Personnel experience. - Personnel experience.
- Supervision. - Supervision.
Reasons for changing from Manual to Mechanical and Electronic Systems.
The following are the factors, which may necessitate the change from Manual to Mechanical or to
Electronic data processing method:
(i). Operation Speed.
The timing aspect of information availability (i.e. when the information is required) is very
important.
Electronic & Mechanical systems provide automatic processing of the input data. This
quickens the operations on the input data to produce timely information.
For example, a Clerk assisted by mechanical or electronic devices takes shorter time to
complete the posting of a transaction.
(ii). Accuracy of the information.
The use of mechanical or electronic data processing tools makes information more accurate
& neat, by removing the use of illegible hand written entries.
In addition, verification is made easy; hence wrong data are easily prevented from entering
the processing stage.
(iii). Volume of data.
The data processing method selected should be able to cope with the processing tasks, in
respect to the data held. The data (records) of an organization depends on the size & the
nature of the business.
Small organizations with low volumes of data, require few personnel with little or no data
processing aids.
Large or complex business organizations, with high volumes of data, require the use of
sophisticated processing tools, if the information is to be produced on time.
(iv). Convenient.
Data processing that requires repeated operations may be boring & tedious when carried out
manually. In such a case, mechanical or computer machines may be employed to assist in
the processing depending on the nature of the business.
(v). Linked Applications.
In a situation where there is a common data pool that supports several applications, and e.g.,
Manual D.P method is used, then different operations may be required to produce different
informations. However, if Electronic D.P method is used, the informations can be easily
produced from the same data. This is because, the computer is versatile, and can operate in
any desired manner provided the relevant programs are available.
(vi). Better services to customers.
As Data processing systems produce information, the recipient of such information should
receive them immediately to enable them take decisions that control their business
operations.
Using the sophisticated processing aids, such as Computer as in Electronic D.P systems,
improves the quality of information produced, e.g. statistical summaries are produced in
good time, enquiries are answered in good time, and orders are dispatched promptly.
Factors that determine the Methods of Data Processing.
The following are the factors that influence the method of data processing selected:
(i). Size and Type of business.

(ii). Timing Aspects of the information produced from the system.
(iii). Link between Applications.
Size and Type of Business.
Simple or small business organizations require relatively fewer personnel and processing methods
that are less complicated.
In a very small company, a single person can be used to produce all the information required, but
as the volume of business increases, more people and tools/aids in the form of Calculators and
small Computers may be employed. Large volumes of data and information will require the use
of large computers.
For example;
In some companies, the Payroll may involve paying a member of staff the same amount each
month, while in others a complex payment system may be involved.
Similarly, producing an Invoice may be a matter of simply copying from the customer’s order, or
it may require complex discount calculations.
Simple calculations indicate the need for fewer people and tools to produce the information, while
complex situations indicate the need for more people and aids.
Timing Aspects of the information produced.
Some applications/ jobs require much shorter time between the origination of the transaction and
the production of information (e.g. Hotel bookings), while other business applications may require
the information to be made available after a relatively longer period, e.g. in Passport application,
where information is required periodically.
Some information requirements are less important than others. E.g., the Payroll and Statement of
Accounts may only be produced once a month, whereas in certain companies, the Invoices may be
produced all the time (i.e. as a customer collects the goods).
Link between Applications.
In some applications, the same data items may be used in producing more than one information;
hence, the most suitable data processing system should be used depending on circumstances
surrounding these information requirements.
E.g. a particular item sold may be needed to produce the Invoice & to amend the recorded Stock
position (i.e. to make adjustment of Stock level, and the Bank account or Cash account).
LESSON 9
COMPUTER FILES
A File is a collection of related records (i.e. several records put together) that give a complete set
of information about a certain item or a particular business entity.
Files are important in any business because; they provide up-to-date information relating to the
entity sets of the business, e.g., the suppliers, employees, customers, etc of the organization.
Entities are things whose facts need to be recorded. Each entity has its attributes (i.e., individual
properties), e.g., Employee (which is an entity) has attributes such as; Name, salary, address, etc.
A file can be stored manually in a file cabinet or electronically in a computer’s secondary storage
device such as a Floppy disk or hard disk.
Advantages of computerized filing system over manual filing systems.
1. Information takes up less space than the manual filing.

2. It is much easier to update or modify information.
3. It offers faster access and retrieval of data.
4. It enhances data integrity.
5. Reduces duplication of data, or of the stored records
Logical and physical files
Computer files are classified as either; Logical or Physical.

Logical files.
A Logical file is a type of file viewed by the user in terms of what data items it contains &what
processing operations may be performed on the stored data items.
Physical files.
A Physical file is viewed in terms of how the data items found in a file are arranged on the surface
of the storage media (e.g., disk, tape), and how the stored data items can be processed.
DATA HIERARCHY.
In data processing, data is organized from the smallest element to the most comprehensive.
Bits
Characters
Fields (a group of characters)
Records (a collection of fields)
File (a combination of related data records maintained in some pre-arranged order)
Database (consists of several related and integrated data files)
Bit:
A Bit is the smallest item that can be stored in a physical file.
The bit can either be a ‘0’ or a ‘1’; the two states that define the storage cells of a computer
memory & a storage media.
Bits combine together to form the Byte (which is the unit of measuring the computer storage). A
Byte is the collection of several bits that represent a Character.
ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER FILE.
A computer file is made up of three elements:
1. Characters.
2. Fields.
3. Records.
Character
A character is the smallest element in a computer file, and can refer to a letter, number, & symbol
that can be entered, stored and output by a computer.
A character is formed by several bits combined together, depending on the character coding
system used, e.g., in a 6-bit character coding system, a character is represented by a combination
of 6 bits.
Characters are normally used to represent data items such as Names, Prices, etc.
Fields
A field is an item of data or information consisting of one or more characters.
A Field is made up of a combination of characters, and forms the attribute of a given entity, e.g.,
in a student’s record, the students Admission number is a field.
There are 2 types of fields;
 Fixed length fields – these are fields with the same numbers of characters.
 Variable length fields - fields within a record that are made up of different numbers of
characters (i.e., fields with different spaces allocated for their characters).
Records
A record is a collection of related fields, which together form or represents a single entity.
In any particular file, there is a separate record for each entity, e.g., in a class score sheet, the
details of each individual student in a row such as name, admission number, total marks, and
position form a record.
There are 2 types of fields;
 Fixed length records – records in a file that are made up of the same number of fields.
 Variable length records – records that have different number of fields making them. If the
records have different spaces preserved for them, then it implies that, all the records in the file
will not have the same size.
Note. Variable length records normally utilize the storage efficiently. However, processing or
updating them in a computer is difficult because; the programmer is dealing with unknown
quantities.
On the other hand, fixed length records do not utilize the storage efficiently, but they are easy
to process because; the programmer is dealing with known character quantities.
TYPES OF COMPUTER PROCESSING FILES.

There are various types of files used to store data needed for processing. Data processing files are
classified according to:
- Their uses within the overall data processing activities.
- The kind of data/ information they store.
The main types of data processing files include:
1). Master files.

2). Transaction files.
3). Reference files.
4). Sort files.
5). Backup files.
6). Scratch files.
7). History files.
8). Report files.
Master files.
A Master file is the main file that contains relatively permanent records about particular items or
entries against which transactions are processed.
Master files contain records, which have long-term significance, and are very important for the
running of the organization.
Master files normally contain 2 types of data: Static data and Dynamic data.
(a). Reference (Static) data:
Static data is relatively permanent, and contain details which do not change, e.g., Name, Sex,
Date of birth, Date of hiring, etc.
Static data is processed by amending (i.e. making occasional changes to) the existing
records, e.g., inserting new records, deleting outdated records, etc
(b). Dynamic data:
Dynamic data is temporary and is likely to change frequently, e.g., Salary, Tax rates, hours
worked, Rate of pay, etc.
Dynamic data is processed by updating (i.e. changing the values of the various fields).
The accuracy of data within the operational files is achieved by Updating the Master file (i.e.,
changing the contents in the master files regularly in order to reflect the current state of affairs).
This involves adding, removing or adjusting the data in the Master file.
Transaction (Movement) files.

A Transaction file contains individual data about the transactions (activities) that occurred in a
business during a particular period of time.
The file contains relatively temporary information such as all incoming or outgoing records
resulting from a transaction.
Transaction files are usually created from the source documents, which contain data from the
point of their origin.
The contents in a Transaction file are used to update the dynamic data on Master files. For
example, in a busy supermarket, daily sales are recorded on a transaction file, and later used to
update the stock file. The file is also used by the management to check on the daily or periodic
transactions.
Transaction files have a short life span. This is because, once the contents of the file have been
used to update the master file, its contents are no longer required, and can be replaced by the next
business transactions.
Examples of transaction files:
Files that contain Earnings & deductions of an Employee, or payments received from customers.
Reference files.
A Reference file is used for reference or look-up purposes.
Lookup information is that information which is stored in a separate file, but is required during
processing. E.g., the item code entered either manually or using a bar-code reader in a point-of-
sale terminal is used to look-up the item description & price from a reference file stored on a
storage device.
Reference files contain records that are fairly permanent or semi-permanent such as tax
deductions, Wage rates, Customer address, etc, and therefore, they need to be revised
occasionally.
Backup files.
A Backup file is used to hold duplicate copies (backups) of data or information from the
computer’s fixed storage (hard disk). These files are kept for security purposes.
This is because; the operational files held on the hard disk may be corrupted, lost or changed
accidentally leading to loss or damage of existing information. It therefore important to keep
copies of the recently updated files so that, in case the original file is corrupted or deleted, the
backup file can be used in its place or to reconstruct the original file.
Note. The backup file & the operational file should be kept at separate places so that in case of
loss or damage, both are not affected.
Sort files.
Sort files are created from existing files, such as Master or Transaction files, and are used mainly
for sorting data (i.e., they are used to alter the sequence of the existing files).
A sort file is mainly used where data is to be processed sequentially. In sequential processing,
data or records are first sorted and held on a magnetic tape before updating the master file.
Report files.
A Report file contains a set of relatively permanent records extracted from the data in a Master file
or generated after processing.
Report files are used to prepare reports, which can be printed at a later date.
Example of Report files:
Report on Overtime, report on Taxes, report on student’s class performance in the term, etc.
Scratch file.
A Scratch file is a temporary file used to hold data during processing. It contains temporary data,
which can be erased when the task is finished.
History (Archive) files.
History files are usually old files retained for historical use or for reference purposes, e.g., it can
contain Employee details for the last 10 yrs.
Key field.
A Key field is one or more fields in a record that uniquely identifies the record or a group of
records.
E.g., an Employees Serial number may be used to identify the employee records in a Payroll file.
Note. Any field in the record can be used as the key field. However, it should display unique
identification characteristics.
FILE ORGANIZATION
File organization refers to the way records are arranged (laid out) within a particular file.
The term file organization can also refer to the relationship of the Key of a record to the physical
location of that record in the computer file.
File organization is very important because; it determines the method of access, efficiency,
flexibility, and storage devices to be used.
Methods of file organization.
There are 4 methods by which records of a file can be arranged and accessed. These include:
1. Random.
2. Serial.
3. Sequential.
4. Indexed sequential.
Random (Direct) file organization.
In Random or direct file organization, the records are stored in the file randomly, and in no
particular order. This implies that, there is no relationship between two adjacent records.
An Algorithm (mathematical procedure) is applied onto the record key to generate the address of
the location where the record would be stored.
Record 2 Record 3 Record 8 Record 92 Record 1

K2 K3 K8 K92 K1
K’s – Record keys.
Random files are usually accessed directly. To access the file, the record key is used to determine
where a record is stored on the storage media. Once the record is located, it is then read into the
computer memory.
This method is used by Magnetic disks and Optical disks.
Advantages of Random file organization.
1. Records are quickly accessed (i.e. there is fast access to records).

2. Files are easily updated (i.e. adding, deleting, and amending the records is easily achieved).
3. The method does not require the use of indexes, hence saving space.
4. Transactions do not need to be sorted before being updated.
5. New records can be easily inserted into a random file.
Disadvantages of Random file organization
1. Data may be accidentally erased or overwritten unless special precautions are taken.
2. Random files are less efficient in the use of storage space compared to sequentially organized
files.
3. Expensive hardware and software resources are required.
4. Relatively complex when programming.
5. System design based on random file organization is complex and costly.
Serial file organization.
In Serial file organization, records in a file are stored one after the other in the order they come
into the file without any particular sequence. The records are not sorted in any way on the storage
medium, and there is no relationship that exists between adjacent records.
This type of organization is mostly used on Magnetic tapes.
Record Record Record

G
IR
G
1 2 IR 3
File ‘head’ File ‘tail’
Serial files can be accessed serially. This involves searching through the entire file record by
record starting from the ‘head’ of the file towards the ‘tail’ of the file.
Note. Serial access is suitable where all the records in the file are to be read. This is because;
even the records that are not required must be passed over before locating the record of interest.
E.g., to access the 10th record in the file, then the computer reads the first 9 records before reading
the 10th record. Therefore,.
Sequential file organization.
In Sequential file organization, the records are arranged within the file serially one after the other.
However, in sequential file organization, the records are stored in a particular order sorted using a
key field; hence, there is a relationship that exists between adjacent records and the key fields.
Record 1 Record 2 Record 3 Record 4

K1 K2 K3 K4
K1 – K4 – Record keys.
Sequential files are accessed sequentially, i.e. the key field is used to search for the particular
record required. Searching starts at the beginning of the file and proceeds sequentially towards
the ‘tail’ of the file, until the required record is located.
Advantages of Sequential organization.
1. The method is simple & easy to understand.

2. Sequential files are easy to organize and maintain.
3. Loading or reading a record requires only the Record Key.
4. It is efficient & economical if the number of file records to be processed is high.
5. Relatively inexpensive Input/Output media and devices may be used.
6. Errors in the files remain localized.
Disadvantages of Sequential organization.
1. The entire file must be processed even when the no. of file records to be processed is low.
2. Transactions must be sorted in the sequence of the Master file before they can be processed or
updated.
3. Data redundancy/idleness is high since the same data may be stored in several files sequenced
in different keys.
4. Random enquiries are almost impossible to handle.
Indexed Sequential file organization.
The records are arranged sequentially as in sequential files. However, indexed sequential files
have an Index that enables the computer to locate individual records on the storage media.
An Index is the address of a particular cylinder or track. The indexes are used to point at the
portions where the records are stored in groups. This allows a group of records that are not
required in a particular processing run to be bypassed.
a b c
Record 1 Record 2 Record 3 Record 4 Record 5 Record 6

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6
a, b, c – indexes. K1-K6 – Record keys.
To access a record in an indexed sequential file, the Index and the record’s key field are used by
the computer to search for the required record before it is read into the computer memory.
Methods of accessing Indexed sequential files.
Indexed sequential files may be accessed using 3 methods;
(a). Sequential access.

(b). Selective sequential access.
(c). Random access.
Sequential access:
In sequential access, the computer reads the records in sequential order (i.e., one record after the
other) using the index until the record matching the search key is found. The record is then read
into the Main memory.
Sequential access is suitable for high activity files.
Selective Sequential access:

In this selective sequential access, the transaction file must first be sorted into the same key
sequence as the master file. The access mechanism then goes forward in an ordered progression
(sequence), and only those records needed are read/processed.
The method is suitable for low activity files.
Random (direct) access:
The records in a Random file are not stored in any particular sequence of the key field. This
means that, the records can be processed in any sequence, i.e., by moving access mechanism
forward and backwards along the file in a non-orderly manner to access the records required.
The method is suitable for low activity files.
Advantages of Indexed sequential file organization
1. Records can be accessed sequentially or randomly.

2. Accessing of records can be fast, if done randomly.
3. Records are not duplicated.
Disadvantages of Indexed sequential file organization.
1. Accessing of records sequentially is time consuming.

2. Processing of records sequentially may introduce redundancy/idleness.
3. Required expensive storage medium.
Comparison of File organization methods.
Method Method of access Medium Example of file

used
1. Random Random Magnetic Master files requiring fast
disk. reference or enquiry.
Optical disk
2. Serial Serial Magnetic Unsorted transaction file
tape.
Magnetic
disk
3. Sequential Serial (Sequential) Tape, Disk Sorted transaction file, or
Sequential Master file.
4. Index Sequential (a). Sequential Magnetic Master files requiring various
(b). Selective sequential disk processing activities.
(c). Random
File organization & access on a Magnetic Tape.

In a Magnetic tape, the file records are placed one after the other onto the tape.
There are 2 ways in which files are arranged on tapes:
1). Serial:
In serial organization, the records are written onto the tape without having any relationship
between the record keys.
√ Serial files on a tape are accessed serially, i.e., each record is read from the tape into main
storage one after the other in the order they occur on the tape.
2). Sequential.
In Sequential organization, the records are written onto tape in sequence according to the
record keys. Sequential files are accessed sequentially.
Explanation;
To process a sequential Master file on a tape, the transaction file must be in the sequence of the
Master file. The transaction file is read first, followed by the Master file until the matching file
record is found. E.g., if the record required is the 20 th record of the file, the computer must first
read all the 19 preceding records.
File organization & access on a Magnetic Disk.
There are 4 basic methods of organizing files on a Magnetic disk:
1). Serial:
The records are placed onto the disk one after the other with no regard for sequence.
√ Serial files on a disk are accessed Serially, i.e. each record is read from the disk into main
storage one after the other in the order they occur on the disk.
2). Sequential:
In sequential organization, the records are written onto the disk but in a defined sequence
according to the record keys.
√ The Sequential method of access is used to read a sequential disk file.
3). Random:
In random organization, the records are placed onto the disk “randomly”, (i.e. there is no
obvious relationship between the records).
A mathematical formula is used to generate the address of the location where the record is
placed on the disk. During processing, the same record key is used to generate the address
which shows the location from which the record is read.
√ The method of access to random files is Random (direct) access.
4). Indexed Sequential:
In Indexed Sequential organization, the records are stored in sequence, but an Index (key
field/guide) is provided to enable individual records to be located. In this case, the index will
always enable the sequence of the records to be determined.
Indexed sequential files can be accessed using sequential access, selective sequential access,
or random access method.
Factors to consider when choosing the type of file organization to use.
1). Frequency of update.
The file designer should determine how often the file is going to require updating.
For periodic updates (e.g., monthly update), the transactions are used to update the master files
in one run. For the non-periodic systems, the transactions may be updated anytime as
required.
The file design selected should therefore be able to meet the update strategies, and at the
required time.
2). File activity.
The type of file organization adopted should be based on the expected number of records to be
processes/accessed in a particular run.
3). Method of file access.
This refers to the method the computer shall use to transfer the contents of the file from the
storage media into the computer.
4). Nature of the system.
Before designing the file(s) to be maintained by a computer system, you have to consider
whether the system runs periodically or is an event-driven system.
In periodically run systems, all transactions relating to particular business are accumulated
over a period of time, after which they are applied to the relevant master files in a single run.
Such systems produce periodic reports from the maintained files.
On the other hand, event-driven systems allow file enquiries and instant update so long as the
transactions are available from the maintained master files for the production of instant
information.
5). Medium for storing the Master file.
Computer files are stored in the storage media. The type of file organization adopted depends
on the medium that will be used to store the computer file.
E.g., Serial access devices, such as Magnetic Tapes cannot be used to store Random files or
Indexed-sequential files. This is because; searching for the particular record required proceeds
serially regardless of the file organization method used.
Review Questions.
1. What do you mean by File Organization?

2. State and explain four types of file organization.
3. Distinguish between:
(a). Sequential and serial file organization methods.
(b). Random and indexed-sequential file organization methods.
4. (a). Describe how files are organized and accessed on tape.
(b). What are the disadvantages of storing files on tape?
5. Differentiate between Sequential and Indexed Sequential methods of file organization on disk.
6. (a). What is random file organization? State its advantages.
(b). How are Random files accessed on disk?
7. Identify four file processing methods.
8. Discuss four considerations for choosing a file organization method.
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING MODES
Data processing modes describe the ways in which a computer, under the influence of an
operating system, is designed to handle data or transactions during processing.
Types of electronic data processing modes
1. Batch processing (also referred to asSequentialor Offline processing)
2. Online processing
3. Real-time processing
4. Time-sharing
5. Multi-programming (also referred to as Multi-tasking)
6. Multi-processing.
7. Distributed processing
8. Interactive processing
Review questions
1. Define the term “Data processing modes”.

2. Mention five types of electronic data processing modes.
Batch processing
In batch processing, data or transactions are collected & accumulated together over a specified
period of time, e.g., daily, weekly, or monthly. The data is then input & processed at once (or as a
single unit) to produce a batch of output.
For example:
In a payroll processing system, details of employees such as number of hours worked, rate of pay,
may be collected for a period of 1 month, after which they are used to process the payment for the
duration worked.
Data collection is usually done off-line (i.e. away from the CPU) on special machines known as
Data entry terminals. The data is entered & stored on a disk in a batch queue for a while. It is
then input & processed one or more at a time under the control of the Batch operating system,
and the result obtained.
Batches of transactions are scheduled for processing by assigning them priorities. The priorities
are assigned in terms of percentage ratio, e.g. 95%, 60%, etc. The most priority jobs are
processed first, while the less priority jobs are processed once the computer resources (i.e., CPU
time, Memory&I/O devices) are released by the most priority jobs.
Once the processing of a given batch starts, there is no interaction between the operator & the
CPU. Therefore, the user cannot intervene to perform amendments to the program.
A job is not processed until it is fully input. In addition, a program must wait its turn before
processing the data. This means that, there will be a delay in obtaining results. For instance, a job
may wait in the batch queue for minutes or hours depending on the workload. Hence, Batch
processing cannot be used when the results are needed immediately.
Characteristics/ Features of Batch processing system.
√ The input device does not necessarily need to be connected to the computer.
If the device used for data entry is not connected to the computer, it is said to be Off-Line
(away from the computer).
√ The data is not immediately input into the computer, and it is not even immediately recorded in
a machine-readable form.
√ The speed of processing is not important. This implies that, processing of the data is done at
whatever time is most convenient.
Application areas for Batch processing systems.
Batch processing is commonly applied in:
1. Payroll systems.
The attendance data of each employee is collected regularly. It is then input weekly or
monthly as per the demands of the system, processed, & then the pay figures for each
employee is obtained.
2. Printing systems (to print documents)
Advantages of Batch processing.
1. Batch systems are easy to develop.

2. Processing of data in batches is efficient & economical.
3. The cost of processing per unit is low.
4. Batching provides manageable units for control purposes.
5. Timing of the information (reports) is not a necessity.
Disadvantages of Batch processing.
1. There are delays in obtaining information.

2. It leads to overloading of the processing facilities.
3. Late information is not suitable in situations where instant decisions are required.
4. It is difficult to provide the scheduling of the desired priority.
Review questions
1. Briefly explain Batch processing.

2. Describe the application, advantages and disadvantages of batch processing.
Online processing
In online processing, data or the input transactions are processed immediately they are received to
produce the information required.
Online processing occurs when the transactions are processed to update (or make any change in) a
computer file immediately after the transactions occur.
In online processing, all the Input/Output facilities, and communication equipments are under
direct influence of the central Processor.
In online processing, the operator communicates directly to the computer’s operating system using
commands, which are then interpreted by the supervisor. This means that, the operator can
interact with the system at any point of processing using the Input/Output facilities.
Note. In online processing, the data input units (terminals) are connected directly to the central
computer using communication links.
In such a configuration, the data (input transactions) are communicated from the workstations to
the central computer for processing, & the results communicated back to the workstations through
the telecommunication links.
Characteristics of Online processing system.
√ The input device is connected directly to the computer.

√ The input data is processed immediately. Processing is completed within a short time (usually
1 or 2 minutes), depending on the speed of the system.
Application areas for online processing systems.
1. Banking:
A bank customer can make an inquiry using an online terminal. The system would then
respond immediately by accessing the relevant file, and inform the customer on the status of
his/her account.
2. Stock exchanges:
Terminals located in major stock exchanges throughout the country enables quick processing
of shares dealings.
3. Stock control:
Terminals located in warehouses enable stock records to be re-ordered automatically, make

reservations, follow-up of outstanding orders, & print picking lists.
4. Manufacturing plants: - to control the progress of work.

