Course as per 5th Deans Committee of ICAR

2nd Semester, B.Sc. (Hons.) Agri.

Ag. Engg. 2.1 Introductory Soil and Water Conservation Engineering
(1+1=2)
Theory
Introduction to Soil and Water Conservation, causes of soil erosion.
Definition and agents of soil erosion, water erosion: Forms of water erosion.
Gully classification and control measures. Soil loss estimation by universal
Loss Soil Equation. Soil loss measurement techniques. Principles of erosion
control: Introduction to contouring, strip cropping. Contour bund. Graded
bund and bench terracing. Grassed water ways and their design. Water
harvesting and its techniques. Wind erosion: mechanics of wind erosion,
types of soil movement. Principles of wind erosion control and its control
measures. Surveying: Field area calculation. Machineries required for land
levelling
Practical
General status of soil conservation in India. Calculation of erosion index.
Estimation of soil loss. Measurement of soil loss. Preparation of contour
maps. Design of grassed water ways. Design of contour bunds. Design of
graded bunds. Design of bench terracing system. Problem on wind erosion.
Water lifting pump capacity, power calculation required

Reference books:
Principles of Agricultural Engineering (Vol 2)
by A. M. Michael & T. P. Ojha

Soil And Water Conservation Engineering

by R Suresh

Introduction to Soil and Water Conservation Engineering

by Mal B.C.

Fundamentals of Agricultural Engineering

by Sanjay Kumar et. al.
 Lecture 1: Introduction to Soil and Water Conservation
Practical 1: General status of soil conservation in India

1.1 Why Soil and Water Conservation?

Soil and water are two important natural resources and the basic needs for agricultural
production. During the last century it has been observed that the pressure of increasing
population has led to degradation of these natural resources. In other words increase in
agricultural production to feed the increasing population is only possible if there sufficient
fertile land and water are available for farming. In India, out of 328 million hectares of
geographical area, 68 million hectares are critically degraded while 107 million hectares are
severely eroded. That's why soil and water should be given first priority from the
conservation point of view and appropriate methods should be used to ensure their
sustainability and future availability.
Water conservation is the use and management of water for the good of all users. Water is
abundant throughout the earth, yet only three percent of all water is fresh water, and less than
seven-tenths of freshwater is usable. Much of the usable water is utilized for irrigation.
Detailed analysis will show that in about fifteen years, about two-thirds of the world’s
population will be living in some sort of water shortage. Water is used in nearly every aspect
of life. There are multiple domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. Water conservation is
rapidly becoming a hot topic, yet many people do not realize the importance of soil
conservation.
Soil conservation is defined as the control of soil erosion in order to maintain agricultural
productivity. Soil erosion is often the effect of many natural causes, such as water and wind.
There are also human factors which increase the rate of soil erosion such as construction,
cultivation and other activities. Some may argue that since it is a natural process, soil erosion
is not harmful. The truth is that with the removal of the top layer of soil, the organic matter
and nutrients are also removed.
Conservation is not just the responsibility of soil and plant scientists, hydrologists, wildlife
managers, landowners, and the forest or mine owner alone.
All citizens should be made aware about the importance of natural resources as our lives
depend on that and everyone should be involved in the process of caring of these resources
properly and using them intelligently.

1.1.1 What is Soil Erosion?

The uppermost weathered and disintegrated layer of the earth’s crust is referred to as soil.
The soil layer is composed of mineral and organic matter and is capable of sustaining plant

1
life. The soil depth is less in some places and more at other places and may vary from
practically nil to several metres. The soil layer is continuously exposed to the actions of
atmosphere. Wind and water in motion are two main agencies which act on the soil layer and
dislodge the soil particles and transport them. The loosening of the soil from its place and its
transportation from one place to another is known as soil erosion.
The word erosion has been derived from the Latin word ‘erodere’ which means eating away
or to excavate. The word erosion was first used in geology for describing the term hollow
created by water. Erosion actually is a two phase process involving the detachment of
individual soil particle from soil mass, transporting it from one place to another (by the action
of any one of the agents of erosion, viz; water, wind, ice or gravity) and its deposition. When
sufficient energy is not available to transport a particle, a third phase known as deposition
occurs. In general, finer soil particles get eroded more easily than coarse particles (silt is
more easily eroded than sand). Hence soil erosion is defined as a process of detachment,
transportation and deposition of soil particles (sediment). It is evident that sediment is the end
product of soil erosion process. Sediment is, therefore, defined as any fragmented material,
which is transported or deposited by water, ice, air or any other natural agent. From this, it is
inferred that sedimentation is also the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of
eroded soil particles. Thus, the natural sequence of the sediment cycle is as follows:

Detachment is the dislodging of the soil particle from the soil mass by erosive agents. In case
of water erosion, major erosive agents are impacting raindrops and runoff water flowing over
the soil surface. Transportation is the entrainment and movement of detached soil particles
(sediment) from their original location. Sediments move from the upland sources through the
stream system and may eventually reach the ocean. Not all the sediment reaches the ocean;
some are deposited at the base of the slopes, in reservoirs and flood plains along the way.
Erosion is almost universally recognized as a serious threat to human well being. Erosion
reduces the productivity of crop land by removing and washing away of plant nutrients and
organic matter.

1.1.2 Problems Arising due to Soil Erosion

Balanced ecosystems comprising soil, water and plant environments are essential for the
survival and welfare of mankind. However, ecosystems have been disturbed in the past due to
over exploitation in many parts of the world, including some parts of India. The resulting
imbalance in the ecosystem is revealed through various undesirable effects, such as
degradation of soil surfaces, frequent occurrence of intense floods etc.

2
 Fig. 1.1. Severity of land degradation at continental scale.
(Source: Peter H.G., 1983)
Vast tracts of land have been irreversibly converted into infertile surfaces due to accelerated
soil erosion caused by the above and other factors. These degraded land surfaces have also
become a source of pollution of the natural water. Deposition of soil eroded from upland
areas in the downstream reaches of rivers has caused aggradation. This has resulted in an
increase in the flood plain area of the rivers, reduction of the clearance below bridges and
culverts and sedimentation of reservoirs. Severity of land degradation at a continental scale is
shown in Fig. 1.1.
The major land degradation problems due to sedimentation are briefly discussed as below:
 Erosion by wind and water: Out of 144.12 M-ha areas affected by water and wind
erosion. About 69 M-ha is considered to be critical and needs immediate attention.
Wind erosion is mainly restricted to States of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana. The
severity of wind erosion is inversely related to the rainfall amount, lesser is the
rainfall more would be the wind erosion.
 Gullies and Ravines: About 4 M-ha is affected by the problem of gullies and ravines
in the country covering about 12 states. Ravines are mostly located in the states of
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Gullies on the other hand are
seen in the plateau region of Eastern India, foot hills of the Himalayas and areas of
Deccan Plateau.
 Torrents and Riverine Lands: Problem of Riverine and torrents is spread over an area
of 2.73 M-ha in the country. Torrents are the natural streams which cause extensive
damage to life and property as a result of frequent changes in their course and
associated flash flows with heavy debris loads. The unfertile material or debris
transported by torrents is sometimes deposited on the fertile plains, thus ruining the
land for ever.
 Water logging: Water logging is caused either by surface flooding or due to rise of
water table. An area of 8.53 M-ha has been estimated to be affected by water logging.

3
 Water logging due to surface flooding is predominant in the states of West Bengal,
Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab and Haryana.
 Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation, also known as ‘jhuming’ is a traditional
method of growing crops on hill slopes by slash and burn method. The method
involves selection of appropriate site on hill slopes, cleaning of forest by cutting and
burning, using the site for cultivation for few years and later on abandoning it and
moving to a fresh site. The jhum cycle has gradually declined from 20-30 years to 3-6
years due to increasing population pressures. The problem is more serious in North
Eastern region and in the states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
 Saline soil including coastal areas: Saline soils are prevalent both in inland as well as
coastal areas. About 5.5 M-ha area is affected by this problem in the country which
includes arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat, black soil region and
coastal areas. This problem is causing serious damage to agricultural lands, rendering
fertile soil unproductive and turning groundwater brackish in the States of West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh as well as Union Territories of Pondicherry and Goa, Daman and Diu.
 Floods and Droughts: In India, among the major and medium rivers of both
Himalayas and non-Himalayas catagories, 18 are flood prone which drain an area of
150 M-ha. In recent years, flash floods have caused extensive damage even in the
desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

1.1.3 Importance of Soil Conservation

In India, out of the total geographical area of 329 M-ha, an area of about 150 M-ha is
subjected to either water or wind erosion. A net area of about 140 M-ha is cropped at present.
An area of 40 M-ha is considered to be flood prone. Area lost through ravines and gullies is
estimated to be about 4 M-ha. As a whole, it is estimated that about 175 M-ha i.e., 53.3% of
the total geographical area of the country is subjected to various soil and land degradation
problems like saline-alkali soils, waterlogged areas, ravine and gullied lands, area under
shifting cultivation, and desertification. By the year 2100 A.D, the projected population of the
country is expected to be two billion, whereas the food grain production is almost stagnant at
211 million tons for the last 5 years. The per capita cropped area is shrinking every day; in
the year 1950, it was 0.33 ha/capita, 0.2 ha in 1980 and it was 0.15 ha by 2000. This clearly
shows that the limited land resource has to be managed very carefully by adopting total
conservation measures for the survival of the huge population. A few suggestions to conserve
soil and water resources in Indian context are discussed below.
 To prevent erosion of bare soil, it is important to maintain a vegetation cover,
especially in the most vulnerable areas e.g. those with steep slopes, in a dry season or
periods of very heavy rainfall. For this purpose, only partial harvesting forests (e.g.

