Machine Element - I

Chapter 2
Failure Prevention and Stress Concentrations
By: Mekdes Tse.
 Introduction
Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has become
permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry; has had its reliability
downgraded; or has had its function compromised, whatever the reason.
In this chapter our attention is focused on the predictability of permanent
distortion or separation.
How can one use a given data to design against both static and dynamic
loads?
1. (a) Failure of a truck
drive-shaft spline due to
corrosion fatigue.
(b) Direct end view of
failure
 Cont.
3. Failure of an overhead-
pulley retaining bolt on a
weightlifting machine. A
manufacturing error caused a
gap that forced the bolt to
take the entire moment load.

2. Impact failure of a lawnmower 4. Valve-spring

blade driver hub. The blade failure caused by
impacted a surveying pipe marker. spring surge in an
oversped engine.
N.B: The photographs exemplify the The fractures exhibit
need of the designer to be well-versed the classic 45◦ shear
in failure prevention. failure
 Stress Concentration
• Stress concentration is a highly localized effect and it may be due to a surface scratch.
• Stress concentration is the increase in stress near cracks, sharp corners, holes and other
irregularities in a body due to sudden change in its geometry.
• If the material is ductile and the load static, the design load may cause yielding in the critical
location in the notch. This yielding can involve strain strengthening of the material and an
increase in yield strength at the small critical notch location.
• Since the loads are static and the material is ductile, that part can carry the loads satisfactorily
with no general yielding. In these cases the designer sets the geometric (theoretical) stress
concentration factor to unity.
 Cont.
For example,
• A load of 20 kip induces a tensile stress of
20 kpsi in the shank as depicted at point A
in Fig. At the critical location in the fillet the
stress is 40 kpsi, and the SCF is
K = / = 40/20 = 2.
• A load of 30 kip induces a tensile stress of
30 kpsi in the shank at point B. The fillet
stress is still 40 kpsi (point D), and the SCF
K = / = /σ = 40/30 = 1.33.
 Cont.
• A load of 30 kip induces a tensile stress of 30 kpsi in the shank at point B.
The fillet stress is still 40 kpsi (point D), and the SCF K = / = /σ = 40/30 =
1.33.
• At a load of 40 kip the induced tensile stress (point C) is 40 kpsi in the
shank. At the critical location in the fillet, the stress (at point E) is 40 kpsi.
The SCF K = K = / = /σ = 40/40 = 1.

When using this rule for ductile materials with static loads, be careful to assure yourself
that the material is not susceptible to brittle fracture (see Sec. 5–12) in the environment of
use. The usual definition of geometric (theoretical) stress-concentration factor for normal
stress and shear stress is
 1. Failure prevention from static loading
 A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.
 To be stationary, the force or couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or
points of application, and direction.
 A static load can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a
bending load, a torsional load, or any combination of these.
 To be considered static, the load cannot change in any manner.

Static Strength
Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should have available the
results of a great many strength tests of the particular material chosen.
Failure of the part would endanger human life, or the part is made in extremely
large quantities; consequently, an elaborate testing program is justified during
design.
 1.1 Design for static load

1. Direct load
2. Bending load From Blackboard

3. Torsional load

From Blackboard
• Example-1
• Example-2
• Example-3
 1.2 Principal stresses for various load combinations
• The fig. shows a stress element on which normal stresses , , and
shear stress act. Let us cut this element at an angle ϴ to the x-axis
with the result shown in fig. b.
• On this inclined plane, we have
1. Normal stress,
2. Tangential stress, τ
 Cont.
• These are given as,

If we orient ‘ϴ’ to a certain angle, we’ll get a plane on which only normal stresses
act, i.e, no tangential stress is present.
A plane where only normal stresses act, with no shear stress acting is called
principal plane. The normal stress acting on this plane is called principal stress.
Such a plane corresponds to the value of ϴ which satisfies
 Cont.