5. Inventory status: - i.e., ordering & reporting of geographically dispersed distributors.
Advantages of online processing.
1. Files are held online; therefore the information generated can be used to update the master
files directly.
2. The Information is readily available for immediate decision-making.
3. File enquiries are possible at any given time through the terminals (workstations).
Disadvantages of online processing.
1. Online systems are complex to develop.

2. They are costly in terms of hardware, software, storage media, operating system,
communication facilities, etc.
Review questions
1. (a). Discuss Online processing.

(b). Mention and explain the Application, Advantages and disadvantages of Online
processing mode.
Real-time systems.
A Real-time system is capable of processing data so quickly such that the results (output)
produced are able to influence, control, or affect the outcome of the activity or process currently
taking place.
In a Real-time data processing system, the computer receives & processes the incoming data as
soon as it occurs, updates the transaction file, and gives an immediate response that would affect
the events as they happen.
The input-originating workstations may be connected directly to the central processor by

appropriate communication equipments. In this case, a transaction is processed & completed
immediately or at the same time it occurs. It also ensures quick update to the affected files
(records).
The main purpose of a real-time processing is to provide accurate, up-to-date information, hence;
better services based on a real situation.
Requirements of a real-time processing system.
1). There must be a direct connection between Input/Output devices & the central Processor.
2). The Response time should be fairly fast, to allow a 2-way communication (interaction)
between the user & central processor.
Characteristics/ features of real-time data processing.
√ Provides immediate response on receipt of a message, e.g., enquiries may be answered

immediately.
√ The system can respond very quickly to a change of circumstances and initiate a feedback.
√ They have complex & expensive Operating systems, and usually involve Multi-processing
(use of 2 or more processors) to share the workload.
√ Real-time systems must be fast and reliable.
√ Real-time systems are dedicated to one type of application.
Application areas for real-time systems.
Real-time systems can be used in applications that require:
 Quick response.
 A much short time cycle before the information is available to effect the functioning of its
environment.
Examples:
1. Airline reservation systems:
An individual cannot be booked before enquiring whether the airline seat is available. The
customer may request for an airline booking information through a remote terminal and the
requested information will be given out immediately by the reservation system. If a booking
is made, the system immediately updates the reservations file to avoid double-booking, and
sends the response back to the customer immediately.
This implies that, before the next transaction can be processed, the files must have been
updated by the previous transactions.
2. Theatre (cinema) booking.

3. Hotel reservations.
4. Banking systems for making enquiries about customers’ accounts.
5. Police enquiry systems.
6. Chemical processing plants:
If the temperature is to be regulated, then a rise in temperature requires immediate reaction for
correction to restore it to an equilibrium state.
7. In Missile controlsystems
8. In Hospitals - to monitor the progress of a patient.
Advantages of real time systems.
1. The information is readily available for instant decision-making.

2. Provides better services to users or customers.
3. It is a fast & reliable mode of data processing.
4. Validation of data can be done instantly.
5. Reduces circulation of hardcopies.
6. Provides up-to-date information.
Disadvantages of real-time systems.
1. Real-time systems are very expensive & require complex Operating systems.
2. The systems are not easy to develop.
3. They require large communication equipments, e.g., they require a Front End Processor
(FEP), which is used to relieve the central computer by handling some of the limited
processing activities, and also link the terminals to the central computer.
4. Real-time systems use 2 or more computer processors sharing up the workloads, which are
expensive
Time-sharing systems
In time-sharing processing, the central processor allows 2 or more users, who have different
processing requirements, to use one computer at the same time.
The terminal users are usually connected to the central computer using communication links.
The CPU time is divided out equally among the users, and each user is allowed a “Time slice” – a
brief period when he/she is allowed to access the CPU.
The amount of time allocated to each user & the switching from one job to another is controlled
by a multi-user operating system. The OS normally assigns priorities to the various jobs entering
the system.
Illustration;
The OS may give each terminal user 5 seconds to submit a job. The user sits at the terminal &
issues commands to the OS.
After every 5 seconds, the central computer checks all the terminals to see if there is any user who
needs assistance. If a particular terminal does not need service, the computer goes onto the next
terminal. But if a new command has been issued, the computer will allocate a time-slice to the
user. During this time, the computer devotes its full attention to this user. When the time-slice is
over or the user’s requests have been satisfied, the computer goes on to the next terminal. The
user must now wait until he/she is allocated her next time-slice.
Note. The switching of control from one user to another during assigning of the time slices
happens so fast that an individual user may think that he/she is the only one using the system.
E.g., for 50 users each allocated 10 milliseconds; it takes only 500 milliseconds (½ a second) to
service them all.
Question. What happens to a user’s job if her time-slice is up and the job is not completed?
The job is interrupted and allocated some space on the disk where the job together with all
relevant status information is moved into. When the time comes to resume the job (or during the
next allocated time-slice), the job is rolled-in from the disk, and processing continues at the point
at which the interruption occurred.
Characteristics of a time-sharing processing mode.
√ Each user has one or more Input/Output devices connected to the central computer by
communication lines.
√ Each user is independently of the others who are connected to the system.
√ Each user has its own private set of programs plus access to a set of public programs.
√ The central computer accepts the data & instructions arriving simultaneously from many users,
and gives each user a small but frequently repeated segment of computer time.
√ Data files, program files, and Input/Output devices are all directly connected to the computer,
so that processing can be performed at random as requests for transactions are made.
Application areas for time-sharing.
1. In Bureaus that serve individuals or small companies who cannot afford the computer
facilities.
2. In learning institutions where there are many users.
Advantages of time-sharing systems.
1. Provides better services to users since the output is fast.

2. The processor’s idle time is utilized. This is because; the processor doesn’t have to wait for
the slower communicating peripherals.
3. Files are held online, hence enquiries or file interrogation is possible.
4. The user and the computer can communicate through the terminals connected to the central
computer.
5. It avoids duplication of software.
6. Terminal users can benefit from the facilities of the central computer.
7. It is helpful to small companies, which cannot afford to purchase a computer & the related
facilities. The company can be served at a fee through time-sharing processing mode.
Disadvantages of time-sharing systems.
1. Users have no control over the central computer.

2. The response is slow especially when there are many tasks.
3. There is no security of data.
Multi-programming systems
Multi-programming (also referred to as Multi-tasking) refers to a type processing where more

than one programs residing in the computer memory are executed concurrently by a single
Processor.
A multi-programming system allows the user to run 2 or more programs, all of which are in the
computer’s Main memory, at the same time.
The jobs are scheduled to run automatically by the Processor under the influence of a Multi-
programming or Multi-tasking operating system).
The schedule is such that; the Processor bound jobs (i.e., jobs that require much of the C.P.U
time as compared to the peripheral time) are assigned low priorities for them not to tie up the
C.P.U time. The Peripheral or Print bound jobs (i.e., jobs that require much of the peripheral
time as compared to the C.P.U time) are allocated the C.P.U time whenever it is available.
The OS allocates each program a time-slice, and decides the order in which they will be executed.
In this case, the programs take turns at short intervals of processing time. The programs to be run
are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins execution of the first one. When the request is
satisfied, the second program is brought into memory and its execution starts, and so on.
Note. A Multi-programming system is able to work on several programs at the same time. It
works on the programs one after the other, and at any given time it executes instructions from one
program only. However, the computer works so quickly that it appears to be executing the
programs at the same time.
Advantages of multi-programming.
1. Increases productivity of a computer.

2. Reduces the CPU’s idle time.
3. Reduces the incidence of peripheral bound operation.
Disadvantages of multi-programming.
1. Requires more expensive CPU.

2. A Multi-tasking operating system is complex & difficult to operate.
3. Requires more expensive Input/Output facilities.
Distributed processing.
Distributed data processing refers to dividing of processing tasks among 2 or more computers
that are located on physically separate sites, but connected by data transmission media.
For example;
An organization may have various computers that are located at various departments or business
sites, but linked together by communication lines. In such a case, each individual department or
business site is being served individually by its own computer resources.
The computers at different departments are usually of limited processing power (e.g.,
microcomputers), and only serve as terminals from the various departments. They are then
connected to a central computer of enhanced processing ability such as a Mini or a Mainframe
computer.
Salient features of distributed processing mode.
√ Each department or business site is served individually by the computer resources employed.
√ The Information generated in each department is used to influnce the decisions of individual
departments appropriately.
Computer configurations that can be used for Distributed processing systems.
Configurations where computers communicate to each other are described as Networks.
The following are computer arrangements that can be used for Distributed processing systems:
1. Local Area Networks (LAN).

This is whereby the network is within the same locality, and does not require the use
telecommunication links, e.g., same building.
2. Wide Area Networks (WAN)orLong Haul Networks (LHN).
These are networks that involve computers separated by long distance; hence, they
communicate through telecommunication links.
Note. Networks within the same city may be linked through Telephone lines or special Coaxial
cables, while far distant places may be linked through Satellite transmission channels or ground
Microwave systems.
Application areas of distributed processing.
1. In Banks:
All the branches have Intelligent terminals (usually microcomputers) linked to a big
computer at the Head Office. The customers’ accounts are operated on the servers in the
branches, while data from the branches is sent to the main server where it is processed.
Advantages of distributing processing.
1. The load on the Host computer is greatly reduced.

2. The distribution of processing power increases efficiency, and also the speed of processing.
3. The use of low cost minicomputers minimizes the cost in data processing.
4. Delays in data processing are reduced.
5. Provides better service to the customers.
6. There is less risk of system breakdown.
7. The design & implementation of the system is less complex due to decentralization.
8. The level of expertise required is less.
Disadvantages of distributing processing system.
1. It is expensive due to the extra cost of communication equipments.

2. Data duplication is very common.
3. Programming problems occur with Micro and Minicomputers.
4. More training is needed for the users involved.
Review questions
1. Most companies are now shifting from the use of centralized mainframe computers to the use
of geographically distributed personal computers. This method of data processing is known as
Distributed data processing (DDP).
Required:
(i). Name any three computing resources that can be distributed.

(ii). Name four examples of industries and business organizations that extensively use
distributed processing systems.
(iii). List and explain three ways of networking microcomputers/personal computers to form a
distributed data processing system.
(iv). Name three risks that might be associated with the distributed data processing system.
Interactive processing
Interactive processing occurs if the computer & the terminal user can communicate with each
other. It allows a 2-way communication between the user & the computer.
As the program executes, it keeps on prompting the user to provide input or respond to prompts
displayed on the screen. In other words, the user makes the requests and the computer gives the
responses.
In Interactive processing, the data is processed individually and continuously as transactions take
place and output is generated instantly.
Interactive processing is mostly applied in Ticket reservation systems.
Multi-processing systems
Multiprocessing refers to the processing of more than one task at the same time on different
processors of the same computer.
In a multi-processing system, a computer may have 2 or more independent processors, which work
together in a coordinated manner, and are sharing the same computer memory.
This means that, at any given time, the processors could execute instructions from two or more
different programs, or different parts of one program simultaneously. In such systems, each CPU
is dedicated to one type of application, e.g., one CPU may handle all terminal users, while another
may process only the batch jobs.
The activities of the system are coordinated by the Multi-processing operating system.
Advantage: - if one CPU fails, the other(s) can take over the workload until repairs are made.
Review questions
1. Explain the difference between Multi-Programming and Multi-Processing.
Remote job entry (RJE) systems.
This refers to batch processing where jobs are entered at a terminal remote from the computer and
transmitted into the computer, e.g., by means of telecommunication links.
Conversational mode.
This is interactive computer operation where the response to the user’s message is immediate.
Factors to consider when selecting the Data processing mode.
1. Type of computer configuration to install.
2. Suitability of accumulating data (transactions) into batches for processing.
3. How the processing time would be optimized.

4. How fast the information should be produced if it is to be used for decision-making.
5. Cost of acquiring the relevant hardware, software, storage media & the cost of maintenance.
6. Ease of development, use, and subsequent maintenance.
7. How the resources (e.g., files, I/O devices) would be controlled.
8. The data communication equipment needed, the cost involved & their convenience.
9. The need for sharing resources among several users.
Review questions
1. Mention 5 factors to be considered when selecting the data processing mode suitable for use in
organization.
LESSON 10
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
System development involves identifying business requirements and developing information

systems that will effectively help to support the day-to-day operations & decision-making
processes in an organization.
Definition of a System
 A System is a set of organized components which interact in a given environment and within a
specified boundary to achieve collective goals & objectives that are emerging.
 A System is a set of items, equipments, procedures, processes, techniques, programs & people
working jointly with an aim of achieving common goals.
Examples of systems are:

 Education (school) system.
 Transport system.
 Bicycle system.
 Banking system, etc.
 A system is made of various components. Once the components come together, they become
interrelated to each other and generate new goals and objectives, and as such, a system breaks
down when any of its components is removed.
E.g., a Bicycle system has all the components working together to provide motion when
ridden. The individual components cannot provide these services to a rider when on their
own.
 A system does some useful job; hence, it should be active & efficient, e.g., a Banking system
deals with money.
Description of a System
A system can be described as either being Soft or Hard.
Soft systems:
These are usually the human activity systems.
They are described as soft because of 3 main reasons;
1. Their boundaries keep on changing.

2. Their goals & objectives usually conflict, and may not be captured clearly at any one given
time. This is because; they are based on human factors such as attitudes&preferences.
3. It is difficult to clearly define their exact measures of performance.
Examples of soft systems:

i). A Political system: - it is very difficult to come up with a system that will predict the political
mood in a country over a given period of time.
ii). A sales tracking & prediction system in an organization: - sales in an organization depend
on human factors such as attitude in the market place.
Hard systems:
These are systems whose goals & objectives are clearly defined, and the outcomes from their
processes are predictable and can be modeled accurately.
Hard systems are based on proven scientific laws such as mathematical formulas or Engineering
solutions.
Example of a hard system:
i). Stock management system in a supermarket: - it is possible to know exactly the stock levels,
cost, selling price, and to predict accurately the profit if all the stock is sold.
Note. A good system should have features of both soft & hard systems, e.g., a stock management
system should be able to show when the demand for a certain item rises so that a decision can be
made on when to buy more stock. Similarly, new demand is driven by soft aspects in people’s
lives such as attitude & seasons.
CHARACTERISTICS (FEATURES) OF A SYSTEM
All systems have some common characteristics. Some of these characteristics are:
1). Holistic thinking
A system contains a set of interacting elements. However, in holistic thinking, a system is

considered as a whole unit.
Note. The concept of a system emerged from early psychologists who believed that the
mind was a whole unit, rather than a collection of psychological parts.
The various components that make up a system may be simple in nature, but when
combined, they create something complex whose overall goals are more sophisticated than
those of the individual components.
2). Purpose
A system must be designed to achieve a specific predetermined objective, e.g., one main
objective of a school system is to enable the students to excel in national examinations.
The objectives that a system is supposed to achieve will enable the system developers
measure the performance of the system during its operation.
3). System boundaries and environment
Each system is required to operate within a specific framework or limits. The space within
which the components of a system operate is known as its boundary. Outside this boundary
is the environment, from which inputs are received & to which outputs are communicated.
Entities that fall outside the boundary but interact with the system are called external
entities, and they form part of the system environment. External entities provide the inputs
& also receive the outputs from the system.
e.g., the external entities to a school system may include; Parents, various suppliers, and the
society.
Therefore, a system operates within specified boundaries, and interacts with other systems.
4). Sub-systems
Each system is made up of different components (or other systems) that communicate with
each other. These systems are described as Sub-systems.
This means that, a system does not exist alone, but it is composed of subsystems, which are
also made up of other subsystems.
Example;
The Classroom system is part of a School system, which is a subsystem of the Ministry of
Education. The Ministry of Education is part of the Government, while the Government is
part of the Global system.
Therefore, every system is a component of a larger system.
5). Inputs & outputs
A system communicates with its environment by receiving inputs & giving outputs.
Example;
A manufacturing firm can be considered as a system that gets inputs in form of raw materials
from the environment and transforms them into finished products (outputs), which are
released into the environment.
6). Process
A system will usually transform data from one state to another.

Usually, after the raw data is collected & prepared into a form suitable for input, it is then
manipulated into information using the given procedures or instructions. The processing
may be manual, clerical, electro-mechanical or automatic to obtain the information.
7). System control
A system has some controls that help it not to operate beyond its boundaries. Control is the
method by which a system adapts to changes in the environment in order to give the
expected output or to perform to the expected level.
Control is normally achieved through feedback. Feedback is a check within a system, which
ensures that the objectives of the system are achieved. They assist the system by monitoring
the environment in which it operates in order to find out any deviation. If any deviation is
detected, then the appropriate steps are taken to rectify this error.
The feedback may involve having the outputs from the process of the system being fed back
to the control mechanism. The control mechanism will then adjust control signals that are
fed to the process, which then ensures that the output meets the set expectations.
The figure below shows a system that has feedback to the control function.
Input System Process Output
Control signals Control Feedback
Example;
A motor vehicle manufacturing company is expected to produce several vehicles per day. If
the demand increases, the feedback will show that the company is underperforming. Control
signals can then be issued to speed up the movement of units on the Assembly line so as to
increase production.
8). System entropy (decay)
A system slowly becomes useless to the user either due to improvement in technology, new
management policies or change in user requirements.
Therefore, a system must be reviewed with the aim of improving it or to developing a new
one.
9). A system must give priority to the objectives of the organization as a whole as compared to
the objectives of a subsystem.
Open and Closed systems
A system can be described as being open or closed.

Open systems:
An Open system is that which interacts and communicates with its environment constantly. It
receives inputs from & gives output to the environment.
Examples of open systems;
 Business organizations.
 Information systems.
- Open systems normally adapt to changes in the environment, e.g., for any business organization
to exist, it must be able to adapt to the changing market prices, competition, etc.
- An open system has an unlimited scope when providing the services of the organization.
- In an open system, relevant variables keep on interacting.
- An open system is generally flexible & abstract.
Closed systems:
A Closed system is that which does not interact or communicate with its environment. It does not
communicate to or receive communication from its environment.
- Closed systems do not receive inputs or give output to their environment.
- A closed system can correct or control itself; hence, it does not obtain modification from its
environment.
- A closed system has a limited scope when providing the services of the organization.
- The variables in a closed system are self-contained.
- A closed system is rigid & mathematical.
Example of a closed system;
 A computer Program. It accepts previously defined inputs, processes them & gives previously
defined outputs.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Definition of an Information system:
An Information system is an arrangement of people, data processes & information that work
together to support and improve the day-to-day operations in a business and the decision-making
process.
Generally, the Information system of an organization is the complete apparatus for handling all
aspects of information within an organization. It includes people, procedures, technological, and
other resources that collect, transform & disseminate information in the organization.
Purposes of an Information system:
The main purposes of an Information system in an organization are: -
1. To support information processing tasks such as data collection, processing & communication.
2. Help in decision making by collecting data, analyzing it, and generating reports.
The process whereby a computer-based information system is used to capture operational data,
analyze it, and generate reports that can be used to support the decision making process in an
organization is referred to as Online analytical processing.
3. Supports sharing of information between departments/users in a given organization. The

departments can share the same electronic information stored in central database.
Circumstances that necessitate the development of new Information systems:
The following are some of the circumstances that bring about the need to develop new
information systems:
1). New opportunities: - a chance to improve the quality of internal processes and service
delivery in the organization may arise.
2). Invention of new systems which are more successful than the existing ones.
3). Problems: - the user may encounter some difficulties in the operations of the existing system,
which prevent the organization from meeting its goals.
4). The management may identify an area of poor performance, which increases the level of
indirect expenses.
5). Directives: - these are requirements imposed by the management, government, or external
influences.
System Analysis and Design
System Analysis:
 System analysis is the process of examining an activity, procedure, technique or organization

to determine what must be accomplished and how best the operations may be accomplished in
order to achieve the predetermined objectives.
 The process of collecting & analyzing facts that relate to an existing situation, diagnosing
problems, and using the facts gathered to design & implement an effective computerized
system.
System Design:
System design is the activity that involves identifying possible solutions to a problem, and then
deciding on the most appropriate system to solve the problem.
System design is concerned with the design of a computerized application based on the facts
disclosed during the Analysis stage.
In system design, the nature & contents of inputs, files & outputs are formulated and described in
order to show how they are connected by processing procedures, and for the purpose of
developing a new (or, an improved) system.
Information system Analyst:
An Information system Analyst is a person who identifies the problems & needs of an
organization, then designs & develops algorithms and procedures on how to solve these problems
on a computer.
The Analyst uses scientific techniques so as to determine where & how improvements can be
made in order to meet objectives in a more efficient, efficient, and economical manner.
Roles of an Information system analyst
1. Reviews the existing system & makes recommendations on how to improve or implement an
alternative system.
2. Works hand in hand with programmers to construct a computerized system.
3. Coordinates the training of new system users and owners.
4. He is the overall project manager of the information system being implemented. Some of his
project management duties include: assuring quality, keeping within schedule & budgeting.
Information gathering (Fact-finding)
After the feasibility study report has been approved by the management, the system analyst then
proceeds to identify the techniques that will help the management to gather enough information
relating to the starting of the system.
The collection/gathering of all information required to implement a computer system is referred to

as fact-finding.
Objectives of fact-finding.
The main objectives of fact-finding are:

 To find out what the present system is attempting to do, its scope and objectives.
 To collect information about the input of the present system.
 To find out the volume of input. This directly affects the design of the new system.
 To find out about the files maintained by the present system.
 To find out about the processing carried out by the system.
 To find out how the files are updated & outputs produced.
 To find out what equipments are used.
 To find out about the accuracy checks performed during processing.
 To find about time limitations, if any.
 To find out about the organization structure of the departments and the sections presently
carrying out the processing tasks.
 To find out the problems & difficulties presently encountered as the system operates, with
special reference to the barriers, duplication, and weakness.
 To ascertain the cost of the present system.
Revision Questions.
1. What do you mean by fact-finding?
2. State the objectives of fact-finding?
Fact-finding techniques
The following are some of the common methods/techniques used to collect data:
1. Document review (study of available documents or records).

2. Use of questionnaires.
3. Interviewing.
4. Automated methods.
5. Use of workshops.
Note. Before the system analyst chooses the most appropriate technique, he/she should compare
the merits & demerits of each technique. This will ensure that the technique chosen will be able
to meet all the requirements, which will assist the management in achieving its goals.
Observation:
This method requires the analyst to participate in or watch closely as a person performs some
activities for a period of time in order to see for oneself what exactly happens in the system.
In Observation, the analyst asks no questions. Instead, he observes the actions in which he is
interested, and records the desired information. This method gives the analyst first hand
experience about the problems and exposes him/her to the system requirements.
Advantages of observation
1. Data collected is highly reliable, since the method gives the real picture of the system.
2. Concepts or tasks that are too difficult for non-technical staff to explain in words can be
clearly observed.
The analyst is able to see clearly what is being done. He can also identify tasks, which have
been omitted or inaccurately described by other fact-finding techniques.
3. Allows the analyst to do some measurements.
4. It is relatively cheap compared to other techniques.
Disadvantages of observation
1. The presence of the analyst may make the person being observed perform differently (or
change behaviour) leading to wrong requirements being observed.
2. The work being observed may not involve the level of difficulty or volume normally
experienced during that time period.
3. The need to be on the site where the activities are taking place consumes a lot of time.
4. Tasks being observed are subject to various types of interruptions.
5. Some system activities may take place at odd times causing a scheduling inconveniences for
the analyst.
Use of Questionnaires:
A Questionnaire is a special-purpose document that allows a person to collect information &
opinions from respondents.
The method involves sending out forms containing questions with spaces for response to a group
of people, and collecting the forms back after they are completed. This method allows the analyst
to collect facts from a large number of people while maintaining uniform responses.
Circumstances in which a questionnaire is used for gathering information.
The questionnaires method is used in situations where:
 The information to be gathered is located over widely spread geographical areas.