4
 alternate trees) and use of seasonally dry or wet areas for pasture rather than arable
agricultural land should be permitted.
 Where intensive cultivation takes place, farmers should follow crop rotation in order
to prevent the soil becoming exhausted of organic matters and other soil building
agents. Where soils are ploughed in vulnerable areas, contour ploughing (i.e. round
the hillside rather than down the hillside) should be used. Careful management of
irrigation, to prevent the application of too much or too little water will be helpful to
reduce the problem of soil salinity development. Livestock grazing must be carefully
managed to prevent overgrazing.
 Construction of highways and urbanization should be restricted to areas of lower
agricultural potential. With extractive industries, a pledge must be secured to restore
the land to its former condition before permission for quarries or mines is granted.

1.1.4 History of Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation Programs in India

To meet the demand for food, fiber, fuel wood and fodder owing to increasing population
pressures, the forest areas have been indiscriminately cleared resulting in enormous soil loss
in many parts of the country. The human activities such as urbanization, road construction,
mining etc. have further aggravated the problem. In the early years, the problem was more
localized but now it has become more serious due to over exploitation of natural resources.
However, various governmental plans have been implemented in the field of conservation of
land, water and plant resources since pre-independence days.
(1) The Pre-Independence Era
In 1882, Sir Dietrich Brands, the Inspector General of Forests, commented on the possibility
of soil erosion taking place and the need to counter it in the denuded slopes of the Nilgiri
District of Madras Province of pre-independence India. He suggested planting of belts of
trees in the midst of cultivation on hill slopes. Protection of land from the menace of ‘Cho’
(mountain torrents) also received early attention and one of the first enactments for
prevention of soil deterioration was passed in Punjab in 1900 as Land Preservation Act. It
provided for such measures as Wat Bandi (ridge formation), contour trenching, gully
plugging, terracing, tree planting etc. for preventing the havoc caused by Chos. Soil
conservation research in India was initiated during 1933-35 when the then Imperial (now
Indian) Council of Agricultural Research decided to establish its regional centres for research
in dry farming at Sholapur (Maharashtra), Bijapur, Raichur, Bellary (Karnataka) and Rohtak
(Haryana). Holding rain water by construction of bunds, green manuring, cultivation of kharif
crops on shallow soils and fallowing in deep black soils were important measures
recommended by the research stations.
A real push to soil conservation was given when a separate Soil Conservation Wing in
Agricultural Department was established in Maharashtra during 1940’s and massive contour

5
bunding programme was taken up following scientific guidelines and specifications. Field
bunding was also practiced as part of famine relief programmes in the Deccan plateau during
1930’s and 40’s. Soil conservation was not confined to contour bunding alone but also
included nala bunding (check dams of loose stones) and percolation dams for water
harvesting.
A commission was appointed by the Gwalior State as far back as 1919 to consider ways and
means of arresting further extension of ravines and suggest methods for improving
production of economic plants in these areas. In the 1930’s, ravine reclamation practices were
applied in the Chambal ravines of the erstwhile state of Gwalior. In 1953, Board of
Agriculture made a proposal for a systematic reconnaissance survey of Indian soils to assess
the damage caused by erosion. The Bombay Land Improvement Act of 1942 provided for
setting up in each division a Land Improvement Board for conservation, improvement and
regulation of agriculture, forest and pasture lands.
In 1945, the Central Government obtained the services of Dr. Donald V. Shuhart of Soil
Conservation Service, USDA to report on soil erosion problems in India and suggest remedial
measures. A high powered seven member team visited United States in May, 1947 for
exhaustive study of soil conservation practices and submitted a report to Government of India
taking due cognizance of the conditions peculiar to the Indian Agriculture. The team
suggested that the unit of planning should be a village or a group of villages or a watershed.
The report also emphasized that there should be a close cooperation between the Department
of Forest, Agriculture and Irrigation at the centre and in the provinces in initiating and
developing different phases of the conservation programme.
(2) Post-Independence Period
A conference of state Ministers in-charge of agriculture and cooperation was held in New
Delhi in September, 1953. The conference considered that at the state level, existing
organizations and state development committees should be entrusted with the task of
formulating soil conservation programmes. It also suggested that any state problem with
regard to soil conservation should be concern of the Central Soil Conservation Board. The
central Government in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture set up a Central Soil
Conservation Board in 1953. Maharashtra state did pioneering work on problems of soil
erosion and conservation measures in cultivated lands. It was realized that ultimate aim of
soil conservation was not only to control erosion but also to maintain the productivity of soil.
(3) First Five Year Plan (1951-56)
During the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), considerable attention was given to soil and
moisture conservation. With a view to develop a research base for soil conservation, a Soil
Conservation Branch and a Desert Afforestation Research Station at Jodhpur were
established under the control of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Consequently, the
Central Soil Conservation Board established a chain of nine Soil Conservation Research,
Demonstration and Training Centers at Dehra Dun, Chandigarh, Bellary, Ootacamund (now

6
Udhagamandalam), Kota, Vasad, Agra, Chatra (Nepal) and Jodhpur during the late First Five
Year Plan and early Second Five Year Plan.

(4) Second Five Year Plan (1956-61)

In this plan, the Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Centre at Jodhpur were
developed into the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in 1959 with collaboration
of UNESCO. A Centre was set up at Chatra in Nepal to take-up research on soil conservation
problems of Kosi River Valley Project. The All India Soil & Land Use Survey Organization
was established at central level.
(5) Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)
A centre at Ibrahimpatnam (Hyderabad) in the semi-arid red soil region was established in the
third five year plan in 1962. The Government of India reorganized the Soil Conservation
Division in the Ministry of Agriculture and redesignated the Senior Director as Advisor and
entrusted him with the responsibility of coordinating the soil and water conservation
development. After the reorganization of Agricultural Research and Education in India, all
the Soil Conservation Research, Demonstration and Training Centres of the Government of
India except Chatra (Nepal) were transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) on the 1st October, 1967.
(6) Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)
Under this plan, All India Soil & Land Use Survey prepared a detailed analysis of different
watersheds of the country. The concept of Integrated Watershed Management was
successfully introduced at field level in different parts of the country.
(7) Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)
In this plan, the Government of India introduced many centrally sponsored programmers, viz;
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Flood Prone Area Programme (FPAP), Rural
Development Programme (RDP), and Desert Development Programme (DDP). In DPAP and
DDP, the focus was on planting of trees on degraded lands and to drill tube wells to extract
groundwater.

(8) Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85)

In this plan period, more emphasis was given on the treatment of small watersheds varying in
size up to 2000 hectare. An intensive programme for integrated management of about 200
sub-watersheds of 8 flood prone catchments of Ganga river basin was undertaken during this
plan.
(9) Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90)
In this plan, DDP in hot and cold desert areas took a major establishment and aforestation
practices were adopted on a large scale following integrated watershed management
approach. On the basis of the experience gained in various schemes, National Watershed
Development Programme for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was launched in the 7th Plan in 99

7
selected districts in the country. NWDPRA was implemented in about 2550 watersheds in
357 districts of 25 states and two Union Territories, viz; Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The watershed approach has the advantage of serving the twin
objectives of restoration of ecological balance and socio-economic welfare of watershed
community.
(10) Eighth Five Year Plan (1990-95)
During this period, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
New Delhi formulated the guidelines for the implementation of NWDPRA and published it in
the form of a document commonly known as WARASA (Watershed Areas Rainfed
Agriculture System Approach). The Ministry of Rural Development also brought out
common guidelines for the implementation of DPAP, DDP and Integrated Wasteland
Development Programme (IWDP) in the country so as to maintain uniformity in objectives,
strategies and expenditure norms for various watershed development projects.
(11) Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-02)
The centrally sponsored scheme for reclamation of alkali soils was launched during the
Seventh Five Year Plan in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. It continued
during the Eighth Five Year Plan and was extended to the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Rajasthan. During 2000-01, it was extended to all other states where alkali soil problem
exists. The scheme aimed at improving physical conditions and productivity status of alkali
soils for restoring optimum crop production. The major components were assured irrigation
water, on-farm development works like land leveling, bunding and ploughing, community
drainage system, application of soil amendments, organic manures etc. During IX Plan, an
area of 0.97 lakh ha, mostly occurring in isolated patches, was reclaimed at a cost of Rs.
14.99 crores (Govt. of India share).
Up to IX plan (1997-02), an area of 426 lakh ha had been covered under Priority Delineation
Survey (PDS) and about 13.1 lakh ha under Detailed Soil Survey (DSS) by the All India Soil
and Land Use Survey.
(12) Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07)
The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) has put emphasis on natural resource management
through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharging measures and controlling groundwater
exploitation, watershed development, treatment of waterlogged areas. The Government of
India fully funded the Western Ghats Development Programme (WGDP), area affected due
to erosion and water problem. In this programme, the State Governments were directed to
adopt Integrated Watershed Approach in implementing the activities such as soil
conservation, agriculture, horticulture, afforestation, fuel and fodder development, minor
irrigation, animal husbandry etc. various soil conservation measures (engineering and
agricultural) like construction of check dams, gully plugging, plantation of mixed species and

8
contour trenching etc were taken up in sensitive Western Ghats areas of Sattari, Canacona
and Sanguem talukas.

(13) Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12)

Watershed development projects, for the purpose of conserving soil and water, were funded
through various schemes including National Watershed Development Projects in Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA), River Valley Projects (RVP), and Integrated Wasteland Development
Programme (IWDP). Emphasis has been given to increase the water resources availability
and their efficient use. Responsibility for ensuring adequate availability of water for
agricultural use was divided between the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), which was
responsible for major, medium, and minor irrigation, the Department of Land Resources,
which was responsible for watershed management, the Department of Rural Development,
which was responsible for the Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) and strongly oriented to deal with water conservation issues, and the
Department of Agriculture, which deals with water use efficiency.

