www.tntextbooks.

in

2.4.6 Liquid insulating materials of voice and data. Optical disk recording
a) Mineral insulating oils with semi conductor, laser playback are
replacing the conventional piezo electric
These oils are obtained from distillation pickups.
of crude petroleum. It has high oxidation
resistance and good thermal stability.
2.4.9 Optical materials and their
This oil is used as an insulator and cooling
agent in a transformer (winding and core). application

Technology Application
b) Synthetic insulating oils
1. Optical
Compared to mineral oil, these oils are very communication
cheap and inflammable. Askarel is used
i) Wave guides To guide the light inside
as coolant in High Voltage transformer the fibre by total internal
(upto 110° C) Aroclors, sovoland sovtol reflection (eg. optic fibre
are other synthetic insulating oils. cable)
To modulate the intensity or
phase of light by an electric
2.4.7 Gaseous insulating
field / magnetic field /
materials ultrasonic waves
a) Air ii) O
 ptical To do fast switching
It is an important insulating material modulator To produce light
available in nature used in HT lines and
capacitor. iii) Optical
switches
b) Nitrogen iv) Optical
source
It is chemically inert, prevent oxidation
and reduce deterioration. It is used in 2. Energy To convert light energy
oil filled transformers, capacitors and in convertors into electrical energy (solar
panel, silicon, selenium
cables under pressure.
sulphate)

c) Inert Gases 3 T
 hermal To detect thermal
energy radiation
They are used in electronic tubes and detectors
discharge tubes as insulators. 4 D
 isplay To display electrical
device signal in the visual (eg
2.4.8 Optical materials LED, LASER)
Optical materials are currently important  ptical fiber To measure mechanical
5 O
for communication. In this, an entire sensor quantities like displacement,
network of optical fibre, LED’s, LASER and acceleration, pressure &
detectors were installed for transmission electrical quantities likes
field strength, current

UNIT 02 Engineering Materials 23

 www.tntextbooks.in

FIG 2.6 Examples of optical fibres

2.5 Conclusion
In this unit, we have gained the knowledge about the properties of engineering materials,
classification of engineering materials and the conducting and insulating materials were
updated with the sources provided.

Activities

1. Collect any 15 insulating materials?

Glossary

Engineering materials ப�ொறியியல் ப�ொருட்கள்

Metal alloy உல�ோக கலவை
Stiffness விறைப்புத்தன்மை
Elasticity நெகிழ்வுத்தன்மை
Plasticity உருமாறும் தன்மை
Ductility கம்பியாக நீளும் தன்மை
Brittleness ந�ொறுங்கும் தன்மை
Toughness கெட்டிப்புத் தன்மை
Malleability தகடாகும் தன்மை
Creep த�ொய்வு
Fatique ந�ொந்தக் களைப்பு

24 UNIT 02 Engineering Materials

 www.tntextbooks.in

Evaluation

PART A (1 Mark) 6. Which one of the following is an

organic material ________
Choose the correct answer
a) Zinc
1. Steel is an example for________
b) Iron
a) Non metal
c) Silicon carbide
b) Ferrous metal
d) Wood
c) Non-Ferrous metal
7. Shape and density are properties of
d) Alloy metal materials is known as _____
2. Which one of the following is an a) Physical
alloy __________
b) Chemical
a) Cast iron
c) Mechanical
b) Copper
d) Electrical
c) Brass
8. Which state of material resists tension,
d) Platinum compression and shear stress?
3. Which of the following are the a) Gaseous
thermal properties of materials?
b) Liquid
a) Fatigue
c) Solid
b) Specific heat
d) Heat
c) Thermal conductivity
9. Which of the following metals are
d) Creep both malleable and ductile_________
4. Zinc is an example of ________ a) Copper
a) Non metal b) Cast iron
b) Ferrous metal c) Porcelain
c) Non-ferrous metal d) Zinc
d) Alloy 10. The following list gives the four metals
5. Refractive index and reflectivity are Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Aluminium (Al)
properties of material is known as and Copper (Cu) arrange the metals in
________________ the increasing order of resistivity.
a) Mechanical a) Ag, Cu, Au, Al
b) Thermal b) Au, Ag, Cu, Al
c) Chemical c) Ag, Au, Cu, Al
d) Optical d) Cu, Ag, Au, Al