 A large number of people are to be questioned, and the questions to be asked require short
answers, or are limited to Yes/No.
 100% coverage is not essential.
 Privacy (anonymity) of the respondents is to be maintained.
Note. In a situation where a large population is to be questioned, the analyst may spend a lot of
time analyzing the questionnaires. In such cases, a sample of people (who are assumed to
represent the overall population), can be given the questionnaires.
Advantages of questionnaires
1. Questions can be answered quickly, since respondents can complete & return the
questionnaires at their convenient time.
2. Use of questionnaires gives the respondents privacy; hence, there is likelihood that the
information given is sincere & real.
3. Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap means for data being collected from a large number
of individuals.
4. Responses can easily be tabulated & analysed quickly.
Disadvantages of questionnaires
1. Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare.
2. Number of respondents is usually low.
3. The respondent may not fully understand the questions because of ambiguity of language;
hence, he/she may end up giving wrong responses.
4. No guarantee that an individual will answer or explain on all the questions.
5. No immediate opportunity to clarify an unclear or incomplete answer to any question.
6. Not possible for the analyst to observe & analyse the body language of the respondents.
7. Questionnaires are inflexible, i.e., no opportunity for the analyst to obtain voluntary
information from a respondent.
Procedure for developing a questionnaire

1). Determine the facts & opinions, which must be collected and from whom you should get
them. If a large number of people is involved, then select a sample.
2). Depending on the facts required, decide whether to use free-format or fixed-format questions.
3). Write the questions & edit them such that they do not offer your personal bias or opinions.
4). Test the questions on a sample of respondents, then edit if necessary.
5). Duplicate & distribute the questionnaires.
Interviewing:
Interviewing is the process of obtaining information from another party by means of conversation.
Interviews enable the system analyst (who is the Interviewer) to collect information from the
affected individual (Interviewee) through face-to-face communication. The Interviewer asks
questions and the Interviewee responds with answers.
The analyst should carry out interviews with the relevant stakeholders in order to get views about
the current system, and gather information about the requirements for the proposed system.
Interviewing provides facts and also enables the analyst to verify the facts. It also provides an
opportunity to meet & overcome any possible user resistance.
A good interview should be planned, and should be carried out at the most appropriate time for the
parties involved.
When executing an interview, the following guidelines should be followed:
1. The interviewee must be informed in good time, and the topic of discussion communicated
accordingly to allow for adequate preparation.
2. Avoid personal biasness in your questions and perspectives.

3. Be careful about body proxemics. Proxemics refers to issues related to physical contact such
as sitting arrangement or body closeness during an interview.
At the end of the interview, the analyst should read what he/she has recorded to the interviewee
for further clarification before the final notes can be taken.
Advantages of interviews
1. An interview provides the analyst with an opportunity to motivate Interviewees to respond
freely & openly to questions. This removes the rigidity that exists in questionnaires.
2. It allows the analyst to rephrase/frame questions for each person.
3. It allows the analyst to prompt/urge for more feedback from the Interviewee.
4. It gives the analyst an opportunity to observe the verbal & non-verbal communication such as
facial expressions of the interviewee.
Disadvantages of interviews
1. It is difficult to organize interviews. This makes the method time-consuming & costly.
2. Many system analysts are poor interviewers, thus there is a possibility of failure.
3. The interviewee may not fully open up on some issues that may be personal or sensitive.
4. Interviewing may not be practical due to the location of the interviewees.
Automated methods:
Automated data collection is mostly used when actual data is required but difficult to get through
interviews, observation, or questionnaires.
Such data may be collected using devices that automatically capture data from the source such as
Video cameras, Tape recorders, etc.
File requirements specification.
This involves identifying the files required to store data & information in the system.
The system analyst should:
a). Identify the number of files that will be needed by the system.
b). Determine the structure of each of the files, e.g., will the files allow direct access? Will they
be sequential files stored on a magnetic tape?
c). Identify the attributes of the records in a file.
An Attribute is a unique characteristic of a record for which a data value can be stored in the
system database.
Note. These attributes are used when designing tables in a database, and each attribute
becomes a field in the table.
For example;
A Books table will have the following attributes/fields: Book ID, ISBN number, Title,
Author’s name, Year of publication, Date of issue and Date of return.
Book ID ISBN No. Title Author’s Name Year of Date issued Date of return
publication
Factors to consider when designing a good file.

1. Record key field: - this is usually an attribute that is unique for each record.
2. Data type for each field: - each field has a data type. In a database, the data type of book titles
can be stored as ‘Text’, while the Date of borrowing a book can be stored as ‘Date/Time’.
3. Length of each field: - a field used to store names can be specified to be 30 characters long,
while a field used to store numbers/integers can be specified to be 10 characters long.
4. Backup and recovery strategies: - the updated copies of data & information files need to be
stored in a different place other than the location of the current system. This ensures that, if
the current file gets corrupted, the backed up data can be used to recover/reconstruct the
original file.
Hardware & software requirements.

The system analyst should specify all the hardware & software requirements for the new system.
The hardware & software used to develop the system mainly depends on Input, Output & File
requirements, e.g., if the system requires data in picture format, then an image capturing device
such as a Digital camera or a Scanner must be used.
Some of the factors to consider in hardware & software specification are:
1. Cost (price)
2. Method of acquisition.
3. Reliability & security features.
4. Upgradeability.
5. Compatibility with the existing resources.
6. User friendliness.
7. User requirements (user needs)
8. Portability, etc
LESSON 11
BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING
Definition of terms used in Networking
Network
A Network can be defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or resources.
Examples of networks:
 Road network: - this is the interconnection of roads in a country, continent or throughout the
world. Road networks facilitate the transfer of goods & services from one area to another.
 Telephone network (voice networks): - it includes the many lines that criss-cross a country,
and enables people to communicate.
 Railway network.
 Nervous system.
Computer Network
A computer network can be defined as a collection 2 or more computers connected together using
transmission media (e.g., telephone cables, or Satellites) for the purpose of communication and
sharing of resources.
Usually there can be from 2 to hundreds or even thousands of computers on the network. Apart
from computers, other devices such as Printers, plotters, fax machines, modems, etc can also be
connected to the network.
The term Transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between 2 or more
computers, and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.
Network Server.
Computer networks usually have one computer reserved as the “Mother” of all the other
computers on the network.
A Server is a powerful computer that provides services (shared resources) to the other computers
on the network. It enables information, resources & network devices to be shared by users on a
computer network.
Network servers;
i). Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM) capacity than the other computers on the
network.
ii). Store & run a special program called the server software (network operating system), which
controls computers on the network.
Clients (workstations)
Clients(also referred to as Workstations) are Personal Computers (PCs) attached to the network,
on which the network users do their work. They are used by network users to send their requests
to the server.
Clients;
i). Are usually less powerful than the server, and use the resources provided by the Server.
ii). Have their own operating systems and files.
The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows, etc.
The figure below shows a server on a network.
DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one place to another
through a communication media.
The basic components of a data transmission system are:
(a) A central computer.

(b) Terminal devices.
(c) Telecommunications link between the central computer & the terminal devices.
Terms used in data communication
Data signal:
A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data.
In data communication, there are 2 types of data signals; Digital and Analog.
Analog data is made up of continuous waveforms, while digital data is made up of a non-
continuous discrete waveform.
Analog data signal

Velocity
(Sine wave)
Time
Digital data signal
Velocity
(Rectangular waved)
Time
Signal modulation and demodulation:
This is the process of converting data signals to a form that can be

transmitted over a transmission medium.
E.g., a modem converts a digital signal to an analog signal, which can be transmitted over analog
telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the
analog signal into a digital signal, a process known as demodulation.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:
Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium, e.g., a wire
conductor can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different times.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.
Illustration:
Town A has 10 computers which want to communicate with 10 other computers in town B. In a
normal case, it will need a direct cable linking each of the computers in town A to its partner in
town B. However, if multiplexing is used, the computers can be made to share a single cable laid
between the two towns, hence, saving cost.
The different data signals have different frequencies on the cable; hence, they do not interfere with
one another.
Demultiplex
Multiplexer
Multiplexed line
From computers To computers
er
Fig.: A multiplexed link

Frequency (f):
Frequency of a wave is the number of cycles made by the wave in 1 second. Frequency is
measured in units called Hertz (Hz); where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.
Baud:
This is the unit to measure the speed of transmission. Generally, 1BAUD is 1bit/second.
Baud rate:
This is the rate at which data is transferred or transmitted. It is measured in Bits per second (bps).
Band:
The rate of change of a signal on a transmission line.
Bandwidth:
A Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any one
time. E.g., a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).
Guardband:
This is the range of frequency that is used to separate two channels.
Baseband signal:
This is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly without
modulation.
Note. A baseband signal utilizes the full capacity of the transmission medium; hence, at any one
time, only one signal can be sent. However, multiple signals can be sent at different times, if they
are multiplexed.
Broadband transmission:
This is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission medium using a particular frequency.
This means that, several data signals can be sent at the same time through the same medium, but at
different frequencies so as to prevent them from overlapping.
Attenuation:
Attenuation is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along a
transmission medium.
If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way, and may never reach the
destination.
Attenuation (or signal loss) is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers (also called repeater
stations) along the medium at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it,
amplify it, then retransmit it.
Modes of data communication
There are 3 modes of data communication:
(a). Simplex.
(b). Half duplex.
(c). Full duplex.
Simplex transmission:
This is where communication is only in one direction (as in radio or television broadcast). The
listener or viewer cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the
broadcaster.
Half duplex transmission:
This refers to communication in both directions, but one direction at a time.

A sender must first send the data before the recipient can reply, e.g., if two police officers are
communicating using a ‘walkie talkie’ radio, one has to say “over” to mark the end of every
statement in order for the other to respond.
Full duplex transmission:
This is where communication occurs in both directions simultaneously (as in computers that are
sending & receiving data on a network).
Factors to consider when selecting a data transmission system

1. Cost of each type of data transmission method.
2. Distance between the computer & the terminal.
3. Whether data should be transmitted direct to the computer online.
4. Type of data transmission system to be used, i.e., whether the data transmission will be 1-way
or 2-way.
5. Volume of data to be processed; and whether it is batched at particular times, or whether it is
collected individually and required to be processed immediately.
6. Speed of transmission required.
In many cases, it is acceptable to use the ordinary Postal service, Kenyan rail, or a private
Courier service.
7. Accuracy and reliability required.
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:
1). Resource sharing
A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access by
users.
Some of the shared resources include:
i). Application programs. vii). Network Printers

ii). Data and information. viii). Fax machines
iii). Messages. ix). Modems
iv). Graphics. x). Storage devices (optical drives).
v). Files. xi). Communication ports.
vi). Computer processing power. xii). Disk space
Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for example, share their files,
exchange mails, send faxes, schedule meetings, and print documents from any point on the
network. This centralized access to data & information leads to less waste of time, and hence
greater productivity.
2). Remote communications
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different geographical locations.
E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if he/she is in the office.
It is mainly through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas, and pass
messages over the Internet.
A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a
remote client, while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as
radio waves, microwave, and satellite.
3). Distributed processing facilities
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different
computers, which are on the same network but placed in separate locations.
Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.
For example;
In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores data, information, and
other resources required for their daily operations.
This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a central computer, and are
only transmitted periodically to update the central computer.
Advantages of distributed processing.
1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.
Disadvantages of distributed processing.

1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it
throughout the network.
2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their
individual systems.
3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.
4). Cost effectiveness
The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive.
However, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make networks cost
effective.
 Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a large organization
with many stand alone computers will need a printer for each computer. However, if the
computers are networked, only one printer is used.
 Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e., they have made the
flow of information from one place to another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to
each other, without having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences, thus reducing the
traveling costs.
5). Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:
i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the
other computers using another computer on the network.
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING
1). Security issues
Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the world, and can easily
be accessed illegally. In addition, when information is sent over the network from one place
to another, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.
2). High initial cost
The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high.
3). Moral and cultural effects
Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services. These enable
underage children to meet peers and adults on the net, some of whom may have bad intentions.
Access to pornographic and other negative material on the Internet has made the fight against
social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, and drug abuse more complicated.
4). Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to operate. This is because; they
use information networks for their business communications.
5). Over-reliance on networks.
Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means that, all business
processes, and the society depend on computer networks. Therefore, if by any chance the
network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society will stop working.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most common types of
networks are:
1. Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN).
This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected together in a
relatively small geographical area, e.g., in one building or a school.
LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the radius of 10M – 3
Km.
LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs
over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The server computer makes
available the resources requested by the other computers (workstations) on a network.
In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute programs, but still the
workstation user can also access data & devices anywhere on the network.
Advantages of LANs.
1). They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, as well as data.
However, the no. of computers that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.
2). Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).

3). Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat
sessions.
4). LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data transmitted over
telephone lines.
5). Small error counts (low error rates).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.
It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an entire city, within a
radius of 5 – 50 Km.
Characteristics of MAN
- Larger than LAN.

- Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of 100MBps & above.
- Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is needed to connect the different
networks together.
- Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
Wide Area Network (WAN).
This is the largest size of network.
A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one large network such as the
Internet.
Characteristics of WAN
 They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g., can cover the whole world.
 They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment for connection.
 Their transmission links are also expensive.
 Long distance transmission.
 Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are slower than LANs & MANs)
 More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to LANs and MANs).
Differences between a Local Area Network and a Wide Area Network.
1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.

2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.
ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF NETWORKING

A computer network is made up of several standard components, which can be classified into
three (3) major categories, namely:
1. Data communication media.

2. Communication devices.
3. Networking software.
Data communication (Transmission) media.
A data communication medium is a physical pathway used for carrying data signals &
information from one point to another.
Data communication media can be divided into two:
(a). Communication using cable (bound media).

(b). Wireless communication (unbounded media).
Communication using cables (bounded media).
In bounded media, data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination through a cable.
There are 4 major types of bounded transmission media, namely:
1. Two-wire open lines cables.

2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fibre optic cables.
Two-wire open lines cables.
Two-wire open lines cables are made up of 2 parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator.
Plastic insulator
Wire conductor
The Plastic insulator is meant to reduce signal interference called Crosstalk. However, the linear
nature of the wires allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data
transmission, which may cause interference to the signal.
The wires also capture/pick unwanted environmental frequencies, e.g., radio waves, hence causing
noise in the transmission channel.
Two-wire open lines cables are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice (analogue)
signals.
Twisted pair cables.

A twisted pair cable is made up of 2 insulated copper wires twisted around each other in a spiral
pattern.
The twisting prevents electromagnetic fields from developing around the two wires as they
transmit data.
Twisted pair cables can be used to transmit both voice & data signals (i.e., analogue & digital
signals).
Types of twisted pair cables.

The 2 common types of twisted pair cables are:
(i). Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
(ii). Shielded twisted pair (STP).
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables.
UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference (also called ‘Electric
noise’) from the environment.
Twisted pair
Outer cover
UTP cable is prone to noise & signal interference, and therefore, not
suitable for environments that are electrically ‘noisy’.
Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal, or radiations from spark plugs in motor
vehicles.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.
In STP cables, a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to protect them from noise.
Twisted pair cables are grouped into 5 categories according to the type of data transmitted, and the
maximum rate of transmission.
Category Speed (max. limit) Suitable for transmitting

1 Less than 1 Mbps (i.e., Megabits per second) Voice
2 1 Mbps Data
3 16 Mbps Data
4 20 Mbps Data
5 100 Mbps Data
Advantages of Twisted pair cables.
1. Can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps.

2. Telephone systems use UTP, which is present in most buildings. Therefore, it is easier to
setup network media because; connection is readily available.
3. Installation equipment is cheap & readily available.
4. It is cheap because; of mass production for telephone use.
Disadvantages of Twisted pair cables.
1. They suffer from high attenuation. Therefore, for every cable length of 90m, a “Repeater” is
needed to amplify (restore) the signal.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference & eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
Coaxial cables.
A Coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set.
The cable has;

1. A central copper core (which is either solid or stranded wires).
The diameter of the centre core determines the attenuation rate. If the core is thin, then the
attenuation rate will be higher.
2. An insulator (a dielectric material) surrounding the copper core.

3. A hollow braid (mesh conductor) surrounding the insulator. The braid is made of copper or
aluminium, and serves as the ground for the carrier wire.
4. A shield which covers the braid making the core more resistant to electromagnetic
interference.
The braid together with the insulator & the foil shield protects the carrier wire from Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they can be used
to link/connect different networks between buildings, and route trunk calls in telecommunication
companies.
The Two types of coaxial cables.

(i). Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet): - it has 1 dielectric insulator around the core.
(ii). Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet): - it has 2 dielectric insulators around the core, and is thicker
than the thinnet.
Advantages of coaxial cables.
1. They are very stable even under high loads.

2. They have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared to twisted pair cables.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.
Disadvantages of coaxial cables.
1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. They are relatively expensive to buy & install compared to twisted pair cables.
Fibre optic cables.
A fibre optic cable uses light to transmit data signals from one point to another on the network.
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used at the source/transmitter (sending computer) to convert
electrical signals to light signals which are then send along the cable. At the receiving computer,
a photosensitive device is then used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be
A fibre optic cable is made up of;
1. The Core.
This is the central part of the cable, and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.
2. Cladding.
This is a single protective layer surrounding the core.
The Cladding is able to bend light rays, (i.e., when light tries to travel from the core to the
cladding, it is redirected back to the core).
3. Buffer.
It surrounds the cladding. Its main function is to strengthen the cable.
4. The Jacket.
It is the outer covering of the cable.
Light transmission along a fibre optic cable.
The light signal travels along the core through a process referred to as Total internal reflection.
The process that causes total internal reflection is called Refraction. Refraction is the bending of
light when it crosses the boundary of two mediums that have different densities.
Therefore, when light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the core to the
cladding. The light is bent back into the core, hence spreads along the length of the cable.
Light rays
Core Cladding
Types of fibre optic cables.
(i). Single mode fibre optic cable.
The single mode fibre has a very narrow centre core. This implies that, the light in the cable
can take only one path through it.
 It has a very low attenuation rate, and is preferred for long distance transmission.
 It has a very high bandwidth of 50 Gigabits per second.
 It is very expensive, and requires very careful handling during installation.
(ii). Multimode fibre optic cable.
A multimode fibre has a thicker centre core than the single mode fibre.
 It allows several light signals (rays) to be sent through the cable at the same time.
Hence, there are high chances of the signal being distorted.
 It has a high attenuation rate, and is usually used for shorter distance transmission.
Advantages of fibre optic cable.
1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference, and eavesdropping.

2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. It has low attenuation; hence, a long distance can be covered.
4. It does not generate electrical signals; hence can be used in dangerous (highly flammable)
places.
5. It is smaller & lighter than copper cables; hence, suitable for situations where space is limited.
Disadvantages of fibre optic cable.
1. Requires expensive connectivity devices and media.

2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled carefully.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken fibre optic cable is difficult & expensive to repair.
Wireless communication (unbounded media)
Wireless (unbounded) media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to
another without using physical connections.
In this case, a transmitting antenna& a receiver aerial are used to facilitate the communication.
Examples of wireless communication media include:
1. Microwaves.
2. Radiowaves.
3. Infrared transmission.
All these waves use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum, and travel at the
speed of light.
Below is a diagrammatic representation of the electromagnetic spectrum
Radiowaves
Microwaves
Infra-red (IR)
Visible light
Ultra-violet (UV)
X-Rays
Gamma rays
High Frequency
Frequency (VHF)
Very High
Frequency (UHF)
Ultra-High
(HF)
106 Hz
107 Hz
108 Hz
1010 Hz
1013 Hz
1015 Hz
1016 Hz
1020 Hz
1022 Hz
Microwave transmission
Microwave frequencies have a small wavelength, and can easily release their energy in water as
heat. This is why they are used in making domestic kitchen appliances, e.g., microwave ovens.
In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-to-point transmissions, whereby a signal is

directed through a focused beam from the transmitter to the receiver station.
Line of sight
Satellite communication
A Satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes with
an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space.
A satellite transmission system has 3 main components:
1. Transmitter earth station - it sets up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
2. A Satellite that is somewhere in an orbit. It receives, amplifies, and retransmits the signal to a
receiving earth station through a downlink frequency.
The downlink & the uplink frequency are usually different. This is to prevent the downlink
signal from interfering with the uplink signal.
3. Receiving earth station - receives the signal sent by the satellite on the other side of the globe.
Satellite in space
Uplink Downlink
Transmitter Receiving
earth station earth station
A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36,000 km above the earth in such
a manner that its speed is almost equal to the rotation speed of the earth. This makes the satellite
appear as if it is stationary in space. Such types of satellites are called geostationary satellites.
Advantages of using satellites
1. A satellite is convenient because; it provides a large constant line of sight to earth stations.
This means that, there is no need to keep on moving the parabolic dish so as to track the line
of sight.
2. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations. This is because; the
transmitted signal spreads out in all directions to form a Point to Multipoint transmission.
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
A VSAT is a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio, and TV communication.
It can be set up at home or in a small business. It enables direct access to satellite communication
instead of having to go through state-owned or licensed satellite gateways.
The dish has an antenna that receives the satellite signals. The signals are decoded using a
decoder which is plugged directly to a television set or a computer.
Radio communication
Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts.
Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e., they start from a central point and spread
outwards in all directions.
As they travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the covered area. The waves are
radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at constant velocity.
The figure below shows a typical radio waves link between two separate geographical locations
Path
Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna
Power supply
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Fig.: A typical radio transmitter and receiver link
Radio waves can be of:
 High frequency (HF).

 Very high frequency (VHF).
 Ultra-high frequency (UHF).
High frequency (HF) radio waves
The High frequency radio wave signal is transmitted by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth.
The ionosphere reflects it back to the earth’s surface, and the receiver then picks the signal.
Disadvantage of HF communication
 The signal can be intercepted by unauthorized parties.

Very High frequency (VHF) radio waves
They are transmitted along the earth’s surface. However, since the earth is somehow curved, the
signal tends to attenuate at the horizons of mountains and buildings. This means that, repeater
stations have to be built on raised areas in order to receive, amplify, and propagate the signal from
one area to another.
Note. The range of VHF is limited, however, it is preferred to HF because; it is possible to make a
VHF wave follow a narrower & more direct path to the receiver.
Ultra-High frequency (UHF) radio waves
The UHF radiowaves use the line of sight principle used by the VHF waves. This means that,
there should be no barrier between the sending & the receiving aerial. However, they require
smaller aerials.
For example;
The Television aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF radio waves. This is because; UHF
radio waves can be made to follow a narrower & a more direct path to the receiver than VHF
radio waves.
The Bluetooth technology

This is a worldwide and short range radio transmission technology that allows all personal, hand-
held devices to be able to communicate with each other through wireless technology.
It enables people to use hand-held communication devices such as mobile phones & Personal
Digital Assistants (PDA’s) to access the Internet.
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, which can be
inserted in small devices.
Bluetooth enabled devices use a network called the Wireless personal area network (WPAN) or
piconet.
Infrared transmission
Communication through infrared waves (signals) is achieved by having infrared transmitters &
receivers (transceivers) within a line of sight in the same room. This is because; infrared signals
cannot penetrate obstacles like walls and ceilings. However, the signal can be reflected off these
surfaces until they reach their destination.
For example;
Most mobile phones have an infrared transceiver. Once activated, two people in the same room
can send messages to each other on their mobile phones without going through the mobile service
provider; hence avoid being charged.
In computer networking environment, infrared technology can be used to connect devices in the
same room to each other without the need for cables, e.g., a computer and a printer. However, the
computer’s infrared transceiver must maintain a line of sight with the one for the printer.
Advantages of wireless communication.
1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation, i.e., devices can be moved around without losing
access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have
high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.
Disadvantages of wireless communication.
1. The initial cost is very high.

2. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
Communication devices
For a network to be fully operational, communication devices are required, and act as interfaces
between the Terminal devices.
Terminal equipments are the devices at both ends of the communication link, e.g., computers.
Some of the data communication devices are:
1. Network Interface cards (NIC)
A NIC acts as a physical connection (link/interface) between the computer & a properly
terminated transmission cable.
A NIC is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard, and has ports at the back
in which the terminated end of a network cable can be plugged.
2. A Modem and a Codec
A Modem converts a digital signal to analogue form so that it can be transmitted over an
analogue media.
A Codec converts an analogue signal to digital form so that it can be transmitted over a digital
medium.
A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.