9
 Lecture 2: Principles of Soil Erosion

2.1 Causes of Soil Erosion

No single unique cause can be held responsible for soil erosion or assumed as the main cause
for this problem. There are many underlying factors responsible for this process, some
induced by nature and others by human being. The main causes of soil erosion can be
enumerated as:
(1) Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by
(i) Indiscriminate cutting of trees,
(ii) Overgrazing of the vegetative cover and
(iii) Forest fires.

(2) Improper Use of the Land

(i) Keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,
(ii) Growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,
(iii) Removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,
(iv) Cultivation along the land slope, and
(v) Faulty methods of irrigation.

2.2 Types of Soil Erosion

2.2.1 According to Origin: Soil erosion can broadly be categorized into two types i.e.
geologic erosion and accelerated erosion.
2.2.2 Geological Erosion: Under natural undisturbed conditions equilibrium is established
between the climate of a place and the vegetative cover that protects the soil layer. Vegetative
covers like trees and forests retard the transportation of soil material and act as a check
against excessive erosion. A certain amount of erosion, however, does take place even under
the natural cover. This erosion, called geologic erosion, is a slow process and is compensated
by the formation of soil under the natural weathering process. Its effect are not of much
consequence so far as agricultural lands are concerned.
2.2.3 Accelerated Erosion: When land is put under cultivation, the natural balance existing
between the soil, its vegetation cover and climate is disturbed. Under such condition, the
removal of surface soil due to natural agencies takes places at faster rate than it can be built
by the soil formation process. Erosion occurring under this condition is referred to as
accelerated erosion. Its rates are higher than geological erosion. Accelerated erosion depletes
soil fertility in agricultural land.

10
2.2.4 According to Erosion Agents: Soil erosion is broadly categorized into different types
depending on the agent which triggers the erosion activity. Mentioned below are the four
main types of soil erosion.
(1) Water Erosion: Water erosion is seen in many parts of the world. In fact, running water
is the most common agent of soil erosion. This includes rivers which erode the river basin,
rainwater which erodes various landforms, and the sea waves which erode the coastal areas.
Water erodes and transports soil particles from higher altitude and deposits them in low lying
areas. Water erosion may further be classified, based on different actions of water responsible
for erosion, as : (i) raindrop erosion, (ii) sheet erosion, (iii) rill erosion, (iv) gully erosion, (v)
stream bank erosion, and (vi) slip erosion.

(2) Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong winds
brush against various landforms, cutting through them and loosening the soil particles, which
are lifted and transported towards the direction in which the wind blows. The best example of
wind erosion is sand dunes and mushroom rocks structures, typically found in deserts.

(3) Glacial Erosion: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common in cold
regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving glaciers, it sticks to
the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with the glaciers, and as they start
melting it is deposited in the course of the moving chunks of ice.

(4) Gravitational Erosion: Although gravitational erosion is not as common a phenomenon

as water erosion, it can cause huge damage to natural, as well as man-made structures. It is
basically the mass movement of soil due to gravitational force. The best examples of this are
landslides and slumps. While landslides and slumps happen within seconds, phenomena such
as soil creep take a longer period for occurrence.

2.3 Agents of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and transportation to a new
location. Mainly water is responsible for this erosion although in many locations wind,
glaciers are also the agents causing soil erosion. Water in the form of rain, flood and runoff
badly affects the soil. Soil is in fact a composite of sand, silt and clay. When the rain falls
along the mountains and bare soil, the water detaches the soil particles, and takes away the
silt and clay particles along with the flowing water. Similarly, when wind blows in the form

11
of storms, its speed becomes too high to lift off the entire soil uupper
pper layer and causes soil
erosion.
Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and animal activities. Vegetation is the
natural cover of soil. When the animals continuously graze in the pastures, the vegetation is
removed due to their walking and grazing. Bare lands left behind are easily affected by soil
erosion. Activities of human like forest cutting, increased agriculture, and clearing of land for
different purposes are the other agents that cause erosion of the soil. The soil erosion agent
cann be classified and summarized as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1. Soil erosion agents, processes and effects

2.4 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

Soil erosion includes the processes of detachment of soil particles from the soil mass and
subsequent transport and deposition of those soil/sediment particles. The main factors
responsible for soil erosion, in India, are excessive deforestation, overgrazing and faulty
agricultural practices. Soil erosion is a very complicated problem as many complex factors
affect the rate of erosion and therefore it is difficult to solve. These factors include:

1. Climatic Factor: The climatic factors that influence erosion are rainfall amount, intensity,
and frequency. During the periods of frequent or continuous rainfall, high soil moisture or
saturated field conditions are developed, a greater percentage of the rainfall is converted into
runoff. This in turn results in soil detachment and transport causing erosion at high rate.

2. Temperature: While frozen soil is highly resi

resistant
stant to erosion, rapid thawing of the soil
surface brought about by warm rains can lead to serious erosion. Temperature also influences
the type of precipitation. Although falling snow does not cause erosion, heavy snow melts in

12
spring can cause considerable runoff damage. Temperature also influences the amount of
organic matter that gets collected on the ground surface and get incorporated with the topsoil
layer. Areas with warmer climates have thinner organic cover on the soil. Organic matter
cover on the surface protects the soil by shielding it from the impact of falling rain and
helping in the infiltration of rainfall that would otherwise cause more runoff. Organic matter
inside the soil increases permeability of the soil to cause more percolation and reduce runoff.

3. Topographical Factors: Among the topographical factors, slope length, steepness and
roughness affect erodibility. Generally, longer slope increases the potential for erosion. The
greatest erosion potential is at the base of the slope, where runoff velocity is the greatest and
runoff concentrates. Slope steepness, along with surface roughness, and the amount and
intensity of rainfall control the speed at which runoff flows down a slope. The steeper the
slope, the faster the water will flow. The faster it flows, the more likely it will cause erosion
and increase sedimentation. Slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of flowing
water. Small differences in slope make big difference in damage. According to the laws of
hydraulics, four times increase in slope doubles the velocity of flowing water. This doubled
velocity can increase the erosive power four times and the carrying (sediment) capacity by 32
times.

4. Soil: Physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on erodibility. Soil properties

influencing erodibility include texture, structure and cohesion. Texture refers to the size or
combination of sizes of the individual soil particles. Three broad size classifications, ranging
from small to large are clay, silt, and sand. Soil having a large amount of silt-sized particles is
most susceptible to erosion from both wind and water. Soil with clay or sand-sized particles
is less prone to erosion.
Structure refers to the degree to which soil particles are clumped together, forming larger
clumps and pore spaces. Structure influences both the ability of the soil to absorb water and
its physical resistance to erosion. Another property is the cohesion which refers to the binding
force between the soil particles and it influences the structure. When moist, the individual soil
particles in a cohesive soil cling together to form a doughy consistency. Clay soils are very
cohesive, while sand soils are the least cohesive.

5. Vegetation: Vegetation is probably the most important physical factor influencing soil
erosion. A good cover of vegetation shields the soil from the impact of raindrops. It also
binds the soil together, making it more resistant to runoff. A vegetative cover provides

13
organic matter, slows down runoff, and filters sediment. On a graded slope, the condition of
vegetative cover will determine whether erosion will be stopped or only slightly halted. A
dense, robust cover of vegetation is one of the best protections against soil erosion.

6. Biological Factors of Soil Erosion: Biological factors that influence the soil erosion are
the activities like faulty cultivation practices, overgrazing by animals etc. These factors may
be broadly classified into following three groups:(i) Energy factors, (ii) Resistance factors,
and (iii) protection factors.
(i) Energy Factors: They include such factors which influence the potential ability of
rainfall, runoff and wind to cause erosion. This ability is termed as erosivity. The other
factors which directly reduce the power of erosive agents are reduction in length/degree of
slope through the construction of terraces and bunds in case of water eroded areas and
creation of wind breaks or shelter belts in case of wind eroded areas.
(ii) Resistance Factors: They are also called erodibility factors which depend upon the
mechanical and chemical properties of the soil. Those factors which enhance the infiltration
of water into the soil reduce runoff and decrease erodibility, while any activity that pulverizes
the soil increases erodibility. Thus, cultivation may decrease the erodibility of clay soils but
increases that of sandy soil.
(iii) Protection Factors: This primarily focuses on the factors related to plant cover. Plant
cover protects the soil from erosion by intercepting the rainfall and reducing the velocity of
runoff and wind. Degree of protection provided by different plant covers varies considerably.
Therefore, it is essential to know the rate of soil erosion under different land uses, degrees of
length and slope, and vegetative covers so that appropriate land use can be selected for each
piece of land to control the rate of soil erosion. The quantity of soil moved past a point is
called soil loss. It is usually expressed in unit of mass or volume per unit time per unit area.

2.5 Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of rain. The detached
particles are transported by erosion agents from one place to another and finally get settled at
some place leading to soil erosion process. Different soil erosion processes are shown in Fig. 2.2.

14
 Fig. 2.2. Process of water erosion by the impact of raindrops.

Mechanics of soil erosion due to water and wind is discussed below.

2.5.1 Mechanics of Water Erosion

There are three steps for accelerated erosion by water:
i) Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by flowing water, freezing and thawing
of the top soil, and/or the impact of falling raindrops,
ii) Transportation of soil particles by floating, rolling, dragging, and/or splashing and
iii) Deposition of transported particles at some places of lower elevation.
Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing as shown in Fig.2.2.
Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and redeposit them as particles. The dispersed
particles may then plug soil pores, reducing water intake (infiltration). Once the soil dries,
these particles develop into a crust at the soil surface and runoff is further increased.