There are two possible values of ϴ that satisfy this equation. When these ϴ values exist
they represent principal planes. Substituting this value of 2ϴ in equation (1), we have
two principal stresses as,
Maximum shear stress is given by,

Principal stresses for different loading conditions

1. Axial load
2. Bending load
3. Torsional load Details on
Blackboard
4. Axial and bending loads
5. Axial and torsion loads
6. Bending and torsion loads
7. Axial, bending, and torsion loads
 General procedures to find principal stresses

1. Find direct/bending/shear stresses as per the loading given

2. Algebraically all direct stress and bending are given
3. Treat separately. Do not add it with bending stress or direct
stress
4. Use and in the principal stress equation.
 Example 1
A rectangular element is subjected to a biaxial stress state with a normal
stress of 20 MPa acting in the positive x-direction, a normal stress of 7 MPa
acting in the positive y-direction, and a shear stress of 4 MPa. Determine the
following:
• The magnitudes of the principal stresses (σ₁ and σ₂)
• The direction of the principal stresses (θ₁ and θ₂) relative to the positive x-
axis
• The maximum in-plane shear stress ()
 Example 2
Determine the maximum and minimum stresses and maximum shear stress
at the crankshaft shown in fig.

Note: A crankshaft is a rotating shaft that converts reciprocating motion (like a piston moving up and down in a cylinder)
into rotary motion (like turning the wheels of a car). The maximum stresses in the crankshaft typically occur at the point
where the crank pin meets the crankshaft body. This is because this point experiences the greatest combination of
bending and torsional stresses.
 Exercise 1
The homogeneous state of stress for a metal part undergoes plastic
deformation where stress component values are in MPa.
Find the principal normal and shear stresses, locate the angle of and from
X-axis.
 Failure Theories
In the tension test is uniaxial elongations are the largest in the axial
direction, so strains can be measured and stresses inferred up to “failure.”
Just what is important: a critical stress, a critical strain, a critical energy?
failure theories have helped answer some of these questions.

Ductile materials (yield criteria)

• Maximum shear stress (MSS), Sec. 5–4
• Distortion energy (DE), Sec. 5–5 Reading
assignment
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM), Sec. 5–6
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
• Maximum normal stress (MNS), Sec. 5–8
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM), Sec. 5–9
• Modified Mohr (MM), Sec. 5–9
 Important Design Equations
(1) (2)
 Cont.
(3)

(4)

(5)
 Example 4
The figure shows a shaft mounted in bearings at A and D and having pulleys
at B and C. The forces shown acting on the pulley surfaces represent the belt
tensions. The shaft is to be made of ASTM grade 25 cast iron using a design
factor = 2.8. What diameter should be used for the shaft?
Mechanical properties of three non-steel metals (ASTM grade 25 cast iron)
 Exercise-2
The gear forces shown act in planes parallel to the yz plane. The force on gear A is
300lbf. Consider the bearings at O and B to be simple supports. For a static analysis and
a factor of safety of 3.5, use maximum-shear-stress to determine the minimum safe
diameter of the shaft. Consider the material to have a yield strength of 60kpsi.
 2. Design for fatigue load
There are two common failure types
1. Failure by suddenly applying high amount of load.
• Here the applied stress is greater than the ultimate stress and
yield stress
2. Failure by gradually applying low amount of load (cyclic
loading).
• Here the applied stress is lower than the ultimate stress and yield
stress. (fatigue failure)
 Fatigue(cyclic) stress
 Cyclic loading produces stresses that are variable,
repeated, alternating, or fluctuating
 Failure occurs after many stress cycles
 Fracture at Maximum stresses will below yield strength
(SY)
 No visible warning in advance of failure
 Failure is by sudden ultimate fracture
 Stages of Fatigue failure
 Stage I – Initiation of micro-crack due to cyclic
plastic deformation.
Stage II – Progresses to macro-crack that repeatedly
opens and closes, creating bands called beach marks.
Stage III – Crack has propagated far enough that
remaining material is insufficient to carry the load,
and fails by simple ultimate failure.
 Fatigue Fracture Examples
 Fatigue failure of
forged connecting rod
Crack initiated at flash
line of the forging at the
left edge of picture
Beach marks show
crack propagation
halfway around the hole
before ultimate fracture
 Cont.
 Fatigue failure of a bolt due
to repeated unidirectional
bending.
 The failure started at the
thread root at A, propagated
across most of the cross
section shown by the beach
marks at B, before final fast
fracture at C.
 Fatigue-Life Methods
 Methods predict life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific
level of loading
 Three major fatigue life models
1. Stress-life method (used in most designs)
Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications
Most traditional, easiest to implement
2. Strain-life method
Detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions
◦ Several idealizations are compounded, leading to uncertainties in
results
3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
Assumes crack exists
◦ Predicts crack growth with respect to stress intensity
 Stress-Life Method
 Test specimens are subjected to repeated stress while counting
cycles to failure.
Most common test machine is R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-
beam machine
Specimen is carefully machined and polished.
Subjects specimen to pure bending with no transverse shear.
As specimen rotates, stress fluctuates between equal magnitudes of
tension and compression, known as completely reversed stress
cycling
 S-N Diagram
 A fatigue stress is measured by an endurance limit or fatigue limit
()of the material.
 The endurance limit of a material represents a stress level below
which the material does not fail or have an infinite life.
Endurance limit can be explained by S-N curve (Wholer’s curve).
Number of cycles to failure at varying stress levels is plotted on
log-log scale
For steels, a knee occurs near cycles
Strength corresponding to the knee is called endurance limit (Se).
Cont.
 S-N Diagram for Steel
 Stress levels below (Endurance Strength) predict infinite life.
Between and cycles, finite life is predicted.
Below cycles is known as low cycle, and is often considered
quasi-static. Yielding usually occurs before fatigue in this zone.
 S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals
Nonferrous metals often do not have an endurance limit.
Fatigue strength is reported at a specific number of cycles
Figure below shows typical S-N diagram for aluminium's
 For Al,Cu = 0.46
 Returning to Stress-Life Fatigue Modelling Fatigue Stress-Life: S-N Diagram for
steels