Fig.: An external modem
3. Hub (Concentrator)
A Hub is a component that connects computers on a network, and is able to relay signals from
one computer to another on the same network.
A Hub usually connects networks that have the same set of communication software usually
called Protocols.
A Hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the
signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message then picks the message from
the network.
Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a network.
Intelligent hubs
Intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are communicating on the network, and
keep the information in their own database called management information base (MIB). The
network server can then use this information to fine-tune the network.
 Intelligent hubs also manage a network by isolating computers that are not functioning
properly.
4. Bridges
This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for
which a message is meant to be delivered. It does this through address filtering.
Purpose of using a Bridge
a). It can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.
b). To extend the length & number of workstations that a segment can support.
c). To reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of
the network.
The bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not
broadcast in that segment.
5. Repeater
A Repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boosts it, and then sends it to another segment.
It therefore, enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.
Note. Repeaters can easily be used to expand a network. This is because; they broadcast the
same message to other network segments.
6. Routers
A Router connects different networks, and directs the transfer of data packets from source to
destination.
Note. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique address (or
identifier) called the IP address.
The router will receive a packet of data from another router on the network, and check the
network address of the destination. If the address is the same as the one on which the router
is, the router will then read the address of the host and then pass the data packet to the
destination, otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network address.
NB: Network addressing has been made possible because of the use of a special
interconnecting protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP).
7. Gateways
A Gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to a Wide Area Network or
the Internet.
Note. A gateway may be a router, or a computer configured to provide access to the Internet.
Fig.: A gateway PC connecting a LAN to a WAN
8. Switches
Unlike a hub, a Switch forwards a data packet directly to the terminal equipment on the
network without broadcasting. It does this by connecting the two nodes point-to-point as if
they were linked by a direct cable.
Note. Some hubs can also act as switches. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.
 Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that, one switch may be used as a bridge
to connect several hubs. This reduces collision problems caused by broadcasts.
Fig. A switch on a Local area network

Wireless communication devices
For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission media like cables.
However, since the cost of wireless technology has gone down & the quality of service increased,
companies & individuals are now using wireless segments in their communications with the aim
of extending the capability of wired networks.
The most common devices (components) used in wireless communication are: Access Points
(AP), and Wireless antennae.
1. Access points (AP)
An Access point is an entry point into a bounded network.
It is used by people who have wireless devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s),
Laptops, and computers with wireless links.
Fig. 3.0: Wireless access point

2. Wireless antennae
The Access point should have antennae so as to detect wave signals in the surrounding. The
waves may be Radio waves, microwaves or infrared waves.
Most Access points have 2 antennae so that the one that receives the best signal at any
particular time can be used.
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) card
A PCMCIA is a card inserted into a device such as a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a laptop
in order to enable wireless communication between the device and a wired network server.
Fig.: The PCMCIA card used to connect a device to a wireless LAN
Network software can be classified into 2 main groups:
1. Network Operating systems.

2. Network Protocols.
Network Operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to enable the networked computers to respond
to service requests.
Servers run on a network operating system.
Functions of network operating systems
A network operating system performs the following network related functions:
1. Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.

2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with each other.
3. Enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one another.
4. Responds to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supports network services such as network card drivers & protocols.
6. Maintains security, ensuring that only users authorized to use the computer system are allowed
access to it.
7. Produces logs, i.e., a record of all the programs as they are run.
8. Organises the use of storage, since this has to be shared among different users.
9. Works out the resources used by each program. If the user is paying for the service, then the
computer works out the cost of running the program & charges the appropriate account.
Network OS are normally designed as Multi-user operating systems that run the network server
program.
Examples of network operating systems are:
 UNIX - Windows NT
 Linux - Windows 2000
 Novell NetWare - Windows 2003
Protocols
Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the communication between two different
devices or people.
E.g., a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set rules and procedures of
communication when representing his country in the host country.
In computer networking, Protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern
communication between the different computers on the network.
Examples of protocols at the Application layer include:
1. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – an Internet protocol for transferring files.
3. Apple Talk and Apple Share – a networking protocol standard for Apple computers.
Protocols at the Transport layer:

They ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.
Examples of protocols at the Transport layer include:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – enables delivery of sequenced data over the network.
2. Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – used in Novell networks for sequenced data.
3. NetBEUI – used in Microsoft and IBM networks to establish communication sessions between
computers in LANs.
4. Apple Transaction Protocol (ATP) – it is a communication session and data transport protocol
used in Apple computers.
Protocols at the Network layer:
They provide link services, e.g., they handle addressing and routing information, error checking
and retransmission of requests.
Examples of protocols at the Network layer include:
1. Internet Protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing.

2. Internetwork Packets Exchange – This is a NetWare’s protocol for packet forwarding and
routing.
Network Topologies
The term network Topology refers to the way in which computers, cables, and other devices have
been arranged in the network.
It can also refer to how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Logical and physical topologies
Network topology can be viewed in 2 ways; Logical or Physical.
Logical (Signal) topology
Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network
Examples of logical topologies are:
(a). Ethernet.
(b). Token ring.
Ethernet topology
In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media, and a particular computer can
only send data when none of the others is sending.
Token ring topology
In Token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network. The
computer whose address is on the data held in the token picks it up, reads the data, and then
releases the token. The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit
data.
Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of components on the network.
Examples of physical topologies are:
(a). Star topology.

(b). Bus topology.
(c). Ring topology.
(d). Mesh topology.
(e). Tree (Hierarchical) topology.
The choice of the topology to adopt depends on factors such as Reliability, Expandability, and
Performance.
Star topology
Star topology consists of computers and other devices, each connected to a common central server
called the Hub. However, to connect to the central machine, each computer uses a separate cable.
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data signals through the hub, i.e., any two
computers (workstations) in the network communicate through the central machine.
When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the
other nodes on the network.
Advantages of Star topology.
1. Allows key networking resources such as concentrators & servers to be centralized.

2. Easy to configure.
3. Enhances operational survivability.
The hub isolates the network cables from each other. Even if a wire between a workstation
and the hub breaks or develops a bad connection, the rest of the network remains operational.
4. Simple to control.
5. It can be extended easily, since a workstation is simply connected to the hub.
6. Provides flexibility in adding or deleting devices.
The wiring hubs increase the flexibility for growth. Addition & removal of nodes does not
involve cutting and joining of cables.
7. Easier to troubleshoot.
When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from the
wiring hub.
8. The Hub can support multiple types of cables.
Disadvantages of Star topology.
1. If the central switch node (Hub) fails, it may bring down the entire network.
2. It is costly because; each workstation is connected to the central concentrator by is own
dedicated cable (i.e., it requires a lot of cables).
3. Installation is time consuming, because each node forms a segment of its own.
4. May require a special device for signal regeneration across the network.
Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology)
In Bus topology, all the devices in the network are connected directly, through appropriate
interfacing hardware, to a single transmission cable called the Bus (or Backbone) on which
information is broadcast.
Bus topology uses Coaxial cable as transmission medium. The cable can carry only one message
at a time and each workstation on the network must be able to know when it can and cannot
transmit using this cable.
A Terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth
on the cable causing signal distortion.
For communication to take place, data is addressed to a particular computer & put in the cable in
the form of electronic signal. As the data passes along the cable, each workstation checks whether
the data is addressed to it. If the address in the data matches that of the machine, it picks up the
data and processes it.
Bus topology doesn’t need any special equipment such as switches or repeaters to amplify the
signal.
Advantages of Bus topology.
1. Easy to install.
2. Inexpensive (less costly) because; it does not require a complete cable length per computer.
3. Can easily be extended.
4. It allows the workstations to communicate independently (separately) of each other.
5. Failure of one station on the network does not affect the operations on the bus.
Disadvantages of Bus topology.
1. A cable break in each section brings down the whole network.

2. The performance degrades since there is no signal integration.
3. Troubleshooting the cable fault can be quite difficult because; the fault could be anywhere on
the cable.
4. Only a limited number of computers can be connected to the cable. This is because; each
computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that, if the number of
computers increase, there will be more collision as the workstations compete for transmission.
Ring topology
In a ring topology, the computers are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop using
a single cable.
Data flows from one computer to another in one direction, and each computer actively participates
in data transfer from one station to the other. In other words, each workstation acts as a booster
by regenerating and retransmitting the signals around the network to its neighbour.
A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be viewed as an
envelope or a bag where data is placed for transmission and carried around the network.
Advantages of Ring topology.
1. They use a short length cable.

2. Simple to install.
3. Provides high performance for many users.
4. Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token and can transmit
data.
Disadvantages of Ring topology.
1. Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the entire network.
2. Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
3. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
Mesh topology
Mesh topology uses separate cables to connect each device to every other device on the network
providing a straight communication path.
It is mostly used in Wide Area Networks where there are many paths between different locations.
Advantages of Mesh topology.
1. It is fast.
2. Failure on one node will not cause communication breakdown.
3. Easy to troubleshoot cable problems. If two machines are not communicating, the
administrator will only check the cable between them.
4. Enhances flexibility in communication.
5. Enhances fault tolerance provided by redundant/ excessive links.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. Difficult and expensive to install and maintain.

2. Very costly as it requires large amounts of cables (or redundant links).
3. Difficult to add more nodes when the network is large.
4. Difficult to isolate faults due to lack of a central control point.
Tree (Hierarchical) topology
This is a hybrid topology where groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
(backbone).
Fig. 3.6: Tree topology
Review questions.
1. What is a computer network topology?

2. Distinguish between Logical and Physical network topology.
3. Using appropriate diagrams, describe any three types of physical network topologies.
COMMUNICATION OF DATA IN A NETWORK.
Data in a network travels from one computer to the other using laid down rules known as
Protocols. The protocols used depend on the way the computers are connected together on the
network.
Generally, there are 2 broad ways in which computers communicate with one another in a
network, namely:
(i). Point-to-point communication.

(ii). Broadcast communication.
Point-to-point communication.
In point-to-point, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one connecting a
pair of computers.
The message is received at each intermediate computer in whole, stored there until the required
output line is free, and then forwarded.
A network using this principle is called a point-to-point or store-and-forward network.
Broadcast communication.
In broadcast, there is a single communication channel shared by all computers. In this case, the
messages sent by any computer are received by all other computers.
Something in the message itself must specify for whom it is intended. After receiving a message
not intended for itself, a computer just ignores it.
Review questions.
1. As regards to communication within a computer network, what do you understand by the

following terms:
(a) Point-to-point
(b) Broadcast (2 marks)
NETWORK MODELS
A Network model describes how the computer processes information on the network.
Data can be processed by a Client, a central Server or by all the computers on the network.
1). Centralized computer model.
Very large computers, usually mainframes, are connected with terminals. The users input &
output data using the terminals, while the processing is done by the central computer
(mainframe).
Advantages of Centralized model
(i). Data is kept in one location, ensuring that every user is working with the same
information.
(ii). It is easier to back up data since the information is stored on only one Server.
(iii). Easier to maintain security. It is only the server which needs to be secured since the
terminals have no data.
(iv). The terminals do not require floppy drives as all work is stored on a Server.
(v). Chances of computer being affected by viruses are very minimal as no diskettes are
being used.
(vi). It less costly.
Although the Server has to be very powerful with a lot of storage space, the terminals
are inexpensive as they don’t require real processing or storage capability of their own.
Disadvantages of Centralized model
(i). It is very slow as it is the server alone, which does all the processing.
(ii). In case where the users have varied needs, it would be difficult to meet these needs in a
centralized computing network as each user application needs to be set up separately.
(iii). Connection is difficult. All the computers have to be connected on a central place.
2). Distributive computing

In this model, data is stored and processed on the local workstation. Computers acting as
Stand alone systems are connected together for increased functionality.
A Stand alone is a computer which is not connected to any other computer equipment other
than its own Printer.
Advantages of Distributive Computing model.
(i). Each machine processes and stores its data; hence, data is accessed faster.
(ii). It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
(iii). It can accommodate users with variety of needs.
Disadvantages of Distributive Computing model.
(i). It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it
throughout the network.
(ii). It is more difficult to develop an effective back up plan, since each user stores data in
his/her individual system.
(iii). File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.
3). Collaborative model.
In this model, all computers can share processing power across the network. Applications can
be written to use the processing on the computers to complete job more quickly.
Advantages of Collaborative model.
(i). It is faster to complete a task as users are not limited to processing power of one system.
(ii). Variety of users can be accommodated on a collaborative network.
Disadvantages of Collaborative model.
(i). Viruses can easily be transmitted through the network.

(ii). Backing up of the data is difficult.
(iii). File synchronization is difficult.
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
1. Peer-to-Peernetwork.
A Peer is a computer that acts both as the client and a server.
In this network, all the connected computers are equal & each machine acts as both client and
Server. This means that, there is no central storage area for information & no dedicated
central Server.
No system administrator. Therefore, the user of each computer determines what data &
resources the computer will shares with other computers on the network.
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate in an environment where:
 There are 10 or less users.
 The users are located in a general area.
 Security is not an issue, e.g. in Bulletin boards.
Advantages of Peer-to-peer networks.
(i). It is small & inexpensive.

(ii). It is easier to maintain.
(iii). It is easier to setup.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer networks.
(i). It is difficult to locate information stored in the connected computers due to Shared level
security.
(ii). Difficult to update documents and files.
(iii). It is expensive to train staff on how to share resources, as each user is an administrator.
(iv). It is difficult to maintain security, as it is the user’s responsibility to ensure that only
authorized individuals can access their data.
(v). It is more tedious as the user has to memorize password for resources, and in case of any
change, they have to inform others.
2. Server-basednetworks.
In this network, there is usually a Server, e.g. a company which is dedicated to handle files
and/or information for clients, make & service requests from network clients, and ensure
security of files and directories for them.
Server-based networks require a network operating system.
Advantages of Server based networks.
(i). There is security since the Server controls the resources the clients need to access.
(ii). It can support a large number of users.
(iii). The server can be optimized to hand out information as fast as possible.
(iv). Fewer connections are required by the clients to get the resources.
(v). Easier to maintain backup for files (synchronization of files).
(vi). Cost effective as client workstations don’t need large hard disk (storage capacity).
Disadvantages of Server based networks.
(i). It is dependent on a Network administrator.

(ii). Requires servers, which are expensive.
Network Security
In networking, there are several ways of protecting your data and information from intruders.
They include: Share level and User level security.
Share level security
This model of security is mostly used in peer-to-peer networks. The user can decide which
resources to give for sharing.
Most Windows operating systems such as Windows 9X provide such kind of security.
User-level security
The User level security is used on server-based networks.
A network administrator assigns accounts to users, i.e., each user is provided with a unique name
and a password which he/she can use to access network resources.
LESSON 12
DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL
Introduction
Data & Information must be protected against unauthorized access, disclosure, modification or
damage. This is because; it is a scarce & valuable resource for any business organization or
government. It is mostly used in transactions, it can be shared, and has high value attached to it.
Data & Information security:
Data security is the protection of data & information from accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorized persons.
Data & Information privacy:
Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual & must not be accessed by or
disclosed to any other person, without direct permission from the owner.
Confidential data or information – this is data or information held by a government or

organization about people. This data/information may be seen by authorized persons without the
knowledge of the owner. However, it should not be used for commercial gain or any other
unofficial purpose without the owner being informed.
SECURITY THREATS TO DATA & INFORMATION
1). COMPUTER VIRUSES
 A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the files
are opened for use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of the user.
 A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other programs or

interfere with the proper functioning of the computer system.
A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:
(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.

(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program & data
files, by interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Types of computer viruses.
1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate themselves when
the e-mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other undesirable
activities in the background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.
Types of destructions/damages caused by a virus attack
 Delete or modify data, information & files on storage devices (disks) or memory during
normal program execution, e.g., may attack the format of a disk making any program or data
on it impossible to recover.
 Systematically destroy all the data in the computer memory.
 Might lock the keyboard.
 Can change keystroke values or data from other I/O devices, e.g., change the effect of
SHIFT key.
 Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
 Uses up computer memory/space, hence slowing down its performance or causing the
system to crash.
 Changes colour of the display.
 Cause boot failure.
Sources of viruses.
a) Contact with contaminated systems:
If a diskette is used on a virus infected computer, it could become contaminated. If the

same diskette is used on another computer, then the virus will spread.
b) Use of pirated software:
Pirated software may be contaminated by a virus code or it may have been amended to
perform some destructive functions which may affect your computer.
c) Infected proprietary software:
A virus could be introduced when the software is being developed in laboratories, and
then copied onto diskettes containing the finished software product.
d) Fake games:
Some virus programs behave like games software. Since many people like playing
games on computers, the virus can spread very fast.
e) Freeware and Shareware:
Both freeware & shareware programs are commonly available in Bulletin board systems.
Such programs should first be used in controlled environment until it is clear that the
program does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.
f) Updates of software distributed via networks:
Viruses programs can be spread through software distributed via networks.
Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.
The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:
 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash a
harmless message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Slow booting.
 Gradual filing of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
 Frequent read/write errors.
 Disk access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
 Computer hags anytime when running a program.
 Less memory available than usual, e.g., Base memory may read less than 640KB.
 Size of executable files changing for no obvious reason.
Control measures against viruses.
i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer room.
If they have to be used, they must be scanned for viruses.
iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.
iv). Write-protect disks after using them.
v). Disable floppy disk drives, if there is no need to use disks in the course of normal
operation.
vi). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
vii). Do not boot your computer from disks which you are not sure are free from viruses.
viii). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software houses.
ix). Programs downloaded from Bulletin Boards & those obtained from computer clubs
should be carefully evaluated & examined for any destructive code.
2). UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS
Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access it
without permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit fraud,
steal the information & destroy or corrupt the data.
Unauthorized access may take the following forms:
a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly use
eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.
b). Surveillance (monitoring):
This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or
people.
The information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for spreading
propaganda or sabotage.
c). Industrial espionage:
Industrial espionageinvolves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information that

can be used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain.
The main aim of espionage is to get ideas on how to counter by developing similar
approach or sabotage.
d). An employee who is not supposed to see some sensitive data gets it, either by mistake or
design.
e). Strangers who may stray into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
f). Forced entry into the computer room through weak access points.
g). Network access in case the computers are networked & connected to the external world.
Control measures against unauthorized access.
i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control access to
data.
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills & burglar
alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.
3). COMPUTER ERRORS & ACCIDENTAL ACCESS
Errors and accidental access to data & information may be as a result of:
 Mistakes made by people, e.g., one may print sensitive reports & unsuspectingly give them
to unauthorized persons.
 People experimenting with features they are not familiar with. E.g., a person may
innocently download a file without knowing that it is self-installing or it may be dangerous
to the system.
Control measures against computer errors & accidents.
i). Restrict file access to the end-users and technical staff in the organization, i.e., deny
access of certain files & computers to certain groups of end-users.
This is because; accidental access mistakes occur if the end-users have too much privilege
that allows them to access or change sensitive files on the computer.
ii). Set up a comprehensive error-recovery strategy in the organization.
4). THEFT
The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information is so
valuable such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay somebody a
fortune so as to steal the information for them to use.
Control measures against theft of information, hardware, & software.
i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.
ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic grills and
strong padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.
Review Questions
1. Explain any three threats to data and information.

2. Give two control measures one would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and
information.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘industrial espionage’.
4. (a) Define a computer virus.
(b) Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
(c) List three types of risks that computer viruses pose.
(d) List and explain five sources of computer viruses.
(e) Outline four symptoms of computer viruses.
(f) Explain the measures one would take to protect computers from virus attacks
5. How can one control the threat of user’s errors to data and information
COMPUTER CRIMES
 A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data.
 The use of computer hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g., stealing, forgery,
defrauding, etc.
 Committing of illegal acts using a computer or against a computer system.
Types of computer crimes.
The following are the major types of computer crimes:
1. Trespass.
2. Hacking.
3. Tapping.
4. Cracking.
5. Piracy.
6. Fraud (Theft of money)
7. Sabotage.
8. Alteration of data.
9. Theft of computer time / Theft of service.
10. Theft of data, information or programs.
11. Damage of software.
Trespass.
 Trespass refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware,
software & backed up data is kept.
 It can also refer to the act of accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer
over a network.
Trespass is not allowed and should be discouraged.
Hacking.
Hacking is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being
transmitted along a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes & passwords to gain
unauthorized entry to the system data and information files in a computer.
Reasons for hacking.
 To copy or corrupt the information.

 As a hobby to test their expertise. Some people like the challenge & they feel great after
successful hacking.
 Some do it for computer & software producing companies that want to secure their systems by
reducing weaknesses discovered after professional hacking.
Hacking is done by skilled programmers referred to as Hackers. Hacker is a person who gains
unauthorised access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief, or personal gain.
Such people are able to break through passwords or find weak access points in software. They are
involved in propagating computer viruses.
Tapping.
Tapping involves listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being transmitted.
Tapping may take place through the following ways:
a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her information
from the computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept messages
being sent & received by the unsuspecting computer.
Cracking.
Cracking is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes
of a software in order to get access to data & information.
These weak access points can only be sealed using sealed using special corrective programs called
Patches, which are prepared by the manufacturing company.
A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software makes it
better.
NB: Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or user names of the
authorized staff.
Piracy.
Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making illegal
copies of copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for re-sale.
Ways of reducing piracy:
i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information against piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.
Fraud.
Fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of
gaining money or information.
Fraud may take the following forms:
a). Input manipulation:
Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy (ghost)
employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.
b). Production & use of fake documents:
E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax department that could credit his
account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was
discovered.
Fraudsters can either be employees in the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people.
Reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
 For economic gain (i.e., to gain money or information).

 To gain respect (self-worth)
Security measures to prevent fraud:
i) Careful recruitment of staff.

ii) Set up a clear & firm management policy on crimes & frauds.
iii) Restrict access to computer room or terminal.
iv) Use transaction & fill logs to monitor access to sensitive areas of the system.
v) Monitor & investigate error logs and reports on regular basis.
vi) Carry out risk analysis to examine the exposure of the organization to possible fraud.
Sabotage.
Sabotage is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees
or other people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an
organization.
Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those sent by competitors to cause
harm to the organization.
The following are some acts of saboteurs which can result in great damage to the computer
centres:
Using Magnets to mix up (mess up) codes on tapes.
 Planting of bombs.
 Cutting of communication lines.
Alteration.
Alteration is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim of
gaining or misinforming the authorized users.
Alteration is usually done by those people who wish to hide the truth. It makes the data irrelevant
and unreliable.
Alteration may take place through the following ways:
a). Program alteration:

This is done by people with excellent programming skills. They do this out of malice or they may
liaise with others for selfish gains.
b). Alteration of data in a database:

This is normally done by authorized database users, e.g., one can adjust prices on Invoices,
increase prices on selling products, etc, and then pocket the surplus amounts.
Security measures to prevent alteration:
i) Do not give data editing capabilities to anybody without vetting.

ii) The person altering the data may be forced to sign in order for the system to accept altering
the information.
Theft of computer time.
Employees may use the computers of an organization to do their own work, e.g., they may
produce publications for selling using the computers of the company.
Theft of data (i.e., commercial espionage).
Employees steal sensitive information or copy packages and sell them to outsiders or competitors
for profit.
This may lead to a leakage of important information, e.g., information on marketing strategies
used by the organization, research information, or medical reports.
DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES

The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal security
loopholes.
Audit trails
This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find out) all
the weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak access points for
criminals.
An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -
1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of services
even when something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?
Data encryption
Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or copied to
unauthorized destinations.
To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that only the sender & the receiver can be able to
understand by reconstructing the original message from the mix. This is called Data encryption.
The flow diagram below shows how a message can be encrypted and decrypted to enhance
security.
Black
Black kcalB Cyphertext panther Black
panther rehtnap panther
Plain text Plain text

Encryption key Decryption key
The message to be encrypted is called the Plain text document. After encryption using a
particular order (or, algorithm) called encryption key, it is sent as Cyphertext on the network.
After the recipient receives the message, he/she decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one
used during encryption called decryption key to get the original plain text document.
This means that, without the decryption key, it is not possible to reconstruct the original message.
Log files
These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and
resources of the information system.
Each user is usually assigned a username&password or account. The information system

administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the
system. This information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system
security policies.
Firewalls
A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged between
different networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.
A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote users) who
do not have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot access sites outside the
network restricted by firewalls.
LAWS GOVERNING PROTECTION OF INFORMATION
Laws have been developed that govern the handling of data & information in order to ensure that
there is ‘right of privacy’ for all people.
The following rules must be observed in order to keep within the law when working with data and
information.
1. Data & information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.