2.5.2 Mechanics of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind. The intensity of
wind erosion varies with surface roughness, slope and types of cover on the soil surface and
wind velocity, duration and angle of incidence. Fine soil particles can be carried to great
heights and for (may be) hundreds of kilometers. The overall occurrence of wind erosion
could be described in three different phases. These are initiation of movement, transportation
and deposition.
1. Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is caused by
several factors acting separately in combination. In the course of collision of grains rolling
and bumping on the surface, some particles may be bounced up. It occurs when the wind
force or the impact of moving particles is strong enough to dislodge stationary soil particles.

15
2. Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged take place in
three ways:
i) Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10
(0.10-0.15
0.15 mm diameter) are carried
by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by the direct pressure of the
wind on soil particles.
ii) Soil Creep – saltation also encourages soil creep (rolling or sliding) along the surface of
the particles (0.5-1.0
1.0 mm diameter). The bouncing particles carried by saltation strike the
large aggregates and speed up their movement along the surface.
iii) Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm) they are carried
over long distances. Finer suspended particles are mov
moved
ed parallel to the ground surface and
upward.

3. Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is greater
than the forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur when the wind velocity is
decreased due to surface
face obstructions or other natural causes

16
 Lecture 3: Water Erosion

Erosion of soil by water is caused by its two forms: liquid as the flowing water, and solid as
the glaciers.
3.1 Forms of Water Erosion
The impact of rainfall causes splash erosion. Runoff water causes scraping and transport of
soil particles leading to sheet, rill and gully erosion. Water waves cause erosion of bank sides
of reservoirs, lakes and oceans. The subsurface runoff causes soil erosion in the form of pipe
erosion, which is also called tunnel erosion. The glacial erosion causes heavy landsides. In
India, glacial erosions are mainly confined to Himalayan regions. The various forms of water
erosion are given below.
3.1.1 Hydraulic Action: The hydraulic action takes place when water runs over the soil
surface compressing the soil, as a result of which the air present in the voids exerts a pressure
on the soil particles and this leads to the soil detachment. The pressure exerted by the air
voids is called hydraulic pressure. The soil particles so detached from their places, are
scoured by the running water. The hydraulic action is more effective when the soil is in loose
condition.
3.1.2 Abrasion: Soil particles mixed with the running water create an abrasive power in the
water which increases the capacity of flowing water to scour more soil particles. Due to this
effect, larger soil particles are eroded by the flowing water.
3.1.3 Attrition: This form includes mechanical breakdown of loads running along the
moving water due to collision of particles with each other. The broken particles are moved
along with the flow velocity, which generate abrasion effect on the bottom and banks of the
water course. This effect pronounces the water erosion.
3.1.4 Solution: This form is associated with the chemical action between running water and
soil or country rocks. This type condition is observed in areas where existing rocks or soils
are easily dissolved in the running water.
3.1.5 Transportation: The process of soil transportation by running water is completed
under the following forms:
1) Solution: the water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water in
solution form.
2) Suspension: it involves the transportation of finer soil particles, which are present in
suspension form in the flowing water.
3) Saltation and Surface Creep: it involves transportation of medium size soil particles
that are not able to stand in suspension form, but are mixed in water and flow over the stream
bed in the form of mud. The surface creep action is responsible for transporting the coarser
soil particles.

17
3.2 Factors Affecting Water Erosion
Water erosion is due to dispersive and transporting power of the water; as in case of water
erosion first soil particles are detached from the soil surface by the raindrop force and then
transported with surface runoff. There is a direct relationship between the soil loss and
surface runoff volume. The water erosion process is influenced primarily by climate,
topography, soils and vegetative cover. The factors influencing the water erosion are
discussed below.

3.2.1 Climatic Factors: Climate includes rainfall, temperature and wind. The frequency,
intensity and duration of rainfall are the principal aspects of rainfall influencing the volume
of runoff, erosion and sediment (potential) from a given area. As the volume and intensity of
rainfall increase, the ability of water to detach and transport soil particles increases. When
storms are frequent, intense, and of long duration, the potential for erosion of bare soils is
high. Temperature has a major influence on soil erosion. Frozen soils are relatively erosion
resistant. However, bare soils with high moisture content are subject to uplift or “spew” by
freezing action and are usually easily eroded upon thawing. Wind contributes to the drying of
soil and increases the need for irrigation for new plantings and for applying wind erosion
control practices.

3.2.2 Soil Characteristics: Soil characteristics include texture, structure, organic matter
content and permeability. In addition, in many situations, compaction is significant. These
characteristics greatly determine the erodibility of soil. Soils containing high percentages of
sand and silt are the most susceptible to detachment because they lack inherent cohesive
characteristics. However, the high infiltration rates of sands either prevent or delay runoff
except where overland flow is concentrated. Clearly, well-graded and well-drained sands are
usually the least erodible soils in the context of sheet and rill erosion. Clay and organic matter
act as a binder to soil particles, thus reducing erodibility. As the clay and organic matter
content of soils increase, the erodibility decreases. However, while clays have a tendency to
resist erosion, they are easily transported by water once detached. Soils high in organic matter
resist raindrop impact, and the organic matter also increases the binding characteristics of the
soil. Sandy and silty soils on slopes are highly susceptible to gully erosion where flow
concentrates because they lack inherent cohesiveness. Small clay particles, referred to as
colloids, resist the action of gravity and remain in suspension for long periods of time.
Colloids are potentially a major contributor to turbidity where they exist.

18
3.2.3 Vegetation Cover: Vegetative cover is an extremely important factor in reducing
erosion at a site. It absorbs energy of raindrops, binds soil particles, slows down the velocity
of runoff water, increases the ability of a soil to absorb water, removes subsurface water
between rainfall events through the process of evapotranspiration and reduces off-site
fugitive dust. By limiting the amount of vegetation disturbance and the exposure of soils to
erosive elements, soil erosion can be greatly reduced. Vegetations create a surface obstruction
for direct falling of raindrops on the land surface as well as in the flowing path of surface
runoff. A good vegetative cover completely negates the effect of rainfall on soil erosion.

3.2.4 Topographic Effect: The main topographic factors which influence the soil erosion are
land slope, length of slope and shape of slope. The land slope or slope inclination affects the
erosion predominantly. As the slope increases, the runoff coefficient, kinetic energy and
carrying capacity of surface runoff also increase thereby decreasing the soil stability. Critical
slope length is the slope length at which the soil erosion begins. It is related to the critical
land inclination. Lower the critical inclination larger will be the critical slope length. The
slope shapes have greater bearing on erosion potential. The base of a slope is more
susceptible to erosion than the top, because runoff has more momentum and is more
concentrated as it approaches the base of slope. The slopes may be roughly convex or
concave. On convex slope the above phenomena is magnified, whereas on concave slope it is
reduced. It is because in convex slope, the steepness increases towards bottom, while it is
flattened towards bottom in case of concave slope.

3.3 Types of Water Erosion

Water erosion can be classified as splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion,
stream bank erosion, sea-shore erosion and land slide erosion. They are discussed as follows.

3.3.1 Splash Erosion: It is also known as raindrop erosion (Fig. 3.1) because it is caused by
the impact of raindrops on exposed soil surface. The process of raindrop erosion can be
described as: when raindrop strikes on open soil surface it forms a crater. This is
accomplished by forming a blast which bounces the water and soil up and returns back
around the crater. The soil may be splashed into the air up to a height of 50 to 75 cm
depending upon the size of rain drops. At the same time the soil particles also move
horizontally as much as 1.50 m on level land surface. On sloping land, more than half of the
splashed particles move down with the runoff.

19
 Fig. 3.1. Splash erosion.
3.3.2 Sheet Erosion: Sheet erosion may be defined as more or less uniform removal of soil in
the form of a thin layer or in “sheet” form by the flowing water form a given width of sloping
land (Fig. 3.2). It is an inconspicuous type of soil erosion because the total amount of soil
removed during any storm is usually small. In the sheet erosion two basic erosion processes
are involved. First process is the one in which soil particles are detached from the soil surface
by falling of raindrop and in the second one the detached soil particles are transported away
by surface runoff from the original place. The detached process is referred to as the splash
erosion and transportation of detached particles by flowing water is considered as the wash
erosion. When the rate of rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, the excess water
tends to flow over the surface of sloping land. This flowing water also detaches soil particles
from the land surface and starts flowing in the form of thin layer over the surface. The
erosion during these processes is called sheet erosion. The eroding and transporting power of
sheet flow depends on the depth and velocity of flowing water for a given size, shape and
density of soil particles.

Fig. 3.2. Sheet erosion

20
3.3.3 Rill Erosion: This type of water erosion is formed in the cultivated fields where the
land surface is almost irregular. As the rain starts, the water tends to accumulate in the
surface depressions and begins to flow following least resistance path. During movement of
water large amount of soil particles are eroded from the sides and bottom of the flow path,
which are mixed in the flowing water. This surface flow containing soil particles in
suspension form moves ahead and forms micro channels and rills (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3. Rill erosion

3.3.4 Gully Erosion: Rills are small in size and can be leveled by tillage operations. When
rills get larger in size and shape due to prolonged occurrence of flow through them and
cannot be removed by tillage operation, these are called gullies (Fig. 3.4). Large gullies and
their network are called ravines. It is the advanced and last stage of water erosion. In other
words it is the advanced stage of rill erosion. If the rills that are formed in the field are
overlooked by the farmers, then they tend to increase in their size and shape with the
occurrence of further rainfall. Some of the major causes of gully erosion are: steepness of
land slope, soil texture, rainfall intensity, land mismanagement, biotic interference with
natural vegetation, incorrect agricultural practices, etc. Gully erosion gets initiated where the
longitudinal profile of an alluvial land becomes too steep due to sediment deposition. Gullies
advance due to the removal of soil by the flowing water at the base of a steep slope, or a cliff
at the time of fall of stream. High intensity of flow of the runoff increases the gully
dimensions. In the absence of proper control measures, slowly the gullies extend to nearby
areas and subsequently engulf the entire region with a network of gullies of various sizes and
shapes.