UNIT 02 Engineering Materials 25

 www.tntextbooks.in

11 Aluminium is found ______ PART C (5 Mark)

percentage of earth crust
Answer the questions not
a) 7.28
exceeding one page
b) 8.27
1. Explain the various properties of
c) 7.82
engineering materials.
d) 8.72
2. Tabulate the applications of optical
12 Which one of the following is used materials and technology.
as energy convertor in optical 3 Explain the types of conducting
materials? materials.
a) Optic fibre cable
4 Compare the properties of copper and
b LED aluminium
c) LASER
d) Solar panel PART D (10 Mark)
13 Most widely used conducting Answer the questions not
materials are____ exceeding two page
a) Gold and silver
1. Explain the mechanical properties of
b) Copper and aluminium materials.
c) Copper and silver 2. Explain the classifications of
d) Gold and platinum engineering materials.
3. Explain the classifications of
PART B (3 Mark) insulating materials.
Answer the questions in briefly
1. List out the broad classification of the Reference Book
properties of engineering materials.
2. Write short notes on types of metals. 1. ‘An introduction to Electrical
Engineering Materials’ by Dr. C.S.
3. Differentiate Thermo setting plastic
Indulkar and Dr. S. Thiruvengadam,
and Thermo plastic.
4th edition, S. Chand & company.
4. State the different properties of
material.
5. Write down the thermal properties Reference Internet Source
of materials.
6. What is meant by optical properties 1. https://www.electrical4u.com
and give some examples?
7. State the factor to be considered
for the selection of materials for
engineering applications.

26 UNIT 02 Engineering Materials

 www.tntextbooks.in

03

UNIT
DC Machines

learning objective
In this unit, the students can enable to:
„ Understand the various parts of DC machines
„ Know about the principle of operation of DC machine
„ Know about the applications of DC machines

table of contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Construction of DC machines
3.3 DC generators
3.4 DC motor
3.5 Conclusion

3.1 Introduction DC machines which are mostly used in

modern scenario.
DC machines are electro mechanical
energy conversion devices which functions The electrical machines functions
as generators which converts mechanical on AC supply are called AC machines.
energy to electrical energy. It can also Functions on DC supply are called DC
operate as DC motors, taking electrical machines. In this unit, we will discuss the
energy from DC supply and converts topics connected to DC machines.
to mechanical energy. DC motors are DC machines are classified into
widely used in electric traction, cranes, two types:
etc. The extension of these DC machines
1. DC generator
leads to the development of brushless
2. DC motor
27 27
 www.tntextbooks.in

3.2 Construction of DC 2. Pole shoes spread out the flux in the

machines air gap uniformly.
3. It supports the exciting coils (or)
The construction of the DC generator
field coils.
and DC motor are same. Hence the DC
generator can be treated as DC motor. 4. It is made up of cast-iron or cast-
The construction of a 4-pole DC machine steel.
is given in the fig 3.1.
ii) Field winding
All DC machines have mainly two parts:
The field winding is placed on the pole core.
1. Stator (outer stationary part) It is made up of aluminium or copper. Its
2. Rotor (inner rotating part) function is to carry the current and produce
the magnetic flux. The pole structure of a
The stator consists of Yoke or Magnetic DC machines is shown in fig 3.1.
frame, poles, pole shoe, field winding.
Rotor has the following parts:
„ Armature – Armature core, Armature
winding
„ Commutator – Brushes,
„ Bearing, end plates, shafts

3.2.1 Yoke
1. It provides mechanical support to
the poles and acts as a protecting FIG 3.1 Yoke and Poles
cover for the whole machine.
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced 3.2.3 Armature system
by the poles.
It is further divided into two parts namely:

3.2.2 Field system 1. Armature core

2. Armature winding
Field system consists of two main parts
namely poles and field winding. i) Armature core

It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its

i) Poles
outer periphery and is mounted on the
Each pole is divided into two parts, shaft and is used to house the armature
namely: conductors in the slot. It is made of cast-
1. Pole core steel laminations to reduce the eddy
current loss.
2. Pole shoe
The functions of pole core and pole ii) Armature slots and windings
shoe are:
1. Pole core carries field winding which The armature windings are placed into
is necessary to produce the flux. the slots on the armature surface. When
28 UNIT 03 DC Machines
 www.tntextbooks.in

the armature rotates, emf is induced in 3.3.1 P

 rinciple of operation of a
the armature conductors. The ends of DC Generator
the coils are soldered with commutator
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
segments. These segments are made up of
induction, ‘when a conductor is rotated in
copper materials.
a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of flux
lines were bisects and dynamically induced
3.2.4 Commutator emf is produced can be seen in fig. 3.3. The
The emf induced in the armature conductor emf causes a current flow when the circuit
is alternating in nature. This alternating is closed. The direction of the current can
emf is made into unidirectional by means be known with the help of Fleming’s Right-
of a device called as commutator. It is hand rule.
made up of copper segments. The basic requirements for the
dynamically induced emf are:
3.2.5 Brushes and bearings 1. A static magnetic field
The function of brushes is to collect 2. A conductor or coils
current from commutator. It is made 3. Relative motion between the magnetic
up of carbon or graphite in the shape field and the conductors.
of rectangular block. These brushes are
housed in brush-holders usually of box- 0° 1
A
type. Ball bearings are used because it is 8 f 2
reliable, but for heavy duty machines, D
roller bearing is preferred. The structure B
is shown in fig 3.2 7
a
3

N C
S

6 4

a 5
b

FIG 3.2 Poles and armature of DC machines.

e.m.f 5 6 7 8 9
10
3.3 DC Generator 1 2 3 4

A DC generator is a rotating machine

that supplies an electrical output with One cycle
unidirectional voltage and current. The q
basic principle of operation is same as
FIG.3.3 Principle of EMF generation
that of synchronous generator.
UNIT 03 DC Machines 29
 www.tntextbooks.in

3.3.2 Elementary DC Generator At this position, the plane of the coil is

Consider a single-turn rectangular parallel to the lines of flux. Now, the flux
copper coil ABCD rotating clockwise linked with the coil is minimum, but rate
in a magnetic field provided by N and S of change of flux linkage is maximum.
magnets (or) electromagnets as shown Therefore, at this position emf induced in
in fig 3.4. The two ends of the coil are the coil is maximum. On further rotation
joined to two split-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which the value of generated emf continues to
are insulated. Two collecting brushes (of decrease from maximum to minimum
carbon or copper) press against the split- value.
rings. Their function is to collect the At position 5, where θ = 180 degree,
current produced in the coil and to carry the generated emf is reduced to zero. The
it to the external load resistance R. The magnitude of emf with respect to the coil
rotating part is called as ‘armature’ and position is represented in fig 3.3. from
the magnets as “field magnets” or “poles”. position 5 to position 7 (180 degrees to
The coil is rotated in clockwise direction 270 degrees), the induced emf value starts
at a uniform magnetic field. again from zero to maximum and from
At position 1, where θ = 0 degrees, position 7 to positon1 (from 270 degrees
the plane of the coil is perpendicular to to 360 degrees) maximum to zero in
the direction of lines of the flux. Now, the opposite direction.
flux linked with the coil is maximum, but In this way the generated emf goes
the rate of change of flux is minimum. on one cycle as alternating emf. The two
So, no emf is induced in the coil. At the halved split-rings make the bidirectional
starting position the emf induced is zero. emf into unidirectional emf to behave as
When the coil is rotated further, DC generator. This set up is shown in fig
the rate of change of flux linkage increases 3.4. In the first half revolution current
up to position 3, where θ = 90 degrees. flows along the path A-B-a-M-L-b-C-
D-A, (fig 3.4a). The coil in the second half

D A

A D

C B

emf
B C

+ – + –
a b b a
1 2 1 2

0 90° 180° 270° 360°

M L M L q

(a) (b)