2. Data & information should not be kept longer than necessary.
3. Data & information should be accurate and up-to-date.
4. Data & information should be collected, used & kept for specified lawful purposes (i.e., it
should not be used for unlawful gain).
5. The owner of the data has a right to know what data is held by the person or organization
having it.
6. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
7. Do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for a purpose.
COMPUTER SECURITY
What is Computer security?
 Safeguarding the computer & the related equipments from the risk of damage or fraud.
 Protection of data & information against accidental or deliberate threats which might cause
unauthorised modification, disclosure, or destruction.
A computer system can only be claimed to be secure if precautions are taken to safeguard it
against damage or threats such as accidents, errors & omissions.
The security measures to be undertaken by the organization should be able to protect:
i) Computer hardware against damage.

ii) Data, information & programs against accidental alteration or deletion.
iii) Data & information against hazards.
iv) The computer against unauthorised use.
v) Data, information & programs against piracy or unauthorised copying.
vi) Data & programs used by the computer system against illegal or unauthorised modification.
vii) Storage media, e.g., diskettes, tapes, etc against accidental destruction.
viii) Policies of the organization.
ix) Buildings.
x) Accidental interruption of power supply or communication lines.
xi) Disclosure of confidential data or information.
xii) Ensure that both hardware & software have longer life span.
Environmental threats to computers & Information systems.
1). Fire.
Fire destroys data, information, software & hardware.
Security measures against fire:
 Use fire-proof cabinets & lockable metal boxes for floppy disks.
 Use of backups.
 Install fire fighting equipments, e.g., fire extinguishers.
 Have some detectors.
 Training of fire-fighting officers.
 Observe safety procedures, e.g., avoid smoking in the computer rooms.
 Have well placed exit signs.
 Contingency plans.
2). Water, floods & moisture.
This causes rusting of the metallic components of the computer.
Security measures against water, floods & moisture:
 Set up computer rooms on higher grounds to avoid floods & humidity.

 Avoid installing computer components in the basement.
 There should be adequate drainage system.
 Use water-proof ceilings & floors.
3). Lightening, electricity & electrical storms.
This causes power failure that can cause damage to data, which has not been transferred to
permanent storage devices.
Security measures:
 Install facilities to control power fluctuations, e.g., use of Uninterrupted power source (UPS)
 Use power stabilizers.
 Have standby power generators/sources.
 Have lightening arresters in the building.
4). Excessive Heat or Temperature.
Excessive heat or temperature from the computer itself or from the surrounding environment
can destroy computer storage media or devices.
Security measures:
 There should be efficient ventilation system.

 Use a cooling system in the computer rooms, e.g., cooling fans & air conditioners.
5). Computer virus attack.
A virus is a rogue software program that spreads rampantly through computer systems,
destroying data or causing the system to break down.
Security measures against computer virus:
 Make backup copies of software, and store the copies off-site.

 Restrict access to programs & data on a ‘need-to-use’ basis.
 Check all programs regularly for change of size, as this could be a sign of virus infiltration.
 Be careful with ‘Shareware’ and ‘Freeware’ programs, as they are the major entry points for
viruses.
 Make sure all purchased software is in its original sealed-disk containers.
6). Smoke and Dust.
Dust and Smoke particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during Read/write
operation.
Security measures:
 Have dust mats or carpets to prevent entry of dust.

 Fit the computer room with special Curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 Cover the devices with Dust covers when cleaning the room.
 Remove shoes before entering the room to prevent dust.
7). Terrorist attack.
This includes activities such as:
 Political terrorists,
 Criminal type of activities,
 Individuals with grudges, or
 People intending to cause general destruction.
Security measures:
 Hiring of security guards to control physical access to the building housing the computer
room.
 Activities that can cause terrorism should be avoided, e.g., exploitation of workers.
 Have double door & monitoring devices.
 Use of policies.
 System auditing / use of log files.
 Use of passwords.
 Punitive measures.
 Encryption of data.
 Use of firewalls.
 Consult & co-operate with the Police and Fire authorities on potential risks.
8). People.
People threats include:
 Carelessness.
 Clumsiness.
 Accidental deletion of data, information or programs.
 Vandalism, i.e., theft or destruction of data, information or programs & hardware.
 Piracy of copyrighted data & software.
Security measures against Carelessness & Clumsiness:
 Better selection of personnel.

 Have a good office layout.
 Improve employee training and education.
 Limit access to data and computers.
 Regular backups.
 Use of Undelete & Unformat utilities.
Security measures against Vandalism:
 Should have a sensitive attitude to office behaviour.

 Tighten security measures, e.g., install alarm systems, burglar-proof doors/windows, &
roofs).
 Limit access to sensitive company information.
 Use Keyboard lock on terminals used by authorised users.
 Use of disk locks.
 Punitive measures.
9). Earthquakes.
CAUSES OF DATA LOSS IN COMPUTERS
1. Power failure:
Momentary interruptions or fluctuations of electrical power may cause:
 Crashing of computers.
 Loss of data or information that had not been saved before the power disruption.
 Damage to computer’s secondary storage media. This may result to loss of data &
Application software stored on the media.
The main cause of power disruptions are:

 Amplitude fluctuations,
 Power line noise,
 Low voltage sages,
 High voltage surges,
 Voltage outages,
 Voltage spikes,
 Waveform distortions,
 Power frequency variations.
Precautions against data loss due to Power failure:
a) Regular saving of documents.

Frequent saving of documents ensures that minimum data is lost in case of any power
failure.
Some application packages have an AutoSave feature, which should be activated to
automatically save work after a specified time interval.
b) Use of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
To eliminate any power quality defects or fluctuation, use power correction equipment
such as a Stabilizer or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). These equipments ensure a
steady flow of input power to the computer system.
2. Computer viruses:
A computer virus destroys all the data files & programs in the computer memory by
interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Precautions against computer viruses:
a) Anti-virus software.
Use Antivirus software to detect & remove known viruses from infected files.
Some of the commonly used Antivirus software are: Dr. Solomon’s Toolkit, Norton
Antivirus, AVG Antivirus, PC-Cillin, etc
NB: The best way to prevent virus is to have a memory-resident antivirus software,
which will detect the virus before it can affect the system. This can be achieved by
installing a GUARD program in the RAM every time the computer boots up. Once in the
RAM, the antivirus software will automatically check diskettes inserted in the drives &
warn the user immediately if a disk is found to have a virus.
 For an antivirus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature. Since virus
writers keep writing new viruses with new signatures all the time, it is recommended
that you update your antivirus product regularly so as to include the latest virus
signatures in the industry.
 The Antivirus software installed in your computer should be enabled/activated at all

times.
 You should also perform virus scans of your disks on a regular basis.
 Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is
minimized.
3. Accidental erasure:
Commands such as DELETE & FORMAT can be dangerous to the computer if used wrongly.
Both commands wipe out the information stored on the specified secondary storage media,
e.g., formatting the Hard disk (drive C:) will destroy all the software on that system.
Precautions against Accidental erasure:

a) Use of Undelete utilities.
Use the Undelete facilities in case you accidentally delete your files.
There are two Undelete facilities depending on the operating system you are using.
 MS-DOS 6.0 Undelete facility:
To undelete at the DOS prompt, change to the drive & directory whose files were
deleted, then type, e.g.,
C:\>UNDELETE <directory that contain the deleted file>
A list of all deleted files will be displayed with the first letter missing. Type in the first
letter and the file will be recovered.
 Norton utilities & PC Tools:
Norton utilities & PC Tools also have an undelete facility, which is similar to the DOS
Undelete facility.
 Windows Recycle Bin:
The Recycle Bin temporarily stores all deleted files & can be used to recover your
files.
1. Double-click the Recycle Bin on the desktop.

2. Click on the files you want to undelete.
3. Click on File, choose Restore.
The Recycle Bin will restore all selected files to their original folders and disks.
NB: If you delete a file accidentally, don’t copy any files or install any applications to the
disk that contains the deleted file. If you write anything to the disk, you might destroy
parts of the deleted file, making it unrecoverable.
b) Use of Unformat utilities.
MS-DOS 6.0 has an Unformat facility which can be used to recover information stored on
disks that have been accidentally formatted.
c) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up periodically either on diskettes, tapes or CDs so that in case of
any accidental loss, the backed up copy can be used to recover the data.
For small files, use the Copy command to make a copy of the data on a diskette. For
larger amounts of data, use the Backup command to copy the data to several diskettes or
to a tape drive.
4. Crashing of hard disks:
When a hard disk crashes, the data or information on the disk cannot be accessed. The effect
is the same as formatting the hard disk.
Crashing of a hard disk can occur due to the following reasons:
i) Mishandling of the computer system, e.g.,

 Moving the system unit while the computer is on.
 Accumulation of dust.
ii) Computer virus attack.

iii) Physical damage to the System unit caused by dropping or banging when being moved.
Precautions against crashing of Hard disks:
a) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up regularly. In addition, all application programs & operating
system software should also be kept safely so that in case of a complete system crash,
everything can be re-installed/restored.
b) Use of Recovery tools.
System tools such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus, etc can be used to revive a disk
that has crashed.
Review Questions
1. List two possible causes of a hard disk crash.
5. Unauthorised access:
Unauthorised access refers to access to data & information without permission.
Computer criminals can do the following harms:
 Steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of
their computer accounts illegally.
 Steal or destroy data & information from companies, bringing their operations to a
standstill.
 Spread destruction from one computer to another using virus programs. This can cripple
the entire system of computer networks.
 Spread computer worm programs. Worm programs are less harmful in the beginning, but
render the computer almost useless in the long-run.
Precautions against Unauthorised access:
a) Restrict physical access.
Physical access to computer systems should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorised

person gets access to the system.
Some of the ways of restricting physical access include:
 Locking of doors.
 Use of personal identification cards.
 Use of fingerprint identification.
 Use of special voice-recorders. They analyse the voice of a trespasser & checks against
the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
b) Password protection.
Install a password to restrict access to the computer system.
A Password is a secret code that can be used to prevent unauthorised access of data in a
computer.
Passwords can be put in at various levels:
 At the point of switching on the computer – to restrict access to the computer.

 On folders/directories – to restrict access to entire folders/directories.
 On files – to restrict access to individual files within a directory.
 On database systems – to restrict access to individual data elements.
When a valid password is entered, the user gets access to the computer system. Usually,
the user is allowed three (3) attempts to get the password correct. If an invalid password
is entered, access is denied after the 3 attempts.
Some computer security systems may generate an alarm if someone tries to use a fake
password.
NB: You should never use passwords that can easily be linked to you, e.g., your name,
birth date, or names of people close to you.
LESSON 13
INTERNET
What is the Internet?
 It is a large no. of connected computers (or a large set of computer networks) linked together
that communicate with each other, over telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide computer network connecting thousands of computer networks, through a

mixture of private & public data using the telephone lines.
 It isa worldwide (global or an international) network of computers that provide a variety of

resources and data to the people that use it.
 Internet refers to a global inter-connection of computers and computer networks to facilitate
global information transfer. It is an interconnection of computers throughout the world, using
ordinary telecommunication lines and modems.
The Internet uses VSATS (Very Small Aperture Telecommunication Systems) such as Telephone
lines, Satellite.
The other names for the Internet are:
- The Net.
- Information Superhighway.
- Cyber space.
Internetis a facility that links the Internet users to the actual Internet documents. Therefore, it is a
system that links together many kinds of information all over the world. This technology allows
computers equipped with telecommunication links to exchange information freely, and as such,
the Internet has enhanced what is being referred to as a global village.
Internet enables companies, organizations, individuals, schools and governments to share

information across the world.
A computer on the Internet can be located anywhere in the world. The Internet enables the
computer to communicate with any other computer.
HISTORY (DEVELOPMENT) OF THE INTERNET.
The Internet was started by the U.S Department of Defence in 1969 as a network of 4 computers
called ARPANET. Its aim was to connect a set of computers operated by several Universities
and Scientists doing military research so as to enable them share research data.
The original network grew as more computers were added to it. By 1974, 62 computers were
already attached.
In 1983, the Internet split into 2 parts; one dedicated exclusively (solely/only) to military
installations (called Milnet), and the other dedicated to university research (called the Internet),
with around 1,000 host computers.
In 1985, the Canadian government developed the BITNET to link all the Canadian Universities,
and also provided connections into the U.S Internet.
In 1986, the U.S National Service Foundation created NSFNET to connect leading U.S
universities. By the end of 1987, there were 10,000 host computers on the Internet and 1,000 on
BITNET.
In 1987, the National Science Foundation leased (acquired/rent) high-speed circuits to build a new
high-speed backbone for NSFNET. In 1988, it connected 13 regional internal networks
containing 170 LAN’s and 56,000 host computers.
The Canadian Research Council followed in 1989, replacing BITNET with a high-speed network
called CA*net that used the Internet protocols. By the end of 1989, there were almost 200,000
host computers on the combined U.S and Canadian Internet.
Similar initiatives (plans/projects) were undertaken by other countries in the world, such that by
the early 1990s, most of the individual country networks were linked together into one worldwide
network of networks.
Each of these individual country networks was different (i.e., each had its own name, access rules,
and fees structure), but all the networks used the same standard as the U.S Internet network. So,
users could easily exchange messages with each other.
By 1990s, the differences among the networks in each of the countries had disappeared, and the
U.S name; Internet began to be used to mean the entire worldwide system of networks that used
the Internet TCP/IP protocols.
A Protocol - a set of rules and standards that computers use to communicate with each other over
a Network.
Features of the Internet.
(i). The Internet is a collection of networks; it is not owned or controlled by any single
organization, and it has no formal management organization. However, there is an Internet
Society that co-ordinates and sets standards for its use.
In addition, Networks have no political boundaries on the exchange of information.
(ii). Networks are connected by Gateways that effectively remove barriers so that one type of
network can “talk” to a different type of network.
(iii). To join the Internet, an existing network will only be required to pay a small registration fee
and agree to certain standards based on TCP/IP.
The costs are low, because the Internet owns nothing, and so it has no real costs to offset.
Each organization pays for its own network & its own telephone bills, but these costs usually
exist independent of the Internet.
(iv). Networks that join the Internet must agree to move each other’s traffic (data) at no charge to
the others, just as it is the case with mail delivered through the International Postal system.
This is why all the data appear to move at the cost of a local telephone call, making the Net a
very cheap communication media.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET.
The Internet carries many kinds of traffic, and provides users with several functions. Some of the
most important functions are:
1. Communication.
Many people all over the world use the Internet to communicate with each other.
Internet communication capabilities include; E-mail, Usenet Newsgroups, Chatting and
Telnet. You can send e-mails to your friends anywhere in the world, chat with your friends,
send instant messages, etc.
2. Information retrieval.
The Internet is a library. Thousands of books, magazines, newspapers and encyclopedias can
be read on the Internet.
3. Easy-to-use offerings of information and products.
You can find information for your school assignments, buy books online, check what the
weather is like anywhere in the world, and much more.
INTERNET SERVICES.
The following are some of the services offered by Internet:
(i). Electronic mail (e-mail).

(ii). Fax services.
(iii). Conference services.
(iv). Online chatting.
(v). Downloading of programs.
(vi). Online shopping.
(vii). File transfer.
(viii). Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies).
(ix). Free information retrieval (e.g., Educational information).
(x). Formation of Discussion groups, e.g. Usenet Newsgroups.
(xi). Video Conferencing.
(xii). Access & Use of other computers.
Electronic Mail (E-mail).
An E-mail is a system that enables sending & receiving of messages electronically through
computers. It is used for communication between organizations or departments in the same
organization.
E-mail is a quick, cheap, efficient & convenient means of communication with both individuals
and groups. It is faster than ordinary mail, easy to manage, inexpensive and saves paper.
With Internet mail, it is possible to send and receive messages quickly from businesses, friends or
family in another part of the world. An E-mail message can travel around the world in minutes.
Fax services.
Fax services enable individuals & businesses to send faxes through e-mail at a lower cost
compared to the usual international Fax charges.
Conference services.
Conferencing on the Web can be defined as the dynamic exchange of all kinds of information –
text, graphics, audio, video, etc – in a situation whereby the conversations are organized by item
and allows a participant to contribute spontaneous responses to any item in the conversation.
Application of Conferencing on the Web.
The conversation can:
 Provide important information that can assist in decision-making.

 Provide any required technical support.
 Help in community-building, project management & distance learning.
 Help to organize electronic meetings, etc.
The Internet also allows you to have access to various types of information you might require to
make accurate and informed decisions, E.g., it provides information on business, education,
sports, politics, etc.
Chatting.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chatting system on the Internet that allows a large no. of people
from various locations of the world who are on the computer to chat (i.e., simultaneously hold live
and interactive electronic conversations) among themselves.
You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with similar
interests. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read interesting stories.
Anyone interested in chatting can join a discussion forum on one of the listed topics. Only people
who happen to be signed on at the same time are able to talk because messages are not stored.
This discussion can be an effective business tool if people who can benefit from interactive
conversation set a specific appointment to meet and talk on a particular topic.
Disadvantage.
(i). Usually, the topic is open to all without security; so intruders can participate.
Information retrieval.
The Internet is a voluntarily decentralized network with no central listing of participants or sites.
Therefore, End-users, usually working from PCs are able to search & find information of interest
located in different sites assisted by special software and data stored in readily usable formats.
The Internet gives you information on almost any subject. This is because of the Worldwide Web
(www).
The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages containing
information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based (i.e., it is able
to access text and graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).
With the WWW, you can review Newspapers, magazines, academic papers, etc. In addition,
Governments, colleges, universities, companies and individuals offer free information on the
Internet. E.g., you can inquire (find out) about universities in Britain or America.
Note. Its major problem is finding what you need from among the many storehouses of data
found in databases and libraries all over the world.
Dowloading of Programs.
There are thousands of programs available on the Internet. These programs include; Word
processors, Spreadsheets, Electronic cards, etc.
You can therefore, look for the latest software over the Internet, e.g., you can get the latest Anti-
virus software, and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.
Entertainment.
There are hundreds of simple games available on the Internet. These include; Chess, Football, etc.
The Internet also allows you review current Movies and hear Television theme songs.
Online Shopping.
You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. E.g., you can view a
catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in an online Order form.
Commercial enterprises use the Web to provide information on demand for purposes of customer
support, marketing and sales.
File Transfer.
Data in the form of files can be transferred across the Internet from one site to another using the
File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP software is needed at both ends to handle the transfer. It is
through FTP that the two pieces of software manage to ‘understand’ each other.
Discussion Groups.
A Discussion group is a collection of users who have joined together to discuss some topic.
There are many discussions on different topics including Cooking, Skydiving, Politics, Education,
recreational, scientific research, etc.
Two of the commonly used discussion groups for business are;

 Usenet newsgroups.
 List Servers.
(a). Usenet newsgroups.

These are the most formally organized of the discussion groups.
Using a facility on the Internet called USENET, individuals can gain access to a very wide
variety of information topics.
Usenet Newsgroups are usually worldwide discussion groups in which people share
information and ideas on a defined topic through large electronic Bulletin Boards where
anyone can read any articles or write articles and post messages on the topic for others to see
and respond to.
The individuals can add messages to different topics and read those contributed by others.
For instance, users such as students can ask questions about problems they face, or they
could contribute or give an advice on how to improve the teaching of the subject.
Messages can be easily linked so that it is easy to know messages that are related.
Establishing a new newsgroup requires a vote of all interested people on the Internet. If
enough people express interest, the new topic is established.
Note. To join a Newsgroup and be able to read messages on various topics, your computer
must have Newsreader software such as Outlook Express, or Internet News.
Any Internet user can access some of these newsgroups, while other newsgroups will require
to subscribe to a specific topic or set of topics.
Once you have subscribed, each time you access the newsgroups you are informed of any
new messages added to the topics. You can then read these messages and respond to them
by adding your own message.
The Usenet software receives “postings” of information and transmits new postings to users
who have registered their interest in receiving the information. Each individual posting takes
the form like that used for e-mail.
There are over 10,000 such newsgroups; however, each Usenet site is financed
independently & controlled by a Site Administrator, who carries only those groups that
he/she chooses.
(b). List Server
A List Server (or list serve) group is similar to the Usenet newsgroups, but is generally less
formal.
Anyone with the right e-mail server software can establish a list server, which is simply a
mail list.
The processor of the List Server processes commands such as request to subscribe,
unsubscribe, or to provide information about the list serve. The List serve mailer directs
messages to everyone on the mailing list.
To use a List server, you need to know the addresses of both the Processor and the Mailer.
To subscribe to a List server, you send an e-mail message to the List server processor, which
adds your name to the list. Many different commands can be sent to the List server
processor to perform a variety of functions. These commands are included as lines of text in
the e-mail messages sent to the processor.
List servers are more focused that the Usenet newsgroups and have fewer members. They
are harder to find than the Usenet newsgroups because literally anyone can create one.
Video Conferencing.
Video conferencing provides real-time transmission of video & audio signals to enable people in 2
or more locations to have a meeting.
The fastest growing form of video conferencing is Desktop video conferencing.

Small cameras installed on top of each camera enable meetings to take place from individual
offices.
Special application software (e.g., CUSeeMe) is installed on top of each client computer. It
transmits the image across a network to application software on a video-conferencing Server. The
server then sends the signals to the other client computers that are to participate in the video
conference. In some areas, the clients can communicate with each other without using the server.
Some systems have integrated other types of GroupWare with desktop video conferencing,
enabling participants to communicate verbally to attend the same “meeting” while sitting at the
computer in their offices.
Advantage of Video conferencing.
(i). Saves time & cost, as it reduces the need to travel.
Access & Use of other computers.
The Internet has a facility called TELNET that enables a user on one computer to use another
computer across the network, i.e., the user is able to run programs on the other machine as if
he/she is a local user.
Telnet is a protocol, which enables a user on one computer to log in to another computer on the
Internet.
TELNET establishes an error-free, rapid link between two computers, allowing a user to log on to
his/her home computer from a remote computer even when traveling. You can also log on to and
use third-party computers that have been made available to the public.
TELNET will use the computer address you supply to locate the computer you want to reach and
connect you to it. You will, of course, have to log in & go through any security procedures you,
your company, or the third-party computer owner have put in place to protect that computer.
Telnet requires an application image program on the Client computer and an application layer
program on the Server of the host computer. Many programs conform to the Telnet Standard
(e.g., EWAN).
Once Telnet enables the connection from the Client to the Server, you can log in by use of
commands. The exact commands to gain access to these newsgroups vary from computer to
computer.
Telnet enables you to connect to a remote computer without incurring long-distance telephone
charges.
Telnet can be useful because, it enables you to access your Server or Host computer without
sitting at its Keyboard.
Telnet can be faster or slower than a modem, depending on the amount of traffic on the Internet.
Note. Telnet is insecure, because everyone on the Internet can attempt to log in your computer
and use it as they wish. One commonly used security precaution is to prohibit remote log ins via
Tel-net unless a user specifically asks for his/her account to be authorized for it, or permit remote
log ins only from a specific set of Internet addresses., e.g., the Web server at a university can be
configured to only accept telnet log ins from computers located on the Kabete Campus network.
Electronic Commerce.
Many people are actively using the Internet for Electronic Commerce (i.e., doing business on the
Internet).
The use of the Internet in E-commerce is not necessary for making money as such, but mainly to
find information, improve communication and provide information.
Many people automatically focus on the retail aspect of e-commerce, i.e., selling products to
individuals. However, this is just one small part of e-commerce. The fastest group and the largest
segment of e-commerce is business-to-business settings.
There are 4 ways in which the Web can be used to support E-commerce;
(i). Electronic Store.
Electronic Store is a Website that lists all the products or services a business wishes to sell,
thus enabling customers to purchase them by using the Internet itself.
E-store sites provide physical goods and services.
The cost of providing information on the Web is low (unlike a Catalog, in which each page
adds to the cost), and therefore, electronic stores can provide much information. In addition,
electronic stores can also add value by providing dynamic information.
E-mail can also serve the purpose of E-store. This is because, e-mail is essentially a
collection of e-stores. The mail usually provides all the computer information needed for e-
commerce, and advertises the mail to potential customers. In return, the stores pay the mail a
monthly fee or some percentage of sales.
(ii). Electronic Marketing.