21
 Fig. 3.4. Gully erosion

3.3.5 Stream Bank Erosion: Stream bank erosion is defined as the removal of stream bank
soil by water either flowing over the sides of the stream or scouring from there (Fig.3.5). The
stream bank erosion due to stream flow in the form of scouring and undercutting of the soil
below the water surface caused by wave action is a continuous process in perennial streams.
Stream bank erosion is mainly aggravated due to removal of vegetation, over grazing or
cultivation on the area close to stream banks. Stream bank erosion is also caused by the
occurrence of flood in the stream. Apart from scouring, the sloughing is also a form of stream
bank erosion which is caused when the stream water subsides after reaching the peak.
Sloughing is mainly due to movement of underground water from side into the stream due to
pressure difference.

Fig. 3.5. Stream bank erosion

22
3.3.6 Sea-shore Erosion: It is also called coastal erosion. Sea shore erosion is the wearing
away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents,
wave currents, or drainage (Fig. 3.6). Waves, generated by storms, wind or fast moving motor
craft, cause coastal erosion which may take the form of long-term losses of sediment
and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments. It may be caused by
hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion.

Fig. 3.6. Sea-shore/ coastal erosion

3.3.7 Landslide Erosion: When gravity combines with heavy rain or earthquakes, whole
slopes can slump, slip or slide (Fig. 3.7). Slips occur when the soil (topsoil and subsoil) on
slopes becomes saturated. Unless held by plant roots to the underlying surface, it slides
downhill, exposing the underlying material.

Fig. 3.7. Cross-section of landslide characteristics.

23
 Lecture 4: Principles of Erosion Control

4.1 Agronomical Measures of Water Erosion Control

Soil conservation is a preservation technique, in which deterioration of soil and its losses are
eliminated or minimized by using it within its capabilities and applying conservation
techniques for protection as well as improvement of soil. In soil and water conservation, the
agronomical measure is a more economical, long lasting and effective technique. Agronomic
conservation measures function by reducing the impact of raindrops through interception and
thus reducing soil erosion. They also increase infiltration rates and thereby reduce surface
runoff. Widely used agronomic measures for water erosion control are listed below.

4.1.1 Contour Cropping

Contour Cropping is a conservation farming method that is used on slopes to control soil
losses due to water erosion. Contour cropping involves planting crops across the slope instead
of up and down the slope (Fig. 4.1). Use of contour cropping protects the valuable top soil by
reducing the velocity of runoff water and inducing more infiltration. On long and smooth
slope, contour cropping is more effective as the velocity of flow is high under such situation
and contour cropping shortens the slope length to reduce the flow velocity. Contour cropping
is most effective on slopes between 2 and 10 percent.

Fig. 4.1. Contour cropping

4.1.2 Strip Cropping
Strip cropping is the practice of growing strip of crops having poor potential for erosion
control, such as root crop (intertilled crops), cereals, etc., alternated with strips of crops
having good potentials for erosion control, such as fodder crops, grasses, etc., which are close
growing crops (Fig. 4.2). Strip cropping is a more intensive farming practice than contour
farming. The farming practices that are included in this type of farming are contour strip
farming, cover cropping, farming with conservation tillage and suitable crop rotation. A crop
24
rotation with a combination of intertilled and close growing crops, farmed on contours,
provides food, fodder and conserves soil moisture. Close growing crops act as barriers to
flow and reduce the runoff velocity generated from the strips of intertilled crops, and
eventually reduce soil erosion. Strip cropping is laid out by using the following three
methods:

Fig. 4.2. Strip cropping

i) Contour strip cropping: In contour strip cropping, alternate strips of crop are sown more
or less following the contours, similar to contouring. Suitable rotation of crops and tillage
operations are followed during the farming operations.
ii) Field strip cropping: In a field layout of strip cropping, strip of uniform width are laid
out across the prevailing slope, while protecting the soil from erosion by water. To protect the
soil from erosion by wind, strips are laid out across the prevailing direction of wind. Such
practices are generally followed in areas where the topography is very irregular, and the
contour lines are too curvy for strict contour farming.
iii) Buffer strip cropping: Buffer strip cropping is practiced where uniform strip of crops are
required to be laid out for smooth operations of the farm machinery, while farming on a
contour strip cropping layout. Buffer strip of legumes, grasses and similar other crops are laid
out between the contour strips as correction strips. Buffer strips provide very good protection
and effective control of soil erosion.

4.1.3 Mulching
Mulches are used to minimize rain splash, reduce evaporation, control weeds, reduce
temperature of soil in hot climates, and moderate the temperature to a level conducive to
microbial activity. Mulches help in breaking the energy of raindrops, prevent splash and
dissipation of soil structure, obstruct the flow of runoff to reduce their velocity and prevent
sheet and rill erosion (Fig. 4.3). They also help in improving the infiltration capacity by
maintaining a conductive soil structure at the top surface of land.

25
 Fig. 4.3. Mulching of cropped field.
4.2.3.1 Types of mulching material: To protect the land from erosion different types of
materials are used as listed below.
1. Cut grasses or foliage
2. Straw materials
3. Wood chips
4. Saw dusts
5. Papers
6. Stones
7. Glass wools
8. Metal foils
9. Cellophanes
10. Plastics

26
 Lecture 5:: Terraces for Water Erosion Control
Practical 2:: Design of Bench Terracing System

One of the most

st effective actions that can take to mitigate the problem of an eroding slope is
to break up the rate of water decent by constructing terraces. The terraces for water erosion
control consist of some mechanism to protect land surface as well as to reduce tthe erosive
velocity of runoff water. It involves some land surface modification for retention and safe
disposal of rainfall

5.1 Terraces and their Design

A Terrace is an earth-embankment,
embankment, constructed across the slope, to control runoff and
minimize soil erosion.
rosion. A terrace acts as an intercept to land slope, and divides the sloping
land surface into strips. In limited widths of strips, the slope length naturally available for
runoff is reduced. It has been found that soil loss is proportional to the square root of the
length of slope; i.e. by shortening the length of run, soil erosion is reduced. The soil eroded
by the runoff scour and the raindrop splash flows down the slope, and gets blocked up by
terraces. The scour of soil surface because of runoff water is initiated by the runoff at a
velocity above the critical value, attained during a flow on long length of the sloping run.
Thus, by shortening the length of run, the runoff velocity remains less than the critical value
and therefore soil erosion owing tto scour is prevented.
Terraces are classified into to two major types: broad
broad-base
base terraces and bench terraces.
Broad-base
base terraces are adapted where the main purpose is either to remove or retain water
on sloping land suitable for cultivation whereas, the purpose of bench terraces is mainly to
reduce the land slope. The classification of the terraces is given in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1. Types of terraces

27
5.2 Bench Terracing
The original bench terrace system consists of a series of flat shelf-like areas that convert a
steep slope of 20 to 30 percent to a series of level, or nearly level benches (Fig. 5.2). In other
words, bench terracing consists of construction of series of platforms along contours cut into
hill slope in a step like formation. These platforms are separated at regular intervals by
vertical drop or by steep sided and protected by vegetation and sometimes packed by stone
retaining walls. In fact, bench terrace converts the long un-interrupted slope into several
small strips and make protected platform available for farming. In several hilly areas bench
terraces have been used for the purpose of converting hill slopes to suit agriculture. In some
areas where the climatic conditions favour the growing of certain cash crops like potato,
coffee etc., the hill slopes are to be bench terraced before the area is put for cultivation of
these crops. Bench terraces have also been adopted for converting sloping lands into irrigated
fields or for orchard plantations.

Bench terracing is one of the most popular mechanical soil conservation practices adopted by
farmers of India and other countries for ages. On sloping and undulating lands, intensive
farming can be only adopted with bench terracing. It consists of construction of step like
fields along contours by half cutting and half filling. Original slope is converted into level
fields and thus all hazards of erosion are eliminated. All the manure and fertilizers applied are
retained in the field. In sloping irrigated lands, bench terracing helps in proper water
management. Bench terraces are normally constructed in lands having slope between 20 and
30%.

Fig. 5.2. Bench terrace and its different components.

28
5.3 Types of Bench Terraces and their adaptability
Depending on the purpose for which they are used, bench terraces are also classified as
follows:

1. Level Bench Terrace: Paddy fields require uniform impounding of water. Level bench
terraces are used for the same and to facilitate uniform impounding. Sometimes this type of
terraces are termed as table top, or paddy terraces, conveying the same that such bench is as
level as top of the table.

2. Inward Sloping Bench Terrace: Crops like potato are extremely susceptible to water
logging. In that case the benches are made with inward slope to drain off excess water as
quickly as possible. These are especially suited for steep slopes. It is essential to keep the
excess runoff towards hill (original ground) rather than on fill slopes. These inwardly sloping
bench terraces have a drain on inner side, which has a grade along its length to convey the
excess water to one side, from where it is disposed-off by well stabilized vegetated waterway.
These are widely used in Nilgiri hills of Tamilnadu state as well as on steep Himalayan slope
in Himachal Pradesh and North-Eastern hill regions. Longitudinal slope of 1 in 120 and
inward slope of 1 in 40 is adopted in Nilgris.

