Chapter 1: Introduction to

Materials Science & Engineering

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What is materials science and engineering?

• Why are materials important?

• Why is it important for engineers to understand

materials ?

Chapter 1 - 1
What is Materials Science & Engineering?

• Materials science
– Investigate relationships between structures and
properties of materials
– Design/develop new materials

• Materials engineering
– Create products from existing materials
– Develop materials processing techniques

Chapter 1 - 2
 Why Are Materials Important?
• Materials drive advancements in our society
– Stone Age
– Bronze Age
– Iron Age

• What is today’s material age?

– Silicon (Electronic Materials) Age?
– Nanomaterials Age?
– Polymer Age?

Chapter 1 - 3
 Why is it Important for Engineers to
Understand Materials?
• Products/devices/components that engineers
design are all made of materials

• To select appropriate materials and

processing techniques for specific
applications engineers must
– have knowledge of material properties and
– understand the structure-property relationships

Chapter 1 - 4
 Relationships Among Processing,
Structure, & Properties
• Processing (e.g., cooling rate of steel from high
temperature) affects structure (microstructure)
• Structure in turn effects hardness

Structure (d)
Property
600
Hardness (BHN)

30 μm
500 (c)
Data obtained from Figs. 10.32(a) and
400 (b) 10.33 with 0.4 wt% C composition, and
(a) from Fig. 11.18, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig. 10.19;
4 μm
300 (b) Fig. 9.30; (c) Fig. 10.34; and (d) Fig.
10.22, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. (Figures
30 μm 10.19, 10.22, & 10.34 copyright 1971 by United
200 30 μm States Steel Corporation. Figure 9.30 courtesy
of Republic Steel Corporation.)

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Processing
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)
Chapter 1 - 5
 Types of Materials
• Metals:
– Strong, ductile
– High thermal & electrical conductivities
– Opaque, reflective

• Polymers/plastics: compounds of non-metallic elements

– Soft, ductile, low strengths, low densities
– Low thermal & electrical conductivities
– Opaque, translucent or transparent

• Ceramics: compounds of metallic & non-metallic elements

(oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
– Hard, Brittle
– Low thermal & electrical conductivities
– Opaque, translucent, or transparent

Chapter 1 - 6
 Materials Selection
Engineers often solve materials selection problems.
Procedure:
1. For a Specific Application Determine Required Properties
• Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. From List of Properties Identify Candidate Material(s)

3. Best Candidate Material Specify Processing technique(s)

• To provide required set of properties
• To produce component having desired shape and size
• Example techniques: casting, mechanical forming, welding,
heat treating

Chapter 1 - 7
 Material Property Types

Properties of materials fall into six categories as

follows:
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Thermal
• Magnetic
• Optical
• Deteriorative

Chapter 1 - 8
 Mechanical Properties
Affect of carbon content on the hardness of a
common steel:
Fig. 10.31, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
[Data taken from Metals Handbook: Heat
320 Treating, Vol. 4, 9th edition, V. Masseria
(Managing Editor), 1981. Reproduced by
Brinell hardness

permission of ASM International, Materials Park,

OH.]

240

160

80
0 0.5 1 wt%C

• Increasing carbon content increases hardness of steel.

Chapter 1 - 9
 Electrical Properties
Factors that affect electrical resistivity – for copper:
6 Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
t%Ni [Adapted from: J.O. Linde, Ann Physik 5, 219

5 3 .3 2a (1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson,

Physics of Solids, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill

C u+ Ni
Company, New York, 1970.]
Resistivity, ρ

t%
(10-8 Ohm-m)

4 2 . 16 a t %Ni
+ 2 a
Cu +1 . 1
3 C u
e d
e fo rm % N i
d 2 a t
2 . 1
u +1
C
1 r e ” Cu
“Pu
0
T (°C)
-200 -100 0
• Increasing temperature increases resistivity.
• Increasing impurity content (e.g., Ni) increases resistivity.
• Deformation increases resistivity.
Chapter 1 - 10
 Thermal Properties
Thermal Conductivity – measure of a material’s ability to
conduct heat

400
Thermal Conductivity

300 Fig. 19.4, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(W/m-K)

[Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties

and Selection: Nonferrous alloys and Pure

200 Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker, (Managing

Editor), ASM International, 1979, p. 315.]