E-marketing sites focus on the products or services of one company with aim of increasing
sales.
This type of site supports the sales process, but does not make actual sales. The goal is to
attract and keep customers.
By doing so, such sites provide a wealth of information about the firms and products
complete with technical details and photos. Customers can review these but cannot buy over
the Web. The idea is to encourage the user to visit a local dealer, who will then make a sale.
Computers also use e-marketing sites to provide newsletters with information on the latest
products and tips on how to use them. Other companies enable potential customers to sign
up for notification of new product releases.
E-marketing is cheaper in many ways than traditional marketing (radio, direct marketing, TV
or print media). This is because while it costs the same to develop these traditional media, it
costs nothing to send information to the customers. It is also easier to customize the
presentation of information to a potential customer, because the Web is interactive. In
contrast, the other media are fixed once they are developed, and they provide the same
marketing approach to all who use it.
(iii). Information / Entertainment provider.
The Information/Entertainment provider supplies information (in form of text or graphics) or

entertainment. These providers provide information from many sources with an aim of
helping the users.
Several radio and TV stations are using the Web to provide broadcast of audio and video.
The Web also offers new forms of real entertainment e.g., enables new multiplayer
interactive games, which are not available in any other media. The information /
entertainment providers generate revenue by selling advertisement printouts.
(iv). Customers Service sales.
This provides a variety of information for customers after they have purchased a product or
service – to allow customers access most commonly needed information 24 hrs a day.
Many software companies post updates that fix problems so that customers can download for
themselves.
Customer service sites benefit both the company and the customers. They enable customers
to get a 24 hr support and easy access to needed information.
They often reduce the no. of staff needed by automating routine information requests that
previously had to be handled by an employee.
GroupWare.
GroupWare is a software that helps groups of people to work together more productively.
They are often organized using a two-by-two grid.
Same place Same time Different time

Group support systems Group support systems
Different Video teleconferencing, Desktop E-mail, Discussion groups, Document-
place video teleconferencing based GroupWare
GroupWare allows people in different places to communicate either at the same time (as on a
telephone) or at different times.
GroupWare can also be used to improve communication and decision-making among those who
work together in the same room, either at the same time or at different times.
GroupWare allows people to exchange ideas, debate issues, make decisions, and write reports,
without actually having to meet face to face. Even when groups meet in the same room at the
same time, GroupWare can improve meetings.
The major advantage of GroupWare is its ability to help groups make faster decisions, particularly
in situations where it is difficult for group members to meet in the same room at the same time.
The 3 most popular types of GroupWare are;

- Discussion groups.
- Group support systems.
- Video Conferencing.
Group Support Systems (GSS).
Both e-mail and documents-based GroupWare are designed to support individuals and groups
working in different places at different times. They are not suited to support groups working
together at the same time and in the same place. In addition, they don’t provide advanced tools
for helping groups to make decisions.
Group Support Systems (GSS) are software tools, designed to improve group’s decision-
making. GSS are used with special-purpose meeting rooms that provide each group member with
a network computer plus a large screen video projection system that acts as electronic
blackboards. These rooms are equipped with special-purpose GSS software that enables
participants to communicate, propose ideas, analyse options, evaluate alternatives, etc. Typically,
a meeting facilitator assists the group.
The group members can either discuss verbally or use computers to type ideas and information,
which are then shared with all other group members via the network. For large groups where only
one person can speak at a time, typing ideas is faster than talking. Everyone has the same
opportunity to contribute and ideas can be collected much faster. In addition, GSS enables users
to make anonymous comments. Without anonymity, certain participants may withhold ideas
because they fear their ideas may not be well received.
The system also provides tools to support voting and ranking of alternatives, so that more
structured decision-making process can be used.
Just like in document-based GroupWare, vendors use the Web browser as their client software.
So, almost anyone can access GroupWare Server.
Note. Discussion groups, document-based GroupWare and GSS all focus on the transmission of
text and graphical images.
Information Superhighway.
A term coined by U.S Clinton administration referring to advanced information infrastructure

accessible to individuals, groups and firms.
In general, the Information superhighway can be defined as;
 A facility that provides a global electronic data interchange between computer users at a
higher rate of message exchange, and at cheaper costs. E.g., the Internet that allows
researchers, businesses, and electronic media to exchange information.
 An Information Communication Technology (ICT) network, which delivers all kinds of

electronic services – audio, video, text, and data to households and businesses.
The communication services on the superhighway can be one-to-one way (Telephones, e-mail,
fax, etc); one-to-many (Broadcasting, interactive TV, video conferencing, etc), many-to-many
(typified by bulletin boards and forums on the Internet).
Origin.
Information superhighway is a mass technology project aimed at creating a National Information

Infrastructure (NII) in the U.S.
The concept emerged as the brainchild (idea) of U.S vice president Al Gore. It is an alliance
between the Federal government and a no. of industries.
The Information superhighway describes networks of Optic fiber and Coaxial cable linked by
sophisticated switches that can deliver voice, data, image, text, and video signals all in the same
digital language.
In the U.S, it has been proclaimed (declared) as the foundation for a national transformation to an
information-based society, and a key element in the national efforts to sustain leadership in the
world economy.
Governments and industries are developing a new method of competition, which will enable
telecommunications, cable television, computer hardware and software companies, and
entertainment corporations to work together to create and operate information superhighways.
These activities will finally result into a wide range of electronic services including electronic
Shopping malls, collaborate electronic Education and distance learning, electronic Libraries,
Multimedia information, messaging, and entertainment.
Web casting.
Web casting (or “Push technology”) is a special application of the Web that has the potential to
dramatically change the way we use the Web /Internet.
With Web casting, the user signs up for a type of information on a set of channels. Regularly
(minutes, hours, days), the user browser contacts the Web server providing these channels to see if
they have been updated. If so, the browser will load the information, and if required by the user,
will automatically display the information on the user screen.
Web casting changes the nature of the Web from one in which the user searches for information (a
“pull” environment) into an environment in which the user accepts whatever information is on the
Webcast Server (a “push” environment). This is called the “Push” because the user does not
request specific information, but rather permits the Web server to “push” the information when it
becomes available.
The Web has been likened to a library because users move form site to site and page to page just
like they move from shelf to shelf and book to book in a library.
Web casting is more like TV because the content and time of delivery is selected using the Web
caster, the user only chooses the channels.
Web casting can be used for news (e.g., CNN) or financial reports (e.g., Stock market quotations),
Corporate announcement, and as a replacement for broadcast e-mail. It even has the potential to
provide automatic updates to software packages.
Importance of services provided on the Internet.
The services offered by the Internet can be used as important tools in various ways:
1). As a research tool:
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer
opinions.
2). As an advertising / trading tool:
To help in selling goods or delivering information through the Web pages to customers on a
24-hour basis.
3). As a communication tool:
To support communication with customers, suppliers or staff through Electronic mail (e-mail).
4). As an Entertainment channel:
Most of the Games, Movies, and Television theme songs are available for free on the Internet.
In addition, you can have live, interactive conversations with people around the world
including celebrities.
Users of the Internet.

Considering the facilities & the various tools offered, the Internet has attracted among others the
following users;
 Researchers can get information.

 Writers and Scientists use the Internet to compile, compare and analyse their work.
 Individuals use the Internet for their work or to communicate with each other.
 People with the same interests can share ideas.
 Large organizations use the Internet to communicate with each other, and also to keep in
touch with subordinate (subsidiary) companies or their suppliers.
 Students can communicate and gather information.
 Business people can advertise, communicate and sell their goods.
 Sales people use the Internet to keep in touch with their home offices.
 Buyers can do their shopping online.
CONNECTING (LOGGING ON) TO THE INTERNET.
Log On -To identify yourself & gain access to a computer. To log on, type a user name & a
password.
Facilities Needed.
To use the Internet, you must have access to it. In order to get connected to the Internet and
access the World wide Web, you will require the following facilities:
1). A Computer.
The computer to be used must have the following desirable elements;
(i). A Fast processor, e.g., Pentium 1 & above - to quickly access and download information
& programs from the Internet.
(ii). RAM memory of 32 MB & Above.
(iii). Hard disk capacity of at least 400 MB.
(iv). A high-quality Colour Screen – to enable you view the various graphics and images.
(v). Free disk space on which to download the information or programs from the Internet.
2). Web Browsers.
Web browsers are application programs that are used to retrieve Web pages from the Internet
onto your Personal Computer.
One of the most popular Web browsers is Internet Explorer from Microsoft.
Each Web page in the World Wide Web is based on an HTML (HyperText Mark Language)
file. A Web browser decodes the information in an HTML file and displays a Web page on
your computer screen according to its instructions. This process is called Downloading.
 Downloading is the process of copying files from one computer to another by using a
Modem or a network connection. You can also download files from the Web to your hard
disk.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) -The language used to create Web pages. To
view HTML documents, use Web browsing Software.
3). Telephone lines.
4). Modem (Modulator/Demodulator).
On the Internet, computers exchange information through Telephone lines. Therefore, to use
the Internet, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.
A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information.
As a Transmitting modem, it translates computer information (which is in digital form) into

analogue form (the form that can transmit over telephone lines). This process is called
Modulation.
As a Receiving modem, it translates the information back into digital form (a form that your
computer can understand); a process called Demodulation.
The Modem must be fast. This helps to reduce the amount of time spent waiting for Web
pages, files, or messages from the Internet.
Modem speeds are expressed in Bits per second (bps). The typical speeds are 9,600 bps, 4.4
Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8 Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.
5). Internet Service Provider (ISP).
When connecting to the Internet using a modem, you need to sign up with an Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a commercial organization (or a company) that

provides Internet connections, along with a set of support services usually for a fee.
Itmaintains a Server that is directly connected to the Internet.
 Internet Service Provider - A company or organization that provides Internet Access,

usually for a fee. To connect to your ISP, use a modem.
Most people and organizations connect to the Internet over a Telephone line through an ISP.
However, some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own Internet
connections.
An ISP usually has a no. of Host computers. These host computers usually provide space for
the storage of user’s electronic mail messages, storage of user’s Web sites and a set of related
facilities such as, advice, support software and appropriate security.
Examples of the local ISPs include;

 Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya, and Inter-Connect.
Connecting to an ISP involves calling the provider and setting up a PPP account. When you
open an account with an ISP, you will be provided with a User name and a Password.
(i). Username – Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on
the Internet.
(ii). Password – This is needed for security purposes. It ensures that your Internet account is
secure.
Note. ISPs charge for the services rendered.

6). Website.
This is an area in the Internet where information of a particular organization is kept. The
Website must be updated on daily basis.
Content Provider - A business that uses the Internet to supply you with information such as
news, weather, business reports & entertainment.
ACCESSING THE INTERNET.
There are 3 common ways in which an individual user can access the Internet:
(a). Through a connection already setup through the computer in your organization. Typically,
the service is accessed in a similar way to other services on a LAN.
(b). Through paying for an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
In order to access an ISP directly, the user will need a Personal Computer, a Modem, a
Telephone line& a suitable software in order to connect to the service. Most ISPs give help
and advice on how to connect.
(c). Through a Bulletin Board Service (BBS), e.g. CompuServe. BBS are commercially run
information providers, each with its own information services and normally offering access
to Internet services.
The BBS companies normally sell some form of start-up package.
Setting up an Internet account.
Purpose.
√ To be able to gain access to the facilities that are offered on the Internet, the user needs to log
on. To log on, use Dial-Up to connect to the Internet, and then use a Web browser like
Internet Explorer to load Web pages.
There are several ways to start Internet Explorer;

The Internet Connection wizard creates an Internet connection for you, and then displays a list
of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and information about their services.
To sign up for a new account, click an ISP in the list.
Wizard - A tool that walks you through the steps of a complex task.
Selecting options in the Internet Connection Wizard.
If you are connecting to the Internet using a modem & an Internet Service Provider (ISP), your
ISP will supply most of the information needed. You will also need to provide the following
information.
Information Needed for.
The ISP you want to use choosing an ISP
Your address & billing information payment for your ISP account
Note. You may be prompted to restart your computer during the Internet connection process; save
and close any open documents before you proceed.
5. After successfully logging on, the Internet Explorer displays the “Home page” and a
Connection Indicator icon on the taskbar to indicate that you are online.
Method 3. To open Internet Explorer from Outlook Express.
1. On the Help menu, point to Microsoft on the Web, then click the Web option you want.
E.g., click Search the Web to look for a Web site, a person, a company, or an organization.
– Or-
Click Best of the Web to open the MSN.COM page that lists some of the best sites on the
Web.
Online Service - An Internet service that provides a wide range of content to its subscribers
including Internet Access.
Parts of the Microsoft Internet Explorer screen.
1). Title bar.

2). Menu bar.
3). Address Bar. It contains the Address box in which you type an address to open the file you
want. The Address Bar provides a method of opening files that are on the Internet or your
computer.
4). Current page, with Links.
5). Scroll bars.
6). Status bar.
7). Standard toolbar; with buttons such as, Back, Forward, Stop, Refresh, Home, Search,
Favorites, History, Mail, Print, Discuss.
You can use the toolbar buttons in the Internet Explorer to move between Web pages, to
search the Internet or to refresh the content of Web pages.
Button description.
Forward moves to the next Web page.
Back moves to a previously viewed Web page.
Home jumps to your home page.
History displays a list of recently visited sites.
Favorites displays a list of Web pages that you have selected as your
favorites.
Refresh updates the contents of a currently displayed Web page or
window.
Search opens a Web page that lists the available search engines.
Edit opens FrontPage Express or Windows Notepad so you can
edit a Web page.
Print prints a Web page.

Stop stops the downloading of a Web page.
Mail opens Outlook Express or Internet News.
Viewing connection information.
Purpose.
√ When you register with an ISP, you acquire an Internet account with them and from time to
time, you may want to view connection information such as, how long you have been online,
the speed of connection& the activities done during the online session.
1. Right-click the Connection Indicator icon on the Taskbar.

2. From the shortcut menu that appears, click Status.
The Connected to <Africa Online> dialog box appears:
Some of the useful information displayed on this window includes:

- The speed at which you are connected, e.g. 26,400 bits per second (bps).
- The duration you have been online, e.g., 2 minutes, 50 seconds.
- The Transfer rate, in case you are downloading files from the Internet.
3. Click OK,after viewing the details.
Customizing the Web browser.
Purpose.
√ Moving from site to site can be slow if the ISP or Internet lines are busy, if the Host server
(the server storing the site you are trying to access) is busy, or if you are using a slow modem.
If a site contains graphics (or other multimedia content like video, audio, etc) you can prevent the
graphics from downloading so as to speed up browsing.
1. On the Tools menu, select Internet Options….
2. Click the Advanced tab, then scroll down to the Multimedia section.
3. Deselect the options or content that you want turned off, e.g., Show Pictures, play Animations,
or Play Videos, then click OK.
Multimedia – A technology that combines data/text, voices/sounds, graphics, pictures, videos and
images into one complete system. Multimedia uses Optical disk, e.g., CD-ROM to stock all the
above in one media. Multimedia can be used in training.
Logging out from the Internet.
Purpose.
√ As long as you are connected to the Internet, you continue to incur Telephone and account
usage charges. This can prove to be expensive in the long run.
It is recommended that you disconnect or log out from the Internet soon after you have
finished with a session. This is to avoid incurring extra or unnecessary charges.
1. Right-click the Connection Indicator icon on the Taskbar.

2. From the shortcut menu that appears, click Disconnect and you will automatically be logged
out.
When you log out, the Connection Indicator icon is disabled.

Note. Some browsers or ISPs automatically disconnect you from the Internet when there is no
activity between the user and ISP for a period of about 5 – 10 minutes.
Understanding the World Wide Web.
Purpose.
√ To understand some of the Internet terminologies like Web pages, Web sites, Web browsers,
URLs and Home page.
The World Wide Web (www).
The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3.
 The Web is an Internet application (software) that uses the Internet as its network.
 World Wide Web is the graphical, multimedia portion of the Internet.
 The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked Web pages published on the Internet.

 The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages
containing information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based
(i.e., it is able to access text & graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).
The Web is a part of the Internet. It is comprised of millions of Web pages. This huge
collection of documents is stored on computers, called Hosts, around the world.
The documents may contain text, pictures, sound, small programs or forms to be completed by
a user.
To view files on the Web, you need Web browsing Software. This software can be used to
view different locations on the Web or to explore the Web pages.
Web pages.
 Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals who are interested in
putting themselves on the Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.
 Web page is a location on the WWW, usually a Web site.
The Web pages can also be found on company Intranets.
Intranets and Extranets.
What is an Intranet?
 An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of

documents among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).
 Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers
within an organization.
Intranet has a private Web Server, which can be made available to the entire organization,
individual department or to specific departmental workgroups.
An Intranet uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet and can be connected to the
Internet.
Note. Intranet applications are usually combined with the normal Web application of other
organizations, but are hidden from those outside the organization.
Extranet:
An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected
users outside the organization.
E.g., a certain university can have an Internet library containing millions of articles, but only make
it available to staff and students at colleges and universities within the country.
To access the library, you must provide a password when you connect to the Internet site.
Home Page.
 Home page is the Web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started, i.e., when you
access the Web.
E.g., the Internet address of the Windows home page is http://www.Microsoft.com /Windows
 Home page can also the first page of a company or an individual’s Website on the Web.
Those who offer information through the Web must first establish a Home page – a www text
and graphical screen that welcomes the user and explains the organization that has established
the page.
 Home page – is the introductory page of a Web site. The home page contains links to other
pages in the site.
Notes.
 You can set any Web page as your Home page.

 Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the Websites you visit. Your home
page is set through Internet Explorer. The home page of a Website is the introductory page
for the site.
If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a Web page, you will jump to the home page of the
Website, not yours. To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.
Web Site.
 A collection of Web pages belonging to an organization or individual. These organizations or

individuals maintain the Website.
 Web site - A group of related Web pages.
 A Web site is a screen or a collection of screens that provide information in text or graphical
form that can be viewed by Internet users by activating the appropriate icon or commands.
Web Browsers (Web browsing software).
A Web browser is a program that lets the user browse through information on (or surf) the Web.
Information on the Web is structured into pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to
locate and access information on that page.
A WWW browser program enables the user to either search for data by name or by specifying
locations known as Uniform Resource Location (URL).
The two common Web browsers are:
- Internet Explorer from Microsoft.

- Navigator from Netscape.
Browsing the Web.
This is also known as Navigating or ‘Surfing’ the Web.
 To Browse is to navigate the Internet or the contents of your computer.
 Browsing can also be defined as moving around and between Web pages.
Using a Web browsing software you can read documents, listen to music, watch videos, make
purchases, participate in surveys, advertise products, do research, share interests and download
files on the Web.
EXPLORING / BROWSING THE INTERNET.
Use the Internet Explorer on your Windows desktop to browse the Web.
There are several ways in which you can browse the Web pages or “surf the net”.
(a). When viewing a Web page, you can navigate the Internet by clicking Links, Underlined text
or special features that cause you to jump to another Web page.
Hyperlinks.
A Hyperlink is a coloured or underlined text or a graphic that you click to ‘jump’ from one
location to another. The hyperlinks enable the user to ‘jump’ to another file, or to another
location in the same file.
All Web pages have hyperlinks. These links:
(i). Connect one part of a Web page to another part of the same Web page. This is useful
if the Web page is large.
(ii). Connect one Web page to another Website somewhere on the Web.
(iii). Connect a page to a file, such as a sound clip, video, a Spreadsheet or a Word
document.
The links can connect to objects stored anywhere on the Internet.
Hypertext links are indicated by underlined text highlighted usually in blue. Hyperlinks can
also be represented by buttons, graphics or pictures.
To find hyperlinks on a page, move your mouse pointer over the page and where there is a
hyperlink, the mouse pointer will change into a hand with a pointing finger. When you click
a link, another Web page appears.
As you browse the Web, Internet Explorer stores the sites and pages that you visit.
Usually, the hyperlinks you previously selected are colored differently. Internet Explorer
does this to remind you that you have already visited the page identified by this link.
(b). You can also use the Standard toolbar buttons in the Internet Explorer to move between Web
pages, or to search the Internet.
History.
Internet Explorer remembers the Websites and Web pages that you have visited. It keeps record
of each Web page as it is downloaded. This is the History feature.
You can therefore, easily return to the page you have visited. To redisplay the page you have just
left, click on the Back button. To move to the next page (available only if you have moved back),
click the Forward button.
Web Hosting.
A World Wide Web Server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents from
Clients (browsers) over the Internet. Files containing Web sites are placed on these servers.
A Host computer is any computer connected to the Internet and stores information that has been
made available to the Web.
ISPs also use host computers to store user’s electronic mail messages, Web sites and other related
facilities such as, support software and appropriate security.
Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator – URL).
An Address is the location of a file.
Each Web page in the world has a unique Internet address or location. Internet addresses are also
called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL). E.g., the general URL for Microsoft is
http://www.Microsoft.com./
You can use addresses to find files on the Internet & your computer. You can instantly display
any Web page if you know its URL. E.g., http://www.compaq.com.
AutoComplete - A feature in the Address Bar. When you begin typing a previously used address,
this feature finishes it as you type.
How the Web Works.

Each Client computer needs an application software package called a Web browser, such as
Navigator, Internet Explorer.
Each Server on the network needs an application software package called a Web Server. There
are many different Web servers, such as those produced by Netscape, Microsoft and Apache.
In order to get a page from the Web, the user must type the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
for the desired page, or click on a link that provides the URL. The URL specifies the Internet
address of the Web Server, the directory and the name of the specific page required. If no
directory or page is specified, the Web server will display whatever page has been defined as its
Home page. If no server name is specified, the Web browser will assume that the address is on
the same server and directory as the last request.
In order for the Web server to understand requests from the Web browser, they must use the same
standard protocol. If there was no standard, then each Web browser would use a different way to
request pages. This means that, it would be impossible for a Web browser from Netscape to
communicate with a Web server from Microsoft.
The standard protocol for communication between a Web browser and a Web server is the
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). An HTTP request for a Web browser to a Web server
has 3 parts, but only the 1st part is required, the other two are optional.
 The Request Line, which starts with a command (e.g., GET), provides the URL, and ends
with HTTP version number that the browser understands.
 The Request Header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web
browser being used (e.g., Internet Explorer), the date, the User ID and Password for using the
Web pages as password protected.
 The Request Body, which contains information sent to the Server, such as information from a
firm.
Note. Every Web user must provide the Internet address of the receiving computer, otherwise, the
server would not know where to send the requested page.
Some browsers also provide the requestor’s e-mail addresses as well. Most Web servers keep a
record of Internet addresses of all the requests (and the e-mail address, if provided by the
browser). Some companies use this information to make a follow up with prospective customers.
An HTTP response for a Web server to a Web browser also has 3 parts, but only the last part is
required, the first two are optional.
 TheResponse Status, which contains the HTTP version number the server has used as status
code (e.g., 200 means ‘OK’, 404 means ‘Page not found’), and reason phrase (i.e., a text
description of the status code).
 The Response Header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web
server being used, the date, the exact URL of the page in the response body, and the format of
the body (e.g., HTML).
 The Response Body, which is the Web page itself.
Internet Addresses.
Internet addresses are strictly regulated, otherwise, someone could add a computer to the Internet
that had the same address as another computer.
Each address has 2 parts; The computer name and its domain.
The Domain is the specific part of the Internet to which the computer is connected (e.g., Canada,
Australia, etc).
The general format of an Internet address is therefore: computer.domain. Some computer names
have several parts separated by periods. For example, the main university Web server of an
imaginary University like Yairobi can be www.Yairobi.edu, while the college of Humanities and
Social Sciences server can be www.chss.Yairobi.edu.
Each domain has an address board that assigns address for its domain. The boards ensure that
there are no duplicates.
Finding Web pages (information) on the Web.
There are 3 ways you can use to find interesting and useful Web pages on the Web;
1). You could get the Web address from an advertisement.
Many businesses include their Web addresses in their Television and Print advertisements.
2). You click a link that will enable you jump from one page to another.
Many industries or organizations, magazines and topic experts maintain pages that provide
links from page to page.
3). Use of Search Engines.
Search Engines / Search Services.
 A Search engine is software that helps in locating information in the Web.
 Search engine is a tool that searches the Web for information that you want to find.
Purpose.
√ If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web but
you do not know where to find it, you can use a Search engine to locate sites that contain the
information.
√ Locate particular information in a Website, e.g., if you wish to read the Sports news you can
load a Web site like http://www.cnn.com/, and then use a search engine within that site to
locate information on Sports.
The following are the various search engines:
1). Yahoo – www.Yahoo.com.