3. Outward Sloping Bench Terraces: Farmers many a times carry out the leveling process
in phases, doing part of the job every year. As such outward sloping bench is usually a step
towards construction of level or inward sloping bench terraces. In places of low rainfall or
shallow soils, the outwardly sloping bench terraces are used to reduce the existing steep slope
to mild slope. In this type of terraces constructed on soils not having good permeability,
provision of graded channel at lower end has to be kept, to safely dispose off surplus water to
some water way. In very permeable soils a strong bund with arrangement may take care for
most of the rainfall events, while during heavy rainfall storm, the excess water may flow
from one terrace to another. Attempt is usually made to dispose off this to some waterway at
an earliest possible spot.

5.4 Design of Bench Terraces

For the designing of the bench terraces for a particular tract the average rainfall, the
soil type, soil depth and the average slope of the area should be known. In addition
the purpose for which the terraces are to be constructed should also be known. The
design of bench terraces consists of determining the (1) type of the bench terrace, (2)
terrace spacing or the depth of the cut, (3) terrace width, and (4) terrace cross section.

29
Selection of the type of bench terrace among the three types, described earlier, depen
ds upon the rainfall and soil conditions.

Terrace spacing is generally expressed as the vertical interval between two terraces. The
vertical interval (D) is dependent upon the depth of the cut and since the cut and fill are to
be balanced, it is equal to double the depth of cut. The factors that limit the depth of cut are
the soil depth in the area and the slope. The depth of cut should not be too high as to expose
the bed rock which makes the bench terraces uns
unsuitable
uitable for cultivation. In higher slopes
greater depth of cuts result in greater heights of embankments which may become unstable.
The width of the bench terraces (W) should be as per the requirement (purpose) for which the
terraces are to be put after construction.
nstruction. Once the width of the terrace is decided, the depth of
cut required can be calculated using the following formulae.

Case 1: When the terrace cuts are vertical

(5.1)
S is thee land slope in percent; D/2 is the depth of cut and W is the width of terrace.
Case 2: When the batter slope is 1:1

(5.2)
Case 3: When the batter slope is ½: 1

(5.3)

30
After deciding the required width, the depth of cut can be calculated from one of the above
formulae.

Fig: 5.3 Cross section of bench terraces.

The design of the terrace cross section consists of deciding (1) the batter slope, (2)
dimensions of the shoulder bund, (3) inward slope of the terrace and the dimensions of the
drainage channel in case of terraces sloping inward, and (4) outward slope in case of terraces
sloping outward (Fig. 5.3). The batter slope is mainly for the stability of the fill or the
embankment. The flatter the batter slope, the larger the area lost due to bench terracing.
Vertical cuts are to be used in very stable soils and when the depth of the cut is small (up to 1
m). Batter slopes of ½: 1 can be used in loose and unstable soils. The size of the shoulder
bunds in case of terraces sloping inward is nominal. In case of terraces with flat top and
sloping outwards, larger sections of shoulder bunds are required as water stands against these
bunds. The bund cross section depends upon the terrace width and soil conditions. The
inward slope of the terrace may be from 1 in 50 to 1 in 10 depending upon the soil conditions.
For these terraces a drainage channel is to be provided at the inner edge of the terrace to
dispose of the runoff.

5.5 Alignment of Bench Terraces

Alignment of bench terraces should start from the ridge and progress towards the valley. The
average land slope of the area to be terraced should be determined by taking levels and then
the specifications of the terrace should be worked out. Contour lines may be marked with the
help of a leveling instrument. Taking a contour line as the centre line, the terrace width may
be marked on the ground. The alignment may now be examined and suitable adjustments

31
should be made wherever necessary taking into considerations the local conditions like
depressions, sharp turns, field boundaries etc. that exist at the site.
Construction of the bench terraces may be started from the highest terrace and proceeded
downwards. By this method, the top soil and the subsoil get mixed up and the top soil may
not be available for the terrace surface. In cases where the subsoil condition is not good, it is
necessary to keep the top soil apart and again spread it on the terrace. This can be
accomplished by starting the construction of the terraces from the lower most one. After the
construction of the first terrace, the top soil from the second terrace may be spread on the first
terrace and the process continued for subsequent terraces. In bench terraced areas, suitable
outlets should be provided to dispose of the runoff safely. In most of the cases one of the
sides of the hill slope where vegetation is well established can be used as the outlet. Where
such outlets are not available or feasible, waterways are to be formed to dispose of the runoff.

5.6 Area Lost for Cultivation due to Bench Terracing

The area lost for cultivation due to bench terracing of a slope can be calculated as follows.
Consider a batter slope of 1:1. Let D be the vertical interval of the benches to be laid out on a
land with a slope of S %, along AB in Fig. 5.3 and the batter of the risers is 1:1. L is the
horizontal interval between the benches i.e., projected length of AB on horizontal plane. Area
lost in bench terracing (AL) is given by:

The percentage width lost can be taken as the percentage area lost. When the batter is
vertical, the length of bench terrace per hectare in metres will be 10000/W where W is in
metres. When the batter slope is 1:1 the length per hectare in metres will be 10000/W + D; D
and W being in meters.

When batter slope of 1/2:1, then Area lost in bench terracing (AL) is given by:

S + 100

32
5.7 Examples of Terrace Design
Probl 1) On a 20% hill slope, it is proposed to constructed bench terraces. If the vertical
interval of terrace is 2 m, calculate (i) length of terrace per hectare, (ii) earth work required
per hectare, and (iii) area lost per hectare both for vertical cut and batter slope of 1:1. The cut
should be equal to fill.
Solution
Using the equation for vertical cut, and estimating the width of bench terrace (W)-

33
Probl 2) A 15% hilly land is proposed for constructing the bench terrace. Calculate the
following parameters of bench terrace using 2.5m as vertical interval and 1:1 as batter slope:
(1) Width, (2) length per hectare, (3) earthwork per hectare and (4) area lost.

34
 Lecture 6: Bunding Methods for Water Erosion Control
Practical 3: Design of Bunds

Bunding is a mechanical method for control of soil erosion. When agronomical measures
alone are not sufficient, such and other mechanical measures should be adopted.

6.1 Mechanical Measures for Water Erosion Control

Mechanical practices are engineering measures used to control erosion from slopping land
surfaces and thus land surface modification is done for retention and safe disposal of runoff
water. In the design of such practices, the basic approach is (i) to increase the time of stay of
runoff water in order to increase the infiltration time for water, (ii) to decrease the effect of
land slope on runoff velocity by intercepting the slope at several points so that the velocity is
less than the critical velocity, and (iii) to protect the soil from erosion caused by the runoff
water. The mechanical measures adopted for soil and water conservation are: bunding,
terracing etc.

6.2 Bunds (Contour Bunds, Graded Bunds) and their Design

Bund is an engineering measure of soil conservation, used for creating obstruction across the
path of surface runoff to reduce the velocity of flowing water. It retains the running off water
in the watershed and thus to helps to control soil erosion. Bunds are simply embankment like
structures, constructed across the land slope. Different types of bunds are used for erosion
control and moisture conservation in the watersheds. When the bunds are constructed along
the contours with some minor deviation to adapt to practical situation, they are known
as contour bunds. If the bunds are constructed with some slope, they are known as graded
bunds. No farming is done on bunds expects at some places, where some types of
stabilization grasses are planted to protect the bund. The choice of the types of bund is
dependent on land slope, rainfall, soil type and the purpose of the bund in the area. The
contour bunds are recommended for areas with low annual rainfall (< 600 mm) agricultural
fields with permeable soils and having a land slope of less than 6%, while graded bunds are
used for safe disposal of excess runoff in areas with high rainfall and relatively impervious
soil.
In India, contour and graded bunding have been practiced for a long time and the Indian
farmers have very good knowledge about it. From the experience, it has been found that
bunds could stand well in shallow, medium and medium deep soils. In deep black soil, due to
cracks in dry condition, the bunds fail. Through these cracks, water continues to flow and big
breaches are usually created. This results in severe damage to the fields. Although various

35
erosion problems exist in black cotton soils, contour bunding cannot be taken up in such soils
successfully.

6.2.1 Contour Bunds

Contour bunds are laid out in those areas which have less rainfall and permeable soils. The
major requirements in such areas are prevention of soil erosion and conservation of rain water
in the soil for crop use. To maximize the conservation of rainwater in the soil, no longitudinal
slope is provided to the field strip. In such a system of bunding, the bunds are designed to be
laid out on contours with minor adjustments, wherever necessary.
The main functions of contour bunds are:
1. It reduces the length of slope which in turn reduces the soil erosion.
2. The water is impounded for some time and gets recharged into the soil
which helps in crop cultivation.
The limitations of contour bunds are:
1. The contour bunds are suitable for those areas, which receive the
annual rainfall less than 600 mm
2. It is not suitable for clayey soils
3. Contour bunding is not suitable on the land slopes greater than 6%.

6.2.2 Graded Bunds

Graded bunds are laid out in areas where the land is susceptible to water erosion, the soil is
less permeable and the area has water logging problems. A graded bund system is designed to
dispose of excess runoff safely form agricultural fields. A graded bund is laid out with a
longitudinal slope gradient leading to outlet. The gradient can be either uniform or variable.
The uniformly-graded bunds are suitable for areas where the bunds need shorter lengths and
the runoff is low. The variable-graded bunds are required where bunds need longer lengths,
owing to which the cumulative runoff increases towards the outlets. In these types of bunds,
variations in the grade are provided at different sections of the bund to keep the runoff
velocity within the desired limits so as not to cause any soil erosion.
The limitations of the system are:
 Due to crossing of farm implements, the bunds are disturbed and some
soil is lost.
 Proper maintenance is required at regular interval.

36
6.3 Design Specification of Bunds
The following parameterss should be considered for bund design:

1. Type of Bund: The type of bund (contour or graded bund) to be constructed depends
upon the rainfall and soil condition. Contour bunds are preferred for construction in areas
receiving annual rainfall less than 600 mm and where soil moisture is a limiting factor for
crop production. Graded bunds are recommended in heavy and medium rainfall areas. The
grade to be provided to the bund may vary from 0.2% to 0.3%.