100

0
0 10 20 30 40
Composition (wt% Zinc)

• Increasing impurity content (e.g., Zn in Cu) decreases

thermal conductivity.
Chapter 1 - 11
 Thermal Properties (continued)
Highly porous materials are Material used for space
poor conductors of heat shuttle

Courtesy of Lockheed Aerospace Ceramics

Courtesy of Lockheed Missiles and Space

Systems, Sunnyvale, CA

Company, Inc.
100 μm

• Ceramic Fibers: • Demonstration:

– significant void space – low thermal conductivity
– low thermal conductivity of this material

Chapter 1 - 12
 Magnetic Properties
• Magnetic Storage: • Magnetic Permeability
-- Recording medium is vs. Composition:
magnetized by recording -- Adding 3 atomic % Si makes
write head. Fe a better recording medium!
Fe+3%Si

Magnetization
Fe

Magnetic Field
Adapted from C.R. Barrett, W.D. Nix, and
Fig. 20.23, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. A.S. Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering
(Courtesy of HGST, a Western Digital Company.) Materials, Fig. 1-7(a), p. 9, 1973.
(Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.)

Chapter 1 - 13
 Optical Properties
• The light transmittance of some materials depend on their
structural characteristics:
Aluminum oxide Aluminum oxide
Aluminum oxide single
polycrystalline material polycrystalline
crystal (high degree of
(having many small material having some
perfection)—is optically
grains)—is optically porosity—is optically
transparent
translucent opaque
(Specimen preparation, P.A. Lessing)

Chapter 1 - 14
 Deteriorative Properties
• Small cracks formed in steel bar that was simultaneously
stressed and immersed in sea water
- Form of stress-corrosion cracking

Cracks

Fig. 17.21, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(from Marine Corrosion, Causes, and Prevention, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975.)
Chapter 1 - 15
 Deteriorative Properties (cont.)
• For stress-corrosion cracking, rate of crack growth is
diminished by heat treating
Adapted from Fig. 11.20(b), R.W.

“as-received” Hertzberg, "Deformation and

Crack Growth Rate (m/s)

10-8 Fracture Mechanics of Engineering

Materials" (4th ed.), p. 505, John
Wiley and Sons, 1996. (Original
source: Markus O. Speidel, Brown
“heat treated” Boveri Co.)

10-10

load
For Aluminum alloy 7178 that is stressed while immersed in a
saturated aqueous NaCl solution, crack growth rate is reduced by
heat treating (160C for 1 h prior to testing).
Chapter 1 - 16
 Example of Materials Selection:
Artificial Hip Replacement

• Anatomy of a
human hip joint and
adjacent skeletal
features

Chapter 1 - 17
 Materials: Artificial Hip Replacement
(cont.)
Hip joint problems can be painful and disabling
• Joint deterioration (loss of cartilage) as one ages
• Joint fracture

arrows point to
ends of fracture line

X-ray of normal hip joint X-ray of fractured hip joint

Chapter 1 - 18
 Materials: Artificial Hip Replacement
(cont.)

• Damaged and diseased hip joints can be

replaced with artificial ones
• Materials requirements for artificial joints
– Biocompatible – minimum rejection by surrounding
body tissues
– Chemically inert to body fluids
– Mechanical strength to support forces generated
– Good lubricity and high wear resistance between
articulating surfaces

Chapter 1 - 19
 Materials: Artificial Hip Replacement
(cont.)
Head
• Femoral stem — inserted (Ball)
into top of hip bone (femur)
• Head (Ball) — affixed to
Liner & Shell
femoral stem (Acetabular)
• Shell — attached to pelvis Femoral
Stem
• Liner — into which head fits

Photograph courtesy of
Zimmer, Inc., Warsaw, IN,
USA.