FIG.3.4 AC into DC waveform

30 UNIT 03 DC Machines
 www.tntextbooks.in

rotation, the induced currents is reversed. 3.3.4 Types of DC Generator

But the positions of brushes ‘a and b’ are DC generators are classified according
also reversed so that current through the to the manner in which field windings
load remains the same direction, that is are connected. The process of giving DC
the loop D-C-b-M-L-a-B-A-D (fig 3.4b). voltage to the field winding for producing
The device making the alternating supply magnetic field is called field excitation.
into unidirectional supply is by means of The generators are classified based on the
a device called ‘commutator’. excitation, as:
1. Separately excited DC generator
3.3.3 EMF equation of DC
In separately excited DC generator,
generators
the excitation to the field winding
Let Ø = flux in weber is given by an external DC supply as
Z = no. of armature conductors shown in Fig 3.5
N = speed in RPM
P = no. of poles
A = no. of parallel paths
(A=P) - for lap winding
(A=2) - for wave winding
FIG 3.5 Separately excited DC generator
According to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, the value of 2. Self-excited DC generator
generated EMF,
In this type of DC generators, the
dØ generation of emf is due to its
EMF, Eg =
dt property of residual flux or residual
magnetism present in the field
Flux cut/conductor in one revolution for winding. They are mainly of three
‘P’ poles ‘dØ’ = ØP types:
a) DC series generator
The time for one revolution ‘dt’= 60 .
N b) DC shunt generator
The value of induced EMF per coductor, c) DC compound generator
Eg
dØ ØP ØPN a) DC series generator
= = =
dt 60 60 In DC series generators the field
N winding (Rse) is connected in series
For Z = Number of conductors with the armature winding (R a).
A = Parallel path Therefore, the series current (Ise) is
P = No of poles equal to the armature current (Ia)
and the load current (lL), as shown
Eg =
θ ZN P
X volts
in the fig 3.6
60 A

UNIT 03 DC Machines 31
 www.tntextbooks.in

Rse IL short shunt generator based on the field

winding connections. In long shunt
compound generator, the shunt field
+ winding is connected in parallel with the
series combination of series field winding
Eg
Ra
Ia V LOAD and armature winding. (fig 3.8a)
– In short shunt compound generator,
the series field winding is connected in series
with the parallel combination of armature
and shunt field winding. (Fig 3.8b)
FIG 3.6 DC Series generator
Ish IL

The current equation is Ia = IL = Ise Rse

The Voltage equation is Eg = V + Ia (R a+Rse) Ia

+
V = Load voltage Rsh
V LOAD
Eg

Ra
b) DC shunt generator
–
In shunt generator the field winding
is across (shunt) the armature
winding. Here the armature current FIG 3.8 (a) DC Long shunt
(Ia) is the sum of shunt field current
Rse
(Ish) and load current (IL) as shown Ish IL

in Fig 3.7
Ia
Ish IL
+
Eg
Rsh Ra V LOAD
+
–
Eg Ia
Rsh V LOAD
Ra
–

FIG 3.8 (b) Short shunt compound generator

FIG 3.7 DC Shunt generator

Where,
The current equation is Ia = IL + Ish Ia = Armature current
The voltage equation is Eg = V + IaR a R a = Armature resistance
IL = Load current
c) DC compound generator
Ish = Shunt field current
These types of generators are again Isc = Series field current
classified into long shunt generator and

32 UNIT 03 DC Machines
 www.tntextbooks.in

Rse = Series field resistance iii) Used for regenerative braking of

Rsh = Shunt field resistance DC locomotives.
2. DC shunt generators
VL = Load voltage
i) In shunt generator, terminal
Eg = Generated voltage from armature.
voltage is more or less constant.
So these are used for supplying
Universal motors are known to over-
speed, perhaps dangerously and loads needing constant voltage.
destructively, when run with no load. ii) In Electroplating
This article deals with different methods of iii) In Battery charging purpose.
universal electric motor speed control.
iv) As Exciters for AC generators.
A motor which can be operated either on DC
or on single phase AC is 3. DC compound generators
called a universal motor. i) By means of compound generator
On both AC and DC, it
it is possible to give constant
gives approximately the
same speed and output.
voltage at the line end by proper
Universal motors often compounding.
run at dangerously high speed when operated ii) Differentially, compound
at no load. This means that motor speed will generator may be used for
be low at full load, but the speed of the motor welding purpose.
will start increasing as the load on the motor
decreases. Finally at no load, the motor will iii) They are used to supply power to
run at very high speed (perhaps about 20,000 railway circuits, elevator motors
rpm in some cases) and cannot make to run etc.
at less than about 2,000 rpm. The speed of
4. Separately Excited Generators
universal motor varies just like that of a DC
series motor. Being a series wound motor, it These generators are used for:
has a high starting torque and variable speed i) Supplying DC motors whose
characteristics, and if the motor is started
speed is to be varied widely.
at no load, due to its high starting torque it
will attain high speed quickly. Thus it is not ii) Where a wide range of DC voltage
advisable to start a universal motor at no load. is required for testing purpose.