2. Spacing of the Bunds: The basic principles to bbee adopted for deciding the spacing of
bunds are: (1) the seepage zone below the upper bund should meet the saturation zone of the
lower bund; (2) the bunds should check the water at a point where the water attains erosive
velocity and (3) the bund should nnot
ot cause inconvenience to the agricultural operations.
For determining the spacing of the bunds the following formula is used:

(6.1)
where,
V.I. = vertical interval between consecutive bunds,
S = land slope (percent) and
a and b = constants, depend upon the soil and rainfall characteristics of the area.
The above equation is area specific. It can be modified for areas with different rainfall
amounts.
1. For the areas of heavy rainfall:

(6.2)
2. For the areas having low rainfall

(6.3)
In which, VI is in cm and S is in percent.
The bund spacing can not be easily located on the ground on the basis of vertical interval. But
the horizontal interval
nterval (spacing) can be easily measured on the land surface. For this purpose,
the relationship between horizontal and vertical spacing is important and is given below.
H.I. = V.I. / S
Here, H.I. indicates the horizontal distance of the bund and V.I. is tthe
he vertical interval.

37
3. Size of the Bund: The size of bund includes its height, top width, side slopes and bottom
width. The height of bunds mainly depends upon the slope of the land, spacing of the bunds
and the maximum intensity of rainfall expected in the area. Once the height of the bund is
determined, other dimensions of the bund viz., base width, top width and side slopes are
determined using the information on the nature of the soil. Depending on the amount of water
to be intercepted, the height of the bund can be calculated as given below (Fig. 6.1).
Let X = height of the bund, L = distance between bunds, V = vertical interval between bunds,
and W = width of water spread.

Fig. 6.1. Basic diagram for deriving the height of bund

(6.4)
Considering 1m length of the bund, amount of water stored = ½ WX
Substituting for W from Eqn. 6.4, amount of water stored

(6.5)
Assuming that any time the maximum rainfall, which the bunds have to withstand, is 15 cm
high; water retained by 1 m length of the bund

(6.6)
Now equating both these values:

When, the land slope is expressed as S per cent.

V = LS/100

38
 (6.8)
L and X are in meters and S is the per cent slope. This is the theoretical height and suitable
free board is added to arrive at the practical height of the bund.

Base width of the bund depends upon the hydraulic gradient of water in the soil. Side slopes
are dependent upon the angle of repose of the soil. A general value of the hydraulic gradient
assumed is 1:4. Side slopes of the bund recommended for different soils are given in Table
6.1.
Table 6.1. Side slopes of the bunds recommended for different soil types (Source:
Murthy, 1994)

Side slopes 1.5 to 1 2 to 1 2.5 to 1

Red Gravel Light Sandy loam

Light red loam Clay

Soil types Sand
Black loam Black cotton soil

White gravel Soft decomposed rock

Some of the typical cross sections of bunds are shown in Table 6.2. Usually a higher size of
the bunds than required by the hydraulic considerations is adopted to allow for the settlement
and poor maintenance by the cultivators.

Table 6.2. Typical bund cross-sections for scarcity areas (Source: Murthy, 1994)

Top width Bottom width Side

Soil Types Height(m)
(m) (m) Slope

Full maximum or soil layer up

0.45 1.95 0.75 1:1
to 7.5 cm

Soil layer from 7.5 cm to 23

0.45 2.55 0.83 1.25 :1
cm

Full soil or soil layer from 23

0.53 3.0 0.83 1.50: 1
cm to 45 cm

Full soil 45 cm to 80 cm 0.60 4.2 0.90 2:1

39
4. Length of Bund. The length of bund is determined by calculating the horizontal interval of
the bund formed. The length of bund per hectare area of land is given as:
L= 10000/H.I
= (10000*S)/(VI*100)
= 100(S/VI) (6.9)

5. Earth Work: The earth work of bunding system includes the sum of earthwork ma
made in
main bunds, side bunds and lateral bunds formed in the field. The earthwork of any bund is
obtained by multiplying the cross
cross-sectional
sectional area to its total length. The total earthwork can be
given by the following equation.
Et = Em + Es + El (6.10)
where, Et = total earthwork, Em = earthwork of main bunds, Es = earthwork of side bunds,
El = earthwork of lateral bunds, Em = cross-sectional area
ea * total length of bund = (100S/VI)*
cross-sectional area.
Therefore, Es + El = ((100S/VI) * 30/100) * cross
cross-sectional area
Therefore, total Et = Em + Es + Et
= (100S/VI + 30S/VI)* cross
cross-sectional area
= 130S/VI * cross-sectional area
Et = 1.3 * (100S/VI) * cross-sectional
sectional area of bund
In the above calculation the value of Es + El is taken as 30% earth work of main contour bund
(Em) by assuming that the length of side and lateral bund to be as 30% of the length of main
bund and their cross-sectional
sectional area is also equal to main bund.

6. Area Lost due to Bunding: It is calculated by multiplying the length of contour bund per
hectare with its base width. i.e
AL = 10000/HI * b
= 100S/VI * b
Where,
ere, b is the base width of bund.
This equation computes only the area lost due to main contour bund and not the area lost due
to side and lateral bunds. Usually, the area lost due to side and lateral bunds is taken as 30%
of the area lost due to main cont
contour
our bund. Thus, the total area lost due to contour bunding is:

40
The above equation can also be written in the following form to compute the area lost in
percentage due to bunding:

AL (%) = 1.3*S*b/VI

6.4 Construction of Bunds

Construction of bunds should start from the ridge and continue down the valley. This will
ensure protection of the bunds if rains occur during construction. The base width area of the
bund should be cleared of vegetation and the soil in this area should also be slightly
distributed so that good binding can be achieved when the bund is formed over it. The burrow
pits for the soil are generally located on the upstream side of the bund. It should have a
uniform depth of 30 cm and the width can be varied as per necessity. The burrow pits should
be continuous and no breaks are to be left. The burrow pits should not be located in a gully or
depression. When the soil is dug, the clods should not be put on the bund at a time. The earth
should be put in layers of 15 cm and consolidated by trampling. The templates of the
specified dimensions are used for checking the bund section. The bund section should be
finally shaped, trimmed and slightly rammed on the top and the sides. After the bund
formation, it is desirable to plough the field and the burrow pit.

41
 Lecture 7: Gully Erosion and Control Measures

Gully erosion is an advance stage of rill erosion as rill erosion is the advanced stage of sheet
erosion. It is the most spectacular form of erosion. Any concentration of surface runoff is a
potential source of gully erosion. The Soil Conservation Society of America defines a gully
as “a channel or miniature valley cut by concentrated runoff but through which water
commonly flows only during and immediately after heavy rains. It may be dendritic or
branching or it may be linear, rather long, narrow and of uniform width”. In India, the rate of
soil erosion from gullies is 33 t/ha/yr in ravine regions (Shekinah and Saraswathy, 2005). The
distinction between ravine, gully and rills is that of size. A gully is too large to be filled by
normal tillage practices. A ravine is a deep narrow gorge. It is larger than a gully and is
usually worn down by running water. It is estimated that about 4 million ha of land in India
are affected by gully erosion (Michael and Ojha, 2012).

7.1 Development of Gullies

The main processes in the development of gullies are waterfall erosion and channel erosion.
These two erosions are commonly found in the same gully. The extension of the gully head is
usually by waterfall erosion; while the scouring of bottom and sides which enlarges the depth
and width of gullies is by channel erosion. Gullies usually start with channel erosion. When
an overfall develops at the head of the gully, the gully continues to develop by waterfall
erosion. The waterfall erosion at gully head and advancement of the gully towards the upper
edge of the watershed is shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1. Waterfall erosion at gully head.

The gully development is recognized in four stages:

Formation Stage: Scouring of top soil in the direction of general slope occurs as the runoff
water concentrates. It normally proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly resistant to
erosion.

42
Development Stage: Causes upstream movement of the gully head and enlargement of the
gully in width and depth. The gully cuts to the C-horizon of soil, and the parent materials are
removed rapidly as water flows.

Healing Stage: Vegetation starts growing in the gully.

Stabilization Stage: Gully reaches a stable gradient, gully walls attain a stable slope and
sufficient vegetation cover develops over the gully surface to anchor the soil and permit
development of new topsoil.

7.2 Classification of Gullies

Gullies can be classified based on three factors viz. their size, shape (cross section) and
formation of branches or continuation. The detailed classification is discussed below.

7.2.1 Based on Size (depth and drainage area)

Gully classification based on the size is presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. Gully classification based on size

Classification Depth (m) Drainage area (ha)

Small <1 <2

Medium 1 to 5 2 to 20

Large >5 > 20

7.2.2 Based on Shape

The classification of gullies based on shape is shown in Fig 7.2.
U-Shaped: These are formed where both the topsoil and subsoil have the same resistance
against erosion. Because the subsoil is eroded as easily as the topsoil, nearly vertical walls are
developed on each side of the gully.
V-Shaped: These gullies develop where the subsoil has more resistance than topsoil against
erosion. This is the most common form of gully.
Trapezoidal: These gullies are formed where the gully bottom is made of more resistant
material than the topsoil. Below the bottom of gully, the subsoil layer has much more
resistance to get eroded and thus the development of further depth of gully is restricted.

43
 Fig. 7.2. Gully classes based on the shape of gully cross-section.

7.2.3 Based on the Formation of Branches or Continuation

Continuous Gullies: These gullies consist of many branches. A continuous gully has a main
gully channel and many mature or immature branch gullies. A gully network is made up of
many continuous gullies. A multiple-gully system may be composed of several gully
networks.