2). AltaVista – www.altavista.digital.com.
3). Excite – www.excite.com.
4). Meta Crawler – www.metacrawler.com.
5). Infoseek.
6). Lycos.
These search engines offer different kinds of searching capabilities. However, they differ in the
way they organize information in response to your request.
Yahoo focuses on the largest & most important Websites and organizes them in a directory
format. Small and little known Websites are excluded. Therefore, if you are looking for the
address of a well-known company or product or a popular topic, Yahoo is probably the easiest
way to find it.
Alta Vista is the broadest of all. It lists almost everything it can find. It is probably the best
choice if you are looking for an unclear topic or a very specific combination of topics or words
(e.g., to find a famous quote).
The major disadvantage of Alta Vista is that, you may have to look through dozens of sites before
you find the ones you want. In addition, Alta Vista does not provide some help in focusing your
search.
Excite is easier to use in that, it uses advanced special intelligence techniques to help you search
those pages that best match your interest. E.g., after looking at the result of a search, you can tell
Excite to find more pages that are similar to a specific page it has found. Excite will then search
again and present those pages first. In this case, Excite refines the search based on the
characterization of the page you have selected.
Meta Crawler provides the best search facilities. It does not search the Web and provide a list of
what it finds. Instead, whenever you enter a search request, it simultaneously sends that request to
several search engines (including Yahoo & Alta Vista), then combines, and organizes the
information it receives from all the search engines into one display.
How Search Engines find Web pages.
Hundreds of thousands of new Web pages are created each day.
There are 2 ways that search engines use to locate Web pages:
 Use of Spiders / Robots.

 Through Submissions.
(a). Spiders.
Search Engines normally use software spiders to explore the Web. The Spiders are usually
automated robots that travel around the Web looking for new pages, and creating links to
them.
These spiders methodically search all the pages on the Websites they can find and report
back their discoveries. The search engine builds an index to these pages based on the words
they contain. When you connect to a search engine, and type a few words describing what
you want, the Search engine will search its index for these keywords and provide you with a
list of pages that contain them.
(b). Submissions.
These are derived from people who have created new Web pages and then submit
information about the pages they have created.
1. Select a search engine, e.g., Yahoo, and type its address in the Address box, i.e.,
http://www.yahoo.com/.
Once the search engine home page appears, type a keyword or phrase in the Search box, e.g.,
Kenya, then click the Search button.
Note. The steps may vary depending on the search engine you are using.
2. When the search is completed, a list of sites that contain the keyword or phrase you are
looking for is displayed. Select a site whose description comes closest to the information you
desire and click on its link.
3. If there are many sites, an option that allows you to view the next 10 or so matches is
displayed. Click on this if necessary to view the next set of links.
If there are too many matches, you may want to use an additional keyword to narrow down the
search. E.g., to find the sites that contain information about the economy in Kenya, in the
Search box, type phrase “Kenya AND Economy”.
4. Click the Search button.
5. From the search results, select the links that may help you get the information you require.
Locate information within a Website.
Once you access a Website, you can search for specific text or information on that site or page.
Unlike search engines like Yahoo, Infoseek, Lycos, Web Crawler, and Excite that present you
with the URLs or links of sites that hold information you are looking for, search engines within a
Web page locate information within that Web page.
1. Load the Web page to browse. E.g., let’s use a Website: http://www.carleton.ca.
2. Click in the Search box, and type a keyword(s), e.g., International AND Student.
Note. When typing in a keyword, you can use logical words or operators like AND (when you
want to display results that meet both criteria) and OR (when you want to display results that
meet one of the two criteria).
3. Click the Search button, to begin the search.
4. From the Search Results screen, click on a link that is closest to your requirements.
To open a favorite Web site from the Start menu.
1. Click the Start button, point to Favorites, and then click the Web page you want.
To search the Web from the Start menu.
1. Click the Start button, point to Find, then click On the Internet.
To use the Run command to open a Web page.
1. Click Start, click Run, and then type the Internet address you want.
If the page you are opening is one you've viewed before, the AutoComplete feature can
complete the address for you.
To find pages you've recently visited.
To find Web sites and pages you've viewed in the last few days, hours, or minutes.
1. On the toolbar, click the History button.

The History bar appears, containing links for Web sites and pages visited in previous days
and weeks.
2. In the History bar, click a week or day, click a Web site folder to display individual pages, and
then click the page icon to display the Web page.
Notes.
 To return to the last page you viewed, click the Back button on the toolbar.
 To view one of the last nine pages you visited in this session, click the arrow to the side of the
Back or Forward button, and then click the page you want from the list.
To enter Web information more easily.
The AutoComplete feature saves previous entries you have made for Web addresses, forms, and
passwords.
When you type information in one of these fields, AutoComplete suggests possible matches.
1. When typing an information in the Address bar, and the AutoComplete feature suggests what
you want to enter in that field, click the suggestion. If not, continue typing.
Setting or changing a Home Page.
Home page is the page that is displayed every time you start Internet Explorer.
Note. Make sure it is a page that you want to view frequently, or make it one that you can
customize to get quick access to all the information you want, such as the Msn.com home page.
Purpose.
√ To enable the user to choose or specify a page that will provide a good starting point for
exploring the Web.
The Home page will appear each time the user accesses the Web.
1. Go to the page you want set as your Home page.

2. On the Tools menu, click Internet Options....
The Internet Options dialog box appears.
3. Click the General tab.
4. Under the Home Page section, type the address of the new home page in the Address box.
Alternatively, click Use Current to make the current Website the home page.
5. Click the OK button.
Tips.
 To restore your original home page, click Use Default.

 You can return to your home page anytime by clicking the Home button.
Downloading Web pages and programs from the Internet.
Purpose.
√ To enable the user to view Web pages without being connected to the Internet.
√ To be able to browse a site in a location that does not provide any network access.
√ In order to free your telephone lines.
Downloading a Web page.
1. Load the Web page you want to download, e.g., http://www.nationaudio.com.

2. Access all the links that you would like to read offline. Make sure that the whole Web page is
fully loaded before moving to the next one.
3. On the Favorites menu, click Add to Favorites.
4. Select the option Yes, notify me of updates and download the page for offline viewing.
5. Click OK, and then Logoff.
Downloading a program.
√ Programmers and software houses like Microsoft usually develop programs and may decide to
send a test copy to their existing clients or to publish it on the Internet for interested users to
test it for a specified period of time.
To test such software, a user will have to download the program onto the hard disk. A user
can also download a movie clip or games, etc, and view it offline to save on costs.
1. Locate a site from which you wish to download a program, e.g.,

http://softwarenow.iboost.com.
2. Select the category of programs you want to download, e.g., Games.
3. Select a game category, e.g., Racing Games.
4. Select a game you want to download.
Note. The window lists the properties of the program, e.g., version, file size. Ensure that you
understand the licence agreement, i.e., whether the program is freeware or shareware.
Freeware is a program that is absolutely free, while Shareware program is available for a
limited period of time.
5. To download the program, click on the download link, e.g., Download Cars & Brix.
6. From the File Download dialog box, select Save this program to disk option, then click OK.
7. In the Save As dialog box, select the folder in which you wish to store the downloaded
program, then click Save.
Once the program is loaded, you can access the folder it was saved in and load it without
being connected to the Internet.
Saving pictures or text from a Web page.
Purpose.
√ You can save information for future reference or in order to share with other people. You can
save the entire Web page or any part of it: text, graphics, or links.
√ You can print Web pages for people who don’t have access to the Web or a computer.
To copy information from a Web page into a document,
1. Select the information you want to copy, on the Edit menu, click Copy.
To use a Web page image as desktop wallpaper.
1. Right-click the image on the Web page, then click Set as Wallpaper.
Saving information (a Web page) from the Internet to the Hard disk.
Purpose.
√ When you come across a Web page you would want to read, but it is too long, you can save
the Web page onto your hard disk so as to read it later on when you are off-line. This helps in
reducing the costs of browsing while online.
1. Load the Web page you want to download.

Make sure the Web page you want to save is completely transferred to the screen of your Web
browser.
2. On the File menu, select Save As.
3. In the Save HTML Document dialog box that appears, select the drive & folder where you
want to save the page in.
4. In the File name box, type a name for the page.
5. In the Save as type box, select a file type.
 To save all of the files needed to display this page, including graphics, frames, and style
sheets, click Web Page, complete. This saves each file in its original format.
 To save just the current HTML page, click Web Page, HTML only. This will save the
information on the Web page, but it does not save the graphics, sounds, or other files.
 To save just the text from the current Web page, click Text Only. This saves the
information on the Web page in straight text format.
6. Click Save.
The Explorer program automatically assigns the extension .htm to the file name.
To open a saved file.
√ After saving a Web page, you may want to read and analyze the information at a later time.
√ You may also want to send the saved file to another person via e-mail as an attachment.
1. On the File menu, select Open. This displays the Open dialog box.
2. Click on the Browse button in order to locate the folder where the file is stored.
3. Click the file, then choose Open.
Note. When you save a file in a local disk, only the text on the page is shown. The graphics in a
site are displayed in graphics placeholders (which appear as small rectangles).
Graphics and Download time.
When designing Web pages, graphics have to be incorporated sensibly into the Web page.
Although they are appealing to the eye, the more graphics you use on a Web page, the longer the
Web browser will take to download the page.
File Formats.
The most common file formats found on the Internet are:
- Graphic Interchange Format (GIF), and

- Joint Photographic Experts Group (Jpeg).
Generally, GIFs are used for simple page design elements like lines, buttons and dividers, while
JPEGs are mostly used for complex photographs and images.
Movie (video) files usually have the extension .avi, .mpg, or .mov, while Sound (audio) files have
the extension .au, or .ra, or .ram, or .wav.
Printing Web pages.
Purpose.
√ To obtain a hard copy of the information that you have researched on and collected, for the
purposes of reviewing later or filing.
Change how a page looks when it prints.
Before printing a Web page, it is advisable to check the settings in the Page Setup dialog box.
This will ensure that the right Paper size, Margins and Orientation of the page are set correctly.
You can also add headers and footers to a Web page.
1. On the File menu, click Page Setup.

2. In the Margins boxes, type the margin measurements (in inches).
3. In the Orientation area, click either Portrait or Landscape to specify whether you want the
page printed vertically or horizontally.
4. In the Header and Footer boxes, specify the information to be printed, then click OK.
Printing the Web page.
1. On the File menu, click Print to display the Print dialog box.
2. Set the printing options you want, then click OK.
Creating a Bookmark.
Purpose.
√ When you browse the Web, you may come across sites that you want to visit regularly.
Examples of such sites include; news sites like CNN or BBC. You can decide to ‘bookmark’
the Web page.
The Bookmark feature (also known as a Hotlist or Favorites feature) allows you to store the
addresses of Web pages that you frequently visit. Hence, you do not have to constantly retype
your favourite Web page addresses. When you want to visit the site, simply select the
bookmark from a list.
1. Open the Website that you want to create a shortcut to. E.g., http://www.cnn.com.
2. On the Favorites menu, choose Add to Favorites.
The Add to Favorites dialog box appears. The name of the site you are in appears on the
Name box.
3. Under Create in: click the folder you want to add the site to, e.g., Links, then click OK.
This will add the title of the Web page in the Favorites list.
To go to a site using a Bookmark.
1. On the menu bar, select Favorites.

2. Select the folder that holds the favorites item, e.g., Links.
3. From the drop-down list, click CNN.com.
To delete a Bookmark.
1. On the menu bar, select Favorites.

2. Point to the item from the Favorites list, e.g., CNN.com.
3. Right-click the item, and then click Delete.
The Confirm File Delete dialog box appears.
4. Click Yes, to remove the item from the list.
Working Offline.
Connection to the Internet usually means that you are using telephone lines, and therefore
incurring telephone charges and usage on your ISP account.
Offline - Not connected to a network or the Internet.
BROWSING THE WEB (INTERNET) OFFLINE.

Purpose.
√ To enable the user to save on the time spent connected to the Internet, and hence reduce the
general costs of being online.
1. Access the Web site that you want to browse offline.

2. Access all the links to download all the information you require.
Ensure that each Web page is downloaded completely before going to the next one.
3. On the Taskbar, right-click the Connection Indicator button, then choose Disconnect.
The Connection Indicator disappears from the Taskbar showing that you are now working
offline.
After disconnecting the user can go ahead and read all the downloaded information. The user
can also “browse” through the site while offline provided all the pages and links are
downloaded.
Note. Some services like Internet, Usenet, Newsroom, or Shopping will not be available when
you are offline. To use these services, you need to re-establish the connection.
Making Web pages available for offline viewing.
Offline Reading -To view a Web page without being connected to the Internet.
You can download the page to your hard disk, disconnect from a network or the Internet, and read
the material later.
When you make a Web page available offline, you can read its content when your computer is not
connected to the Internet.
E.g., you can view Web pages on your Laptop computer when you don't have a network or
Internet connection.
1. On the Favorites menu, click Add to Favorites.

2. Select the Make available offline checkbox.
3. To specify a schedule for updating that page, and how much content to download, click
Customize.
4. Follow the instructions on your screen.
Note. Before you go offline, make sure you update your pages. To do this, click the Tools menu,
then click Synchronize.
To make an existing favorite item available offline.
1. On the Favorites menu, click Organize Favorites.

2. Click the page you want to make available offline.
3. Select the Make available offline checkbox.
4. To specify a schedule for updating that page, and how much content to download, click
Properties.
Get Help with Internet Explorer.
Purpose.
√ While working with Internet Explorer, you may sometimes need help on how to perform
certain tasks or help on a particular topic of interest.
1. On the Help menu, select Contents and Index (or press F1).
The Internet Explorer Help window is displayed.
2. Click the Contents tab.
3. Click a book in the list, and then click a Help topic you want to look at.
The Help topic contents are displayed on the right-hand side of the Help window.
4. Read the help and click the hyperlinks (blue, underlined text) if you want to see help on
related topics.
5. When you have finished, click the Close button to exit help.
Advantages of the Internet.
(i). One can download (copy) information from a Website.

(ii). The Internet has enabled the interlinking of people worldwide / globally.
(iii). It is convenient in the sense that you can access data 24 Hrs.
(iv). It is cheap, i.e., the operational cost that one may incur is low.
(v). It has brought in the technology of doing the following; E-learning, E-Agriculture, E-
commerce, E-governance, etc.
(vi). Provides up-to-date information.
(vii). It doesn’t require a lot of training to browse.
(viii). It provides entertainment facilities.
(ix). Can be used for research.
(x). Brings harmony in the world, because people can communicate and exchange ideas.
(xi). The Internet can be accessed at any part of the world.
(xii). There is always a full backup provided by the Servers, hence no data loss.
(xiii). It’s a fast way of communicating.
(xiv). It provides an easy way to use offers in Information and products.
Internet provides information from almost all parts of the world that you need in order to
make accurate and informed decisions.
You will get information you need from business to education, from sports to politics, from
arts to eating out.
Disadvantages of Internet.
(i). It’s a technology, which is fetched for (imposed/forced on) the Third world countries.
(ii). The cost of the Internet Service Provider is high.
(iii). It is leading to exposure of morally harmful shows such as Pornography.
(iv). It leads to spread of viruses.
(v). Has proved to be unreliable especially accessing information.
(vi). No copyright rules meant to protect the property of an organization.
LESSON 14
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL).
About e-mail.
Electronic mail (also known as e-mail) is one of the common services provided by the Internet.
 E-Mail is a worldwide system for sending & receiving electronic messages from one
computer to another.
 E-Mail (Electronic mail) refers to electronic messages sent over the Internet or a network. E-
mail can contain both text & files.
With e-mail, users can create and send messages to one user, several users, or all the users on a
distribution list.
Most e-mail software enable users to send text messages. In addition, users can attach files from
Word processors, Spreadsheets, Reports, production data, etc, and then send them by e-mail.
Most E-mail packages allow you to do the same things you do with regular paper mail. You can
file messages in electronic file cabinets, forward copies of messages to other users, send “carbon
copies” of messages, and so on. The E-mail packages also allow you to filter or organize
messages by priority. E.g., all messages from a particular user (e.g., your boss) could be given top
priority, so that they always appear at the top of your list of messages.
However, E-mail is a much faster, economical & convenient way of sending messages to family,
friends and colleagues than the paper mail (usually called “Snail mail”). Messages can be sent or
received 24-hrs a day. With “Snail mail” a message or a letter is sent to the recipient through the
Post office and takes days or weeks before reaching the destination.
Components required.
For one to be able to communicate using e-mail, the following components are needed:
1). A Computer - where you will send or receive the e-mail messages.
2). AnE-mail program.
Your computer must be installed with an e-mail program that lets you send, receive and
manage your e-mail messages.
Examples of E-mail programs;
 Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, &Microsoft Exchange from Microsoft.

 Communicator from Netscape.
 Lotus Notes.
 Eudora.
3). E-mail address of the sender & the address of the receiver.
4). An Internet Service Provider (ISP) - company who will deliver your message to the
receiver.
Once you send a letter or a message, it travels from your computer through a Modem, which
connects your computer to the Internet using the Telephone network. The Mail passes through
various computers, until it reaches the final destination.
How E-mail Works.
The figure below shows how an e-mail message can travel over a Wide Area Network (WAN)
such as the Internet.
Each Client computer in the Local Area Network (LAN) runs an e-mail software package called
User Agent, e.g., Eudora, Lotus Notes, Outlook Express, Microsoft Outlook, etc.
The user writes the e-mail messages using one of the User Agents, which formats the message
into 2 parts;
(i). The Header, which lists the source and destination e-mail addresses.
(ii). The Body, which is the message itself.
The User agent sends the message header & body to a Mail Server that runs a special application
package called a Message Mail Transfer Agent. The Message Mail Transfer Agent in the Mail
Server reads the envelope & then sends the message through the network (possibly through
dozens of Message Transfer Agents) until the message arrives at the Mail Server of the receiver.
The Message Transfer Agent on this server then stores the message in the receiver’s mailbox on
the server.
When the receiver accesses his/her e-mail, the User Agent on the receiver’s Client computer
contacts the Message Transfer Agent on the Mail Server, and asks for the contents of the user’s
mailbox. The Message Transfer Agent sends the e-mail message to the client computer, which the
user reads using the user agent.
E-MAIL STANDARDS.
Several standards have been developed to ensure the compatibility between different e-mail
software packages.
The 3 commonly used standards are:
1). Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
2). X-400.
3). Common Messaging Calls (CMC).
All the 3 e-mail standards work in the same basic fashion.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
SMTP is the most commonly e-mail standard used on the Internet.
SMTP defines how Message Transfer Agents operate and how they format messages sent to them.
As the name suggests, SMTP is a simple standard that permits only the transfer of text messages.
Non-text files such as graphics or Word processing documents are not permitted.
However, several standards for non-text files have been developed that can operate together with
SMTP. They include; Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME), Unencoded&Bin Hex.
A different standard called Post Office Protocol (POP) defines how User agents operate and how
messages to & from the Mail Transfer Agents are formatted.
POP is gradually being replaced by a newer standard called Internet Mail Access Protocol
(IMAP).
The main difference between POP & IMAP is that, before a user can read a mail message with a
POP user agent; the e-mail message must be copied to the client’s hard disk and deleted from the
mail server. With IMAP, e-mail messages can remain stored on the mail server after they have
been read. Therefore, IMAP is beneficial to users who read their e-mail from many different
computers (e.g., at home, in office & in computer labs), because all e-mail is stored on the server
until it is deleted.
X-400
The X-400 e-mail standard was developed in 1984. It is a set of seven (7) standards that define
how e-mail is to be processed by the User agents and the Mail Transfer Agents.
Common Messaging Calls (CMC).
The CMC standard is a simpler version of the X-400 standard.

It was developed in 1994.
It is more popular than X-400, because it is simple & it is also supported by a large no. of leading
vendors/sellers.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
FTP enables you to send and receive files over the Internet. FTP requires an application program
on the client server and an application program on the FTP Server. Many application packages
use the FTP standard (e.g., WS-FTP).
Almost anyone can establish a FTP server, which permits anyone on the Internet to log in, send
and receive files.
There are 2 types of FTP sites;

(i). Closed.
(ii). Anonymous.
Closed FTP site.
A Closed site requires users to have permission before they can connect and gain access to the
files. Access is granted after the user provides an Account name with a secret password.
For example, a Network Manager would write a Web page using software on his/her client
computer and their user FTP to send it to a specific account on the Web Server.
Anonymous FTP site.
Anonymous is the most common type of an FTP site.

It permits any Internet user to log in using the account of anonymous.
When using the anonymous FTP, you will still be asked for a password. You can enter your
Internet e-mail address as the password.
Many files and documents available via FTP have been compressed to reduce the amount of disk
space they require.
Note. If a file that you want has been compressed by a compression program that is not in your
computer, you cannot access the file until you get the decompression program it used.
E-mail addresses.
Each user has his own e-mail address (or mailbox) in form of computer storage space to receive
messages. The mailbox is accessed via a computer terminal within the system. In addition, each
user has a password to protect access to his/her own mailbox.
Messages are drawn to the user’s attention when they enter the system.
Components of an E-mail address.
An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol. For example, if your e-mail
address is [email protected]:
(i). The 1st part of the address to the left side of the @ symbol refers to the person’s identity or
login name. It is the name or identifier of the specific individual or organization, e.g., “drg”.
(ii). The 2nd part following the “@” symbol is the computer address. It is usually made up of 2
to 3 sub-parts to further identify the individual, organization, ISP or a country. In this case:
 “tropicalheat” identifies the business.
 “.com” is the extension, which identifies the type of the organization.
The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -
Extension Represents
.org A non-profit making organization
.edu An educational institution or organization
.com A commercial organization
.net Network
.mil Military
.gov government
Sometimes, the name of the country is included in the e-mail address. E.g., [email protected]
or [email protected].
In this case, “.co.uk” refers to a company in the United Kingdom, while “.co.ke” refers to a
company in Kenya.
Formatting e-mail message text.
To add special emphasis or structure to message text-such as bold, color, or bulleted lists, and also
to add graphics and links to Web sites in your mail messages, use Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) - the standard language for formatting text for the Internet.
To use HTML formatting on all outgoing messages.

 When you create messages using HTML formatting, only mail programs that support
HTML can read the formatting. If the recipient's mail or newsreading program does not read
HTML, the message is displayed as plain text with an HTML file attached. The recipient
can view the attached file by opening it in any Web browser.
To send the message in HTML formatting;
1. In the main window, click the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Send tab.
2. In the Mail Sending Format or News Sending Format sections, click HTML.
To use HTML formatting on an individual message.
In an e-mail message window, make sure HTML formatting is turned on, i.e., Click the Format
menu, then choose Rich Text (HTML). A black dot appears by the command when it is selected.
To change the font, style, and size of text.
You can change the way the text looks for all your messages or you can make changes to selected
text within a message.
To change the text style for all messages.
1. On the Tools menu, click Options.

2. Click the Compose tab, then click the Font Settings button.
To format text within individual messages.
1. Select the text you want to format. To change the font for an entire message, click the Edit
menu, then click Select All.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the buttons for the options you want.
To format a paragraph.
1. Click anywhere in the paragraph, or select the text you want to format.
2. Use either the Formatting toolbar or the commands on the Format menu to change the text.
To Do this
Change the indentation of a paragraph Click the Increase Indent or Decrease

Indent button on the Formatting toolbar.
Add a horizontal line Click where you want the line to appear, and
then click the Insert Horizontal line button
on the Formatting toolbar.
Format text written in Rich Text (HTML) mode Click the Format menu, point to Style, and
then choose an option.
Attaching files to e-mail messages.
Purpose.
√ You can attach a copy of any type of file such as a document, spreadsheet, graphic image or a
presentation to your e-mail messages.
1. Click the New Message button.

2. In the Message Composition dialog box, enter the e-mail address and type in the message to
be sent.
3. Click where you want the file attachment to appear, then click the Insert File button to display
the Insert File dialog box.
4. Locate the folder that contains the file you want to attach, and then click the file.
To select multiple files, hold down the CTRL as you click each of the files.
5. Click the OK button.
The attached file is displayed as an icon in the body of the message. The icon indicates the
file type and name. e.g., Sales Results.xls
6. Click the Send button.
To open or view the attached file.
Documents that contain file attachments display a paper clip image in the view or folder next to
the document file.
Once the document is open, Microsoft Outlook displays an icon representing the attachment.
Note. You must have the application in which the attachment was composed in order to open it.
The MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extension) type of file enables Internet browsers to
access an Internet mail file without prompting the user to specify the program used to create the
attached file.
1. In the Inbox, select the e-mail message that contains the attachment.
2. Double-click the e-mail message to open it.
3. Double-click the icon that represents the attachment.
Deleting an attachment.
1. Open the e-mail message that contains the attachment.