Chapter 1 - 20
 Materials: Artificial Hip Replacement
(cont.)
• Materials used
- Femoral stem — titanium or CoCrMo alloy
- Head (Ball) — CoCrMo alloy or Al2O3 (ceramic)
- Shell — titanium alloy
- Liner — polyethylene (polymer) or Al2O3 (ceramic)

Chapter 1 - 21
 Materials: Artificial Hip
Replacement (continued)

Acetabular
Head shell and liner
(Ball)

Schematic diagram of an X-ray of an implanted

artificial hip artificial hip
Chapter 1 - 22
 SUMMARY
• Appropriate materials and processing decisions
require engineers to understand materials and their
properties.
• Materials' properties depend on their structures;
structures are determined by how materials are
processed
• In terms of chemistry the three classifications of
materials are metals, ceramics, and polymers
• Most properties of materials fall into the following six
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic,
optical, and deteriorative.
• An important role of engineers is that of materials
selection.

Chapter 1 - 23
 Chapter 2: Atomic Structure &
Interatomic Bonding

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What characteristics of atoms/molecules
promote interatomic/intermolecular bonding?
• What types of interatomic/intermolecular
bonds exist ?
• What properties of materials depend on the
magnitude of interatomic/intermolecular bonds ?

Chapter 1 - 24
Atomic Structure (Freshman Chem.)
• atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg
protons
}
neutrons 1.67 x 10 -27
kg
• atomic number = # of protons in nucleus of atom
= # of electrons in neutral
species

• atomic mass unit = amu = 1/12 mass of 12C

A = Atomic wt = wt of 6.022 x 1023 molecules or

atoms
1 amu/atom = 1 g/mol
C 12.011
H 1.008
Chapter 1 - 25
etc.
 Atomic Structure (cont.)

• Some of the following properties are

determined by an atom's electronic
structure:
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical

Chapter 1 - 26
 Electronic Structure
• Electrons have wave-like and particle-like
characteristics.
• Two wave-like characteristics are
– Electron position in terms of probability density
– shape, size, orientation of probability density
determined by quantum numbers

– Quantum # Designation/Values
n = principal (shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, 4,
etc.)
l = azimuthal (subshell) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n-1)
ml = magnetic (no. of orbitals) 1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)
ms = spin ½, -½

Chapter 1 - 27
 Electron Energy States
Electrons...
• have discrete energy values
• tend to occupy lowest available energy states

4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
Chapter 1 - 28
 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
• Most elements: Electron configurations not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s1
Helium 2 1s2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s2 2s1
Beryllium 4 1s2 2s2
Boron 5 1s2 2s2 2p1
Carbon 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
... ...
Neon 10 1s2 2s2 2p6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Magnesium 12 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Aluminum 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
... ...
Argon 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 10 4s2 4p6 (stable)

• Why not stable? Valence (outer) shell usually not

completely filled.
Chapter 1 - 29
 Electron Configurations
• Valence electrons – those in outer unfilled
shells
• Filled shells are more stable – require more
energy to gain or lose electrons
• Valence electrons available for bonding and
tend to determine an atom’s chemical
properties

– example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2 valence electrons

Chapter 1 - 30
 Electronic Configurations (cont.)
ex: Fe (atomic # =26)
Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons
3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
Chapter 1 - 31
 The Periodic Table
• Elements in each column: Similar valence electron structure

inert gases
give up 1e-
give up 2e-

accept 2e-
accept 1e-
give up 3e-

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions. Chapter 1 - 32
 Electronegativity
• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Chapter 1 - 33
 Ionization Process
metal atom + nonmetal atom

donates accepts
electrons electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities
ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4
[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne] [Ne]