For design, an approximation of the idealized S-N diagram is

desirable
Stress levels below (Endurance Strength) predict infinite life
Between and cycles, finite life is predicted
Below cycles is known as low cycle,
 Usually we use steel shafts so
= 0.5
 Cont.

 But there are other factors that contribute to the

reduction of the endurance limit of a shaft. These are
• The surface finish ()
• The size of the shaft ()
• The type of load applied ()
• The operating temperature ()

Then the corrected endurance limit () will be

=
 Example 5
A rotating shaft, subjected to a non rotating force of 5kN and simply
supported between two bearings. A and E is shown in fig. the shaft
is made of 30C8 (=500 ) and the expected reliability is 90%. notch
radius at the fillet section is 3mm. what is the life of the shaft? Take
=0.79, = 0.85, = 0.897, = 0.64
 Exercise 3
A cantilever beam made of 20C8 (=500 ) is subjected to a
completely reversed load a 1000N as in the fig. take q= 0.85
= 0.78, = 0.78, = 0.897. determine the diameter of the
beam for a life of 10, 000 cycles.
 Exercise 4
The shaft of a hand operated wire rope hoist is supported on the bearing A and B as
shown in the fig. The shaft is keyed to the drum of diameter 200mm and the wire rope is
turned around it. A tangential load of 4500N is applied at the end of rope. The yield
stress for the shaft material of SAE 1045 is taken as 310MN/m2
a. Calculate the max. and min. principal stresses in the shaft.
b. Calculate the required shaft diameter ‘d’ based upon the Tresca theory of failure,
using a factor of safety of 3.
 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
The rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine endurance
limits is prepared very carefully and tested under closely controlled
conditions.
It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural
member to match the values obtained in the laboratory.

A. Material: composition, basis of failure, variability

B. Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface
condition, stress concentration
C. Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state,
D. Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress concentration, speed,
1. Surface Factor
2. Size Factor
3. Loading Factor
When fatigue tests are carried out with rotating bending, axial (push-pull), and
torsional loading, the endurance limits differ with

4. Temperature Factor
When operating temperatures are below room temperature, brittle fracture is a
strong possibility and should be investigated first. When the operating
temperatures are higher than room temperature, yielding should be investigated
first because the yield strength drops off so rapidly with temperature;
5. Reliability Factor
• The reliability modification factor to account for this can be written as
6. Miscellaneous-Effects Factor
Corrosion
Electrolytic Plating
Metal Spraying
Cyclic Frequency
 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or
notches, in a part increases the theoretical stresses significantly in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity.
 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal
pattern because of the nature of some rotating machinery.
Varying or alternate stress refers to the stress in which magnitude or
direction or both are changing. Following are the types of variable stress.
1. Completely reversed or cyclic stresses
Stresses which change from one value of tension to the same value of
compression is known as completely reversed as cyclic stresses.
2. Sinusoidal fluctuating stress
Stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum of same nature
(compressive or tensile) are called as fluctuating stresses
3. Repeated stress
Stresses varying from a minimum value to a maximum value of opposite
nature from a minimum compressive to maximum tensile is known as
repeated or alternating stress.