2. To delete the attached file, click the file icon, then press the Delete key.
Organizing E-mail messages.
Purpose.
√ You can use Outlook Express to organize your incoming messages and make it easy to send
mails.
To use your online time efficiently, use Outlook Express to find messages, automatically sort
incoming messages into different folders, keep messages on a mail server, or delete them
entirely.
Organizing the Inbox.
You can organize the messages in your Inbox quickly by sorting them.
To quickly sort messages by Subject, Sender or the Date received, click on the respective column
header. E.g., to sort your messages in alphabetical order by sender, click on From in the column
header.
To create a Mail folder.
1. On the File menu, click New, then choose Folder.

2. Enter the name of the folder in the Name box, e.g., My Own.
3. Select the Inbox folder so that the mail folder created will become a subfolder of the Inbox.
4. You can add details, such as a description of the folder in the Description box, then click OK.
To move or copy a message to another folder.
1. In the message list, select the message (s) you want to move or copy.
2. On the Edit menu, click Move to Folder or Copy to Folder, then select the folder you want
to move or copy the message to.
To delete a mail message.
1. In the message list, select the message.

2. On the toolbar, click the Delete button (or press the Delete key).
Notes.
 To restore a deleted message, open the Deleted Items folder, and then drag the message back
to the Inbox or other folder.
 If you don't want messages to be saved in the Deleted Items folder when you quit Outlook
Express,
1. Click the Tools menu, then click Options.
2. On the Maintenance tab, select the checkbox labeled Empty messages from the
'Deleted Items' folder on exit.
 To manually empty all deleted items,
1. Select the Deleted Items folder.

2. On the Edit menu, click Empty Deleted Items Folder.
Sending a Web page by e-mail.

Purpose.
√ You may find some interesting and useful material on the Internet that you would like to share
with friends and colleagues.
You can send Web pages by e-mail to other people even if the recipients are not connected to
the Internet.
1. Access the Web page you want to send.

2. Click the File menu, point to Send, then click Page By E-mail or Link By E-mail.
3. If necessary, choose the correct profile to use from the Profile dialog box, i.e., Outlook
Express, and click OK.
4. In the Message dialog box, enter the address of the recipient, then click the Send button.
Note. You must have an e-mail account and an e-mail program set up on your computer.
Blocking Unwanted messages.
You can control the mail and news messages you get in Outlook Express . You can block certain
people from sending you mail, you can hide conversations that don't interest you, and you can
guard against being sent damaging code in mail by setting security levels.
To block messages from a sender or domain.
You can block messages from a particular sender or domain.
 The Domain is the name following the @ symbol in an e-mail address.
 Domain - A group of networked computers that share information & resources.
When you block a sender or domain, no e-mail or news message from that sender or domain will
arrive in your Inbox or in the news messages you read.
E-mail from blocked senders goes directly into your Delete folder while Newsgroup messages
from blocked senders are not displayed.
1. From your e-mail Inbox or the list of messages in a newsgroup, select a message from a
sender you want to block.
2. On the Message menu, click Block Sender.
The e-mail address of the sender will appear in the Address box. You can type a different
address or domain in the Address box if you wish.
3. Select the blocking option you want: mail, news, or both kinds of messages.
Important. Blocking a sender applies to standard POP mail only. It does not apply to HTTP mail
(Hotmail) or IMAP messages
Differences between E-mail and General Post office mail.
1). E-mail is computerized, while Post office mail is manually operated.

2). Post office mail is slow, while E-mail is fast & has a wide area of coverage.
3). E-mail is more secure.
Advantages of E-mail.
Electronic mail has several advantages over regular mail.
(i). It is cheap & economical.

It costs almost nothing to transmit an e-mail message over the network, i.e., there is no need
for stamps, envelopes, etc.
(ii). It is secure, i.e., access to a user’s mailbox can be restricted by use of a password.
(iii). It is faster, i.e., mails can be sent instantly.
The delivery of an e-mail message normally takes seconds or minutes, depending on the
distance to the receiver.
(iv). It is efficient, i.e., a message prepared only once can be sent to several people.
(v). It is convenient.
With E-mail, you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and your recipients
respond at their convenient times.
(vi). E-mail is cheaper in terms of the time invested in preparing the message.
The expectations and culture of sending & receiving e-mail are different from that of
sending regular letters. Regular business letters & inter-office memos are expected to be
error-free and formatted according to certain standards. In contrast, most e-mail users
accept less well-formatted messages and slight typographical errors are overlooked. So, less
time is spent perfecting the appearance of the message.
(vii). E-mail can act as a substitute for the Telephone calls, thus allowing the user to avoid
telephone tag (i.e., the process of repeatedly exchanging voice mail messages because you
or the other person may not be available when the other calls).
E-mail can often communicate enough of a message so that the entire “conversation” will
take less time than a phone call.
E-mail is particularly effective for multinational organizations, which have people working in
different time zones around the world.
Disadvantages of E-mail.
(i). The initial installation cost is higher.

(ii). Messages may be lost before they are read due to virus infections.
(iii). Messages may not be kept for future reference due to the high cost of storage, i.e., it
requires regular deletion of messages from the hard disk.
Using the Address Book.
Purpose.
√ The Address Book is a directory of personal details, including e-mail addresses, for the
people to whom you send messages (called Contacts).
It is used to store/keep track of e-mail addresses, mailing addresses, phone numbers, and other
information about your friends and also provides space for notes.
You can store such addresses in the Address Book so as to address mails more easily, i.e.,
each time you want to send e-mail messages, you simply select the names from the list of
addresses.
This will save the time used to enter lists of e-mail addresses as well as help maintain their
accuracy. E.g., an e-mail address like [email protected] can be difficult to remember.
In addition, one can easily make a typing error when typing the address.
The Address Book is accessible from Internet Explorer, Outlook Express and NetMeeting, thus
enabling you to keep one list of addresses that are accessible by various programs.
To add a contact to the Address Book.
1. To open the Address Book, click the Address Book button.

There can be several types of address books in the Address Book dialog box including the
Global Address list and Personal Address Book.
2. In the Show names from the box, select the type of address book you want to use.
The Global Address list is the address book that contains all e-mail addresses for users,
groups, and distribution lists in your organization that you can address messages to. The
Administrator creates and maintains this address book.
The Personal Address Book is the address book used to store personal distribution lists you
frequently address messages to, such as a list of your friends.
3. Click the New Entry button.

4. Specify the entry type of the contact, i.e., whether it is an Internet address or an entry for a
distribution list.
5. Type in the display name for the address as well as the full e-mail address.
6. Complete the dialog box with the rest of the contact details using the other tabs, e.g., Business
or Phone Numbers, then click OK.
The contact address is added to the Address Book.
READING MAIL MESSAGES OFFLINE.
Once you have opened the E-mail program, it is not necessary for you to be connected directly so
that you can read & write your e-mail messages. You may choose to work offline to save on
costs.
When you are offline, Outlook Express downloads mail messages to your local computer. When
you connect (or choose to work online) again, messages in your Outbox are sent, messages you
marked for deletion are removed, and all other actions taken offline are completed at once.
There are 2 situations where it is beneficial to use Outlook Express offline:

(i). If your ISP charges you by the hour or if you have only one phone line. Under these
conditions, you might want to reduce time spent online.
(ii). If you use a Laptop to read your messages while you are traveling or any other time you are
not connected to the Internet.
To set up Outlook Express to reduce online time.
1. On the Tools menu, click Options.

2. On the Connection tab, select Hang up after sending and receiving.
If you connect to an IMAP or HTTP server, click the server name in the folder list, and then make
sure that the items you want to view offline are checked.
This procedure can be used to set up Outlook Express so that it automatically disconnects after
you select Send and Receive from the Tools menu.
You can then read and compose messages offline without incurring charges or tying up a phone
line.
Note. To reconnect to send or receive messages, click the Tools menu, point to Send and
Receive, and then select the option you want.
To read messages while you are away from your Internet connection.
1. On the Tools menu, select Options, then click the General tab.
2. Under the field labeled If my computer is not connected at this time, select Connect only
when not working offline.
If you connect to an IMAP or http server, click the server name in the folder list, make sure
that the items you want to view offline are checked, and then click Sync Account.
3. On the File menu, click Work Offline.
Note. To check the type of account you have, click the Tools menu, and then click Accounts.
Select your e-mail account and then click Properties. The account type is listed on the Advanced
tab.
Viewing and posting to Newsgroups.
What are newsgroups?
A Newsgroup is a collection of messages posted by individuals to a News server (a computer that

can host thousands of newsgroups).
Some newsgroups are "owned" by someone who reviews the postings, can answer questions,
delete inappropriate messages, etc.
Anyone can post messages to a newsgroup. This is because, Newsgroups do not require any kind
of membership or joining fees.
To use newsgroups in Outlook Express, your Internet Service Provider must offer links to a news
server. After you set up an account for the server you want in Outlook Express, you can read and
post messages in any of the newsgroups stored on that news server.
To switch between mail and news reading.
 In the Folders list, click Inbox to go to your e-mail, or click a news server name or specific
newsgroup to visit newsgroups.
To find newsgroups of interest.
1. In the Folders list, click a server name, then click the Newsgroups button.
2. In the Display newsgroups which contain box, type the words you want to search for.
To subscribe to a newsgroup.
Subscribing ensures that the newsgroup is included in your Folders list for easy access.
You can subscribe to a newsgroup in any of the following ways:
(a). When adding a news server, Outlook Express prompts you to subscribe to newsgroups on
that server.
(b). Click a news server name in your Folders list, and then click the Newsgroups button. Select
the newsgroup that you want to subscribe to, and then click the Subscribe button.
Note: When you double-click a name in the Newsgroup list, a subscription is automatically
generated.
(c). When you click a newsgroup, its name appears in your Folders list. Right-click the name, and
then click Subscribe.
To read newsgroup messages.
Go to a newsgroup and look through the message list for a message you want to read (you may
need to scroll).
 To view the message in the preview pane, click the message once.
 To view the message in a separate window, double-click the message in the message list.
To read and send international messages.

Outlook Express can usually display messages in the language in which they were sent. However,
some messages, particularly those from newsgroups, often do not have enough information (or the
information is incorrect) in the header file to display the correct language.
To change the language encoding for a message you are reading.
 In the message window, click the View menu, point to Encoding, and then click the language
encoding you want to use.
To set the default encoding for reading messages.
1. On the Tools menu, click Options. On the Read tab, click Fonts.
2. Select a language at the top, and then click the Set as Default button.
Posting messages to newsgroups.
There are several ways that you can post messages, depending on whether you are posting a new
message or replying to one and how widely you want it distributed.
1. In the Folders list, select the newsgroup you want to post a message to.
2. On the toolbar, click the New Post button.
Note. To send your message to multiple newsgroups on the same news server, click the icon next
to Newsgroups in the New Message dialog box. In the Pick Newsgroups dialog box, hold down
the CTRL key to select multiple newsgroups, and then click Add.
3. Type the Subject of your message. Outlook Express cannot post a message that does not
contain a subject.
4. Compose your message, and then click the Send button.
To reply to a newsgroup message.
1. In the message list, click the message you want to reply to.
2. To reply to the author of the message by e-mail, click the Reply button on the toolbar.
To reply to the whole newsgroup, click the Reply Group button on the toolbar.
3. Type your message, and then click Send.
Note. To view information about a newsgroup message, such as when it was sent, select the
message, click the File menu, and then click Properties.
To prevent newsgroup messages from automatically downloading.
On the Tools menu, click Options.

On the Read tab, clear the following check box: Automatically download messages when
viewing in the Preview Pane.
To view newsgroups efficiently.

View only unread news messages in a newsgroup.
1. Open the newsgroup, click the View menu, point to Current View, and then click Hide Read
Messages.
View the replies to a particular message in a newsgroup.
1. Click the plus sign ( + ) next to the message. The replies to that message appear below it. A
message with its replies is called a "conversation."
To watch a conversation.
In both mail and news, you can watch a conversation that is of particular interest you. A
conversation is an original message and all its replies.
1. In your Inbox or newsgroup message list, select the conversation you wish to watch.
2. On the Message menu, click Watch Conversation.
If your message list's Watch/Ignore column is turned on, the watch icon will appear next to
all the messages of a watched conversation.
READING NEWSGROUP MESSAGES OFFLINE.
Offline newsreading enables you to read newsgroup messages without being connected to the
Internet, saving connection costs.
To do this, you must subscribe to the newsgroup whose messages you want to read offline, mark
it to specify whether you want to see headers or whole messages, and then transfer them to your
computer (synchronize). Once this is done, you can log off from the Internet and then read the
messages at your leisure.
Reading message headers only, gives you the subject, author, and size of the message.
To set up newsgroups for offline news reading.
For newsgroups you subscribe to, you can set up Outlook Express to make messages or headers
available offline by synchronizing. This enables you to read them at your leisure when you are not
connected to the Internet.
Methods of Accessing Computer and Locating Files.
(1). Gopher:
This is a client/server tool that enables the user to locate almost all textual information stored
on Internet servers through a series of easy-to-use or understand, hierarchical menus that
provide point-and-click interfaces.
The Internet has thousands of Gopher server sites throughout the world. Each gopher site
contains its own system of menus listing related topics, local files, and other relevant gopher
sites.
To search for a specific topic or select a related item from a menu, activate the gopher
software. The server will automatically transfer you to the appropriate file on that server or
the selected server wherever it is located in the world. Once on the distant server, you are
presented with more menus of files and Internet addresses of other gopher site servers that
might interest you. You can then move from site to site locating information that you want
anywhere in the world. After finding the information or files you want, you are free to
browse, read them online, or download them onto your own computer for searching for text
that appears in gopher menus.
(2). Archie:
This is a tool for locating data on the Internet that performs keyword searches of an actual
database of documents, software, and data files available for downloading from servers
around the world.
An individual Archie database can list only a small percentage of the files in the world.
However, clicking on the relevant listing from one Archie server will bring you to another
computer system where relevant files are stored. While on the other computer, the Archie
server may provide other relevant references, allowing you to continue your search for
related files, moving from database to database, library to library, until you locate what you
need.
Archie database searching uses the subject keywords entered such as “telecommuting” or
“inflation” to display a list of sites that contain files on that topic. Once you find the files
you want, you may use a file transfer program to download them.
(3). WAIS (Wide Area Information Servers):
This is a tool for locating data on the Internet that require the name of the databases to be
searched based on keywords.
Once you specify specific database names and key identifying words, WAIS searches for the
keywords in all the files in those databases. When the search is completed, you are given a
menu listing all the files that contain your keywords.
(4). The Word Video Web:
The Web is another information retrieval tool similar to gophers, Archie, and WAIS. It is
widely used for commercial purposes on the Net due to the fact that, it is attractive, easy to
use, and helpful in publishing or providing information to anyone interested.
(5). Home Page:
Anyone willing to offer information through the Web must first establish a Home Page (a
WWW text & graphical display that welcomes the user and explains the organization that
has established the page). The Home page will lead the user to other pages.
All the pages of an organization are known as a Website.
Home pages combine text, hypermedia, graphics and sound, unlike the other methods of
locating information on the Net, which are text-based. This means that, home pages can
handle all types of communication, while making it easy to link resources that are far apart.
Graphics allow organizations to communicate more effectively, making their own material
more appealing to the eye, more informative, and easy to understand.
Hypermedia provides a point-and-click connection to related information within the same

document, between documents on the same computer, or to documents located on another
computer anywhere in the world (as long as the computer is connected to the Net, and the
hypermedia connection has been programmed in).
Sound allows some of the Web displays to talk or play music.
Note. The specific hypermedia technology used in the Web is known as Hyperlinks.
Within any web document, there are certain words or graphics that are highlighted (usually
appear bold, in a different colour, underlined, or a combination of these). The highlighted
objects have hyperlinks embedded within them that contain the path to another location
within the same document, a document on the same computer, or a document on another
computer.
Hyperlinks allow the user to move with ease within complex documents or across the
network. If the reader of the document wants more information on the highlighted word,
he/she double-clicks the word, and quickly that other information will be displayed, even if it
is stored in another part of the world.
Advantages of Hyperlinks.
(i). It is easy to use.

(ii). The user is free to jump from place to place following his/her own logic and interest,
and does not have to move according to a static, pre-programmed, linear sequence.
The user moves around almost as easily as a book reader might follow keywords and
jump around an encyclopedia.
To navigate the Web requires a graphics Computer to link to the Internet. The user must also
have a special software tool to navigate the Web known as Web Browser.
BENEFITS FROM THE USE OF THE INTERNET.
1). Reduces the Cost of Communication.
Before the Internet, organizations had to build their own Wide Area Networks or subscribe to
Value-Added Network (VAN) service.
Many organizations find the Internet more cost-effective than building their own networks or
paying VAN subscription fees. Organizations use the Internet to fulfill a wide range of
communication needs. This lowers other communication costs, including their network
management expenses, telephone and Fax costs.
Reduced communication costs are beneficial particularly to small businesses because it
sometimes enables them to compete with larger companies in the markets that would
otherwise be closed to them.
2). Enhances Communication & Co-ordination.
Global companies use the Internet as an important instrument for coordinating their activities.
Such companies have set up internal Web sites to keep employees informed about company
developments. Through the Web, employees are able to see a company Calendar, the
employee Policy manual, product Brochures, interactive Training tools, and even stock quotes.
The Internet has made it easier and less expensive for companies to co-ordinate small staffs
when opening new markets or working in isolated places, because they do not have to build
their own networks.
3). Accelerates the Distribution of Knowledge.
To speed product development and also to react to an emerging problem, information

gathering must be quick and easy.
The Internet is very useful in the modern society, which is increasingly dependent on
knowledge. Organizations are using E-mail and the availability of databases all over the
world to gain access to information in such areas as Business, Science, Law, and Government.
The Internet can quickly link a computer user sitting at a computer screen to mountains of data
(including Graphics) all over the world, which would otherwise be too expensive and too
difficult to get.
4). Improves Customer service and satisfaction.
Organizations can also use the Internet to communicate efficiently to make product
information, ordering and technical support easier and immediately available.
A company can establish a Website on the Internet in order to distribute useful product
information to its customers and product users. It can also use the Internet to give engineering
support to its customers without the involvement of engineering staff.
5). Facilitates Sales and Marketing.
The Internet provides opportunities for firms to market and sell their products in a way that
does not offend others. This is because, the Internet is a passive instrument, i.e., it requires
potential customers to seek out offerings by companies rather than having those companies
actively reach out to potential customers, as is the case in most marketing and advertising.
Retailers update their Web page offerings frequently as required. Suppliers can also update
technical materials used by customers easily. Therefore, the Internet assist buyers and sellers
make contacts.
Firms use their Websites to distribute more marketing information. A firm can include its
Web address in product advertisements and design their site for visitors to browse information
on pricing, press releases on new products, technical manuals and sales brochures.
PROBLEMS FACING THE INTERNET.
1). Lack of Security.
Lack of security is one of the reasons why the Internet, while being widely used to facilitate
transactions, is still in limited use to carry out transactions.
When large amounts of data are stored in electronic form, they are exposed to more kinds of
threats/dangers than when they exist in manual form.
Through data communication networks, information systems in different locations on the

Internet are interconnected. The potential for unauthorized access, abuse or fraud is not
limited to a single location but can occur at any access point in the Internet.
Internet Hackers have found ways of stealing passwords as they pass through one site and use
them to break into computer system at other sites all over the world.
The hackers can get access to company’s strategic business plans, profit reports, product
development information, pricing data, marketing plans, sales contracts, and scientific
research data. Such information is too sensitive and companies are unwilling to have it
accessed by unauthorized people.
2). Technology Problems.
(a). The Internet lacks standards for accessing the net and sending e-mails. A no. of
incompatible ways for accessing the net exist, allowing specific users to perform certain
functions but not others.
(b). The lack of standards also affects the ability of organizations to establish a stable link to
the Internet. As the traffic on the Internet becomes more complex, it can bring problems
if it does not have good technical support.
(c). Many people and organizations are sending so much data through the Net, much of it in
graphics form, such that telecommunication links are already overloaded. Frequent users
are unable to access the net, while those who use the graphics-based Web regularly find
connecting to the intended Server very slow or even almost impossible during busy
times.
(d). Moreover, the growing need for bandwidth due to graphics will only expand as the
transmission of sound and full-motion video expands. All this is raising the cost of using
the Net. Some firms are already discovering that they need more expensive
telecommunications connections, Workstations or higher speed computers with improved
graphics capability, and even Information system specialists with skills related
specifically to the Internet.
(e). Individuals and organizations in less developed countries with poor Telephone lines,
limited hardware and software capacity or Government controls on communication will
not be able to take full advantage of Internet resources.
(f). Due to the fact that there is no a comprehensive method of locating and keeping track of
pages in the World Wide Web (www), Internet users often spend a lot of time in futile
(unsuccessful) searches, despite the many new tools and planned indexes to the Web.
There is no good technology enough to filter/sort out irrelevant information while
allowing people to access the specific information they need.
3). Legal Issues.
Until a greater clarity on several legal issues is obtained, doing business on the Internet will
become unreliable.
Laws governing E-commerce are mostly non-existing or are just being written.
There are several open questions that still exist such as, the legality of E-mail contracts, the
role of electronic signatures, and the application of copyright laws to electronically copied
documents.
4). Anti-Commercial culture.
Initially, the Internet was a scientific and academic tool. As it grew, a strong anti-commercial
culture grew with it.
Internet users have shown themselves unwilling to accept the Internet mail. Many commercial
users also fear that allowing commercial organizations to add very many unasked for
marketing messages will make the Internet E-mail difficult to manage.
Thus, while businesses remain free to use the Internet for E-mail, research, and other forms of
information exchange, they will have to learn new ways to do their marketing on the Internet;
ways that do not offend the other users.
LESSON 15
INTRANET AND EXTRANET
Intranet
What is an Intranet?
 An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of
documents among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).
 Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers
within an organization.
IntranetissysteminwhichmultiplePCsare networkedtobeconnectedtoeachother.
PCsinintranetare notavailbleto the worldoutsideoftheintranet.
UsuallyeachcompanyororganizationshavetheirownIntranetnetworkandmembers/employeesoftha
t companycan accessthe computersintheirintranet.
EachcomputerinIntranetisalsoidentifiedbyaIPAddresswhichisuniqueamongthecomputersinthat
Intranet.
SimilaritiesinInternet&Intranet
Intranetusesthe internetprotocolssuchas TCP/IPandFTP.
Intranetsitesareaccessibleviawebbrowserinsimilarwayaswebsitesininternet.Butonlymemebersof
Intranetnetworkcan
accessintranethostedsites.
In Intranet,owninstantmessengerscan be usedas
similartoyahoomessenger/gtalkovertheinternet.
DifferencesinInternet&Intranet
Internetis generalto PCsalloverthe worldwhere IntranetisspecifictofewPCs.
InternetiswideraccessandprovidesabetteraccesstowebsitestolargepopulcationwhereasIntran
etis restricted.
Internetis notas safe as Intranetas Intranetcan besafelyprivatizedasperthe need.

Extranet:
An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected
users outside the organization.
E.g., a certain university can have an Internet library containing millions of articles, but only make
it available to staff and students at colleges and universities within the country.
To access the library, you must provide a password when you connect to the Internet site.

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COMPILED BY: EDMUND S.

 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic

 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.

- Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to

There are two types/forms of data:

a). Digital (discrete) data:

- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …

Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to

- Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity,

- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.

Comparison between Data and Information.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

- A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small

It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:

Computers can be classified according to the following factors:

1. Physical size & processing power.

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

Areas where supercomputers are used:

 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.

They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.

 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.

 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.

Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.

 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:

1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.

- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.

- Have limited storage capacities.

1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.

- Have limited storage capacities.

Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

- They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

2) Personal computer (PC).

This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the

- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.

- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user

A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &

A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.

Examples of special-purpose computers:

 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.

Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.

A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.