Chapter 1 - 34
 Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction

Chapter 1 - 35
 Ionic Bonding (cont.)
• Energy – minimum energy most stable
– Net energy = sum of attractive and repulsive energies
– Equilibrium separation when net energy is a
minimum A B
EN = EA + ER = - +
r rn
Repulsive energy ER

Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN
Fig. 2.10(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

Attractive energy EA

Chapter 1 - 36
 Ionic Bonding (cont.)
Predominant bonding in Ceramics
Examples:
NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Chapter 1 - 37
 Covalent Bonding
• Similar electronegativities  share electrons
• Bonds involve valence electrons – normally s and p
orbitals are involved
• Example: H2
H2

Each H: has 1 valence e-,

needs 1 more H H
Electronegativities
are the same.
shared 1s electron shared 1s electron
from 1st hydrogen from 2nd hydrogen
atom atom

Fig. 2.12, Calliser & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 1 - 38
Covalent Bonding: Bond Hybrization
• Carbon can form sp3 hybrid
orbitals

Fig. 2.14, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Adapted from J.E. Brady and F. Senese, Chemistry:
Matter and Its Changes, 4th edition. Reprinted with
permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Fig. 2.13, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 1 - 39
 Covalent Bonding (cont.)
Hybrid sp3 bonding involving carbon
Example: CH4
C: each has 4 valence electrons,
needs 4 more
H: each has 1 valence electron,
needs 1 more

Electronegativities of C and H
are similar so electrons are
shared in sp3 hybrid covalent Fig. 2.15, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
bonds. (Adapted from J.E. Brady and F. Senese, Chemistry:
Matter and Its Changes, 4th edition. Reprinted with
permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Chapter 1 - 40
 Metallic Bonding
• Electrons delocalized to form an “electron cloud”

Fig. 2.19b, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 1 - 41
 Mixed Bonding
• Most common mixed bonding type is Covalent-
Ionic mixed bonding

% ionic character = x (100%)

where XA & XB are electronegativities of the two

elements participating in the bond
Ex: MgO XMg = 1.2
XO = 3.5

Chapter 1 - 42
 Secondary Bonding
Arises from attractive forces between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2
clouds H2 H2

+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding bonding

• Permanent dipoles
secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ -

secondary
-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl

-ex: polymer s ec on
d a ry b
ond i n linear polymer molecule
g

Chapter 1 - 43
 Properties Related to Bonding I:
Melting Temperature (Tm)
• Bond length, r • Melting Temperature, Tm
Energy
r

• Bond energy, Eo ro
r
Energy smaller Tm

unstretched length
ro larger Tm
r
Eo= The larger Eo, the higher Tm
“bond energy”
Chapter 1 - 44
 Properties Related to Bonding II:
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
•
( α )
Coefficient of thermal expansion, α
l
l
length, Lo ΔL
= αl ( T2 - T1)
unheated, T1 Lo
ΔL
heated, T2

The smaller Eo, the larger αl.

unstretched length • Increase in bond length is due to

Energy

ro asymmetry of the E vs. r curve. This

r results in an increase in al.
Eo
larger αl • As E0 increases this asymmetry
decreases.
Eo smaller αl
Chapter 1 - 45
 Summary: Properties Related to
Bonding Type and Bonding Energy
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): high Tm
large E
small αl

Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate αl

Polymers Weak bond energy (between chains)

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding responsible for
most physical properties
s ec on low Tm
d a ry b
ond i n
g
small E
large αl
Chapter 1 - 46
 SUMMARY
• A material’s chemical, electrical, thermal, and optical
properties are determined by electronic configuration.
• Valence electrons occupy the outermost unfilled
electron shell.
• Primary bonding types include covalent, ionic, and
metallic bonding.
• Secondary or van der Waals bonds are weaker than
the primary bonding types.
• The percent ionic character of a covalent-ionic mixed
bond between two elements depends on their
electronegativities.

Chapter 1 - 47
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 1 - 48