3.4 DC Motor
3.3.5 Applications of DC 3.4.1 Principle of operation of DC
generator motor
1. DC series generators An electric motor is a machine which
i) They are used for series arc converts electrical energy into mechanical
lighting energy. Its action is based on the principle
that when a current-carrying conductor is
ii) They are used as boosters for the
placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
purpose of compensating the
experiences a mechanical force. The
drop in voltage in the lines on
direction of this force is given by Fleming’s
loading.
left-hand rule and magnitude is given by;

UNIT 03 DC Machines 33
 www.tntextbooks.in

F = BIl (N) According to Fleming’s left hand rule,

B = f lux density due to the flux keep the forefinger, middle finger and
produced by the field winding thumb of the left hand perpendicular to
one another as in fig.3.9. The forefinger
I= M
 agnitude of current passing indicates the direction of the magnetic
through the conductor field (B), the middle finger indicates the
l=A
 ctive length of the conductor direction of current (I) in the conductor,
and the thumb indicates to the direction
In construction, there is no difference of motion (F) of the conductor.
between DC generator and DC motor. In
fact, the DC machine can be interchanged
3.4.3 Principle of operation of DC
as a generator or as a motor. In generator
motor
the input is mechanical energy by a prime
mover and the output is voltage, while in In principle and design, a DC motor is the
a DC motor the input is electrical energy reverse process of DC generator.
and it produces rotating torque as output. Consider a single conductor placed
in a magnetic field as shown in fig 3.10.
3.4.2 Fleming’s left hand rule The two diagrams indicate the direction
of magnetic fluxes considering separately.
Conductor Motion of the conductor The resultant force takes place in a DC
motor is clearly shown in the fig 3.10
A steady current is passed through
N S the armature coil from the commutator and
the brushes are arranged so that reverse
the current for every half revolution.
Direction of current
Direction of When a coil, carrying a current is placed
lines of flux
in a magnetic field, it experiences forces,
Motion of the conductor
as per Fleming’s left-hand rule, which
Direction of the
lines of flux turn to a direction perpendicular to the
field and the current.
Direction of current The fig 3.11 (a) shows the upper
side of the conductor, the magnetizing
FIG 3.9 Fleming’s left hand rule forces of the field due to the current is

Flux by
conductor
Main Flux
Conductor

S
N
N S

Current carrying
conductor

FIG 3.10 Resultant force developed

34 UNIT 03 DC Machines
 www.tntextbooks.in

N S N S

FIG 3.11 (a) FIG 3.11 (b)

N S

FIG 3.11 (c)

FIG 3.11 Torque development in DC Motors

progressive while on the lower side it is 3.4.4 Back EMF of DC Motor (Eb)
retrogressive. The result is to increase the When the armature of a DC motor rotates
flux density into the region directly above in the magnetic field, the armature
the conductor and to reduce flux density conductor cuts the magnetic flux.
below the conductor. Hence an emf will be induced in the
If the current is reversed in the conductor. According to Faraday’s law of
conductor, the strengthening of flux electromagnetic induction, the induced
lines occur below the conductor and the emf acts in opposite direction to the
conductor will be pushed upwards as applied voltage and it is referred as the
shown in fig. 3.11(b). back emf Eb.
As above, one of the coil side ‘A’ The back EMF is given by,
will be forced to move downward and ‘B’ φ ZN P
moves upward. These two forces are equal Eb = × volts
60 A
in magnitude and opposite to each other
as in fig. 3.11(c). These forces make the which is same as that emf induced in a DC
armature to rotate through the two ends generator.
by the help of bearings. But practically, a The relationship between the
DC machine will have multiple conductors current, back emf and the applied voltage
and each conductor will be experiencing for a dc shunt motor is given by,
a force F=BIL Newton. These forces
E b = V − Ia R a
collectively produce a driving torque
which sets the armature r­otating. The
machine is then said to be motoring.

UNIT 03 DC Machines 35