Discontinuous Gullies: These may develop on hillsides after landslides. They are also called
independent gullies. At the beginning of its development, a discontinuous gully does not have
a distinct junction with the main gully or stream channel. Flowing water in a discontinuous
gully spreads over a nearly flat area. After some time, it reaches the main gully channel or
stream. Independent gullies may be scattered between the branches of a continuous gully, or
they may occupy a whole area without there being any continuous gullies.

7.3 Principles of Gully Control

Generally, gullies are formed by an increase in surface runoff. Therefore, minimizing surface
runoff is essential in gully control. The rate of gully erosion depends primarily on the runoff
producing characteristics of the watershed, the watershed area, soil characteristics, size-shape
and slope of gully etc. Watersheds deteriorate because of misuse of the land (man made
changes), short intensive rainstorms, prolonged rains of moderate intensity, and rapid snow
melts. The precipitation factors which turn into high runoff, develop flooding and form
gullies. In gully control, the following three methods should be applied according to the order
given:
 Improvement of gully catchments to reduce and regulate the runoff rates (peak flows).
 Diversion of surface water above the gully area.
 Stabilization of gullies by structural measures and accompanying re-vegetation.
44
When the first and/or second methods are applied in some regions of the countries with
temperate climates, small or incipient gullies may be stabilized without having to use the
third method. On the other hand, in tropical and subtropical countries which have heavy rains
(monsoons, typhoons, tropical cyclones, etc.); all three methods have to be applied for
successful gully control.

7.4 Gully Control Measures

Preventing the formation of gully is much easier than controlling it once it has formed. One
of the major steps in a gully control programme is to plan the control of runoff from the
drainage area. The various methods employed for controlling runoff may be considered in the
following order:
 Retention of Runoff on the Drainage Area: It is possible through good crop
management and applicable conservation practices such as contouring, strip
cropping, bunding, terracing etc. Where contour bunds are used, runoff is
greatly reduced. On cultivated areas, small and medium sized gullies can also
be reclaimed by placing a series of earthfills across the gully.
 Diversion of Runoff Around the Gullied Area: The most effective control of
gullies is by complete elimination of runoff from the gullied area. This can be
obtained by diverting runoff from the gully, causing it to flow at a non- erosive
velocity to a suitable outlet. Terraces and diversion ditches are generally used
for diverting runoff from its natural outlet. Terraces are very effective in the
control of small gullies on cultivated fields or even medium size shallow
gullies. If the slope above a gully is too steep for terracing, or if the drainage
area is pasture or woodland, diversion ditches may be used to keep the runoff
out of the gully.
 Conveyance of Runoff through the Gully: If it is not possible to either retain
or divert the runoff, then runoff must be conveyed through the gully itself. This
is possible only if vegetation can be established in the gullies, or if soil
conservation structures are built at critical points to give primary control.

7.5 Classification of Gully Control Measures or Structures

Basically gully control structures are used to reduce soil erosion, control sedimentation, and
harvesting water. Gully control measures are mainly of two types.

45
7.5.1 Biological or Vegetative Measures
7.5.1.1 Anti-Erosion Crops
These crops stabilize gully. Crops produced provide supplementary income.
7.5.1.2 Changing Gully into Grassed Waterway
Small and medium size gullies can be converted into grassed waterways. In practice, gully is
shaped and suitable species of grasses are grown. Channel cross
cross-section
section should be broad and
flat, to keep water spread uniform over a wide area.
7.5.1.3 Sod Flumes
It may bee successfully used to control overfall in gullies with head < 3 m and area <10 ha.
The design of sod flume is shown in Fig 7.3. It serves the purpose of preventing further
waterfall erosion by providing a protected surface over which the runoff may flow iinto the
gully. Slope varies with the soil type, size of watershed, height of overfall and type of sod
used. 4:1 is the steepest slope considered for its design. To maintain a non
non-erosive velocity,
flume should be wide enough. The maximum depth of flow over the flume should not exceed
30 cm.

Fig. 7.3. Sod flume.

7.5.1.4 Sod Strip Checks
These checks are best adapted to small gullies with small to medium sized watersheds. These
checks cannot be used in gullies with very steep grades. Strips are laid across gully channel
(Fig. 7.4). Strips should have a minimum width of 30 cm and should extend up to gully sides
at least 15 cm. Strip spacing usually varies from 1.5 to 2.0 m.

Fig. 7.4A. Sod strip checks.

46
Fig. 7.4B. A series of sod-strip
strip checks in a small ggully.
ully. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61.
USDA, SCS).

7.5.1.5 Low Sodded Earthfills

These are used as substitutes for temporary gully controlled structures in small and medium
sized gullies. Already growing sods are cut along with soil mass and combined togeth
together to
form earth fill dams (Fig. 7.5). They are constructed with a maximum height of 45 cm,
upstream (u/s) side slope of 3:1 and downstream (d/S) side slope of 4:1.

Fig. 7.5 Low sodded earthfills.

7.5.1.6 Trees, Shrubs etc.
Trees, shrubs etc. are used to stabilize severely eroded gullied area. Generally gullied area is
fenced and trees are grown. A plant spacing of 1 × 1 m, 1.2 × 1.2 m or a maximum of 2 × 2
m should be maintained.

7.5.2 Engineering Measures (Temporary and Permanent)

7.5.2.1 Temporary Gully
lly Control Structures (TGCS)
TGCS have a life span of 3 to 8 years and they are pretty effective where the amount of
runoff is not too large. These are made of locally available materials. Basic purposes they
serve are to retain more water as well as soil for proper plant growth and prevent channel

47
erosion until sufficient vegetation is established on the upstream side of the gully. TGCS are
of many types:
 Woven wire check dams
 Brush dams
 Loose rock dams
 Plan or slab dams
 Log check dams
 Boulder check dams

7.5.2.2 Permanent Gully Control Structures (PGCS)

If the erosion control programmer requires bigger structure, then PGCS are used. They
include:
 Drop spillway
 Drop-inlet spillway
 Chute spillway
 Permanent earthen check dams

7.6 Design Criteria of TGCS

 The overall height of a temporary check shouldn’t ordinarily be more than 75
cm. An effective height of about 30 cm is usually considered sufficient. Also,
sufficient freeboard is necessary.
 Life of the check dams under ordinary conditions should be in between 3 to 8
years.
 Spillway capacity of check dams is generally designed to handle peak runoff that
may be expected once in 5 to 10 year return period.
 Since the purpose of check dams in gully control is to eliminate grade in the
channel, check dams theoretically should be spaced in such a way that the crest
elevation of one will be same as the bottom elevation of the adjacent dam up-
stream.
 As an integral part of most of the checks dams, an apron or platform of sufficient
length and width must be provided at the down-stream end to catch the water
falling over the top and to conduct it safely without scouring.

48
7.6.1 Woven Wire Check Dams
Woven-wire check dams are small barriers which are usually constructed to hold fine
material in the gully (Fig. 7.6).
General:
 Used in gullies of moderate slopes (not more than 10 percent) and
small drainage areas that do not have flood flows which carry rocks
and boulders.
 Help in the establishment of vegetation for permanent control of
erosion.
 Dam is built in half-moon shape with the open end up-stream.
 The amount of curvature is arbitrary: but an off-set equal to 1/6th of
the width of gully at the dam site is optimum.
Construction:
 To construct a woven-wire dam, a row of posts is set along the curve
of the proposed dam at about 1.2 m intervals and 60-90 cm deep.
 Heavy gauge woven wire is placed against the post with the lower part
set in a trench (15-20 cm deep), and 25-30 cm projected above the
ground surface along the spillway width.
 Rock, brush or sod may be placed approximately up to a length of 1.2
m to form the apron.
 For sealing the structure, straw, fine brush or similar material should
be placed against the wire on the upstream side upto the height of
spillway.

Fig. 7.6. Woven wire check dams. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61. USDA, SCS).

7.6.2 Brush Dams

General:
 Cheap and easy to build, but least stable of all types of check dams.

49
  Best suited for gullies with small drainage area.
 Center of the dam is kept lower than the ends to allow water to flow
over the dam rather than around it (Fig. 7.7).
Construction:
 For a distance of 3-4.5 m along the site of the structure, sides and
bottom of the gully are covered with thin layer of straw or similar fine
mulch.
 Brushes are then packed closely together over the mulch to about one
half of the proposed height of dam.
 Several rows of stakes are then driven crosswise in the gully, with
rows 60 cm apart, and stakes 30-60 cm apart in the rows.
 Heavy galvanized wire is used to fasten the stakes in a row, as well as
to firmly compress the brushes in places.
 Sometimes large stones are also placed on top of brush to keep it
compressed and in close contact with the bottom of the gully.
 Major weakness is the difficulty of preventing the leaks and constant
attention is required to plug openings of appropriate size with straw as
they develop.

Fig. 7.7. Brush dam. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61. USDA, SCS).

7.6.3 Loose Rock Dams

Loose rock dams made of relatively small rocks are placed across the gully (Fig. 7.8). The
main objectives for these dams are to control channel erosion along the gully bed, and to stop
waterfall erosion by stabilizing gully heads. Loose stone check dams are used to stabilize the
incipient and small gullies and the branch gullies of a continuous gully or gully network. The

50
length of the gully channel is not more than 100 m and the gully catchment area is 2 ha or
less. These dams can be used in all regions.
General:
 Suitable for gullies with small to medium size drainage area.
 Used in areas where stones or rocks of appreciable size and suitable
quality are available.
 Flat stones are the best choice for dam making.
 Stones can be laid in such a way that the entire structure is keyed
together.
 If round or irregular shaped stones are used, structure is generally
encased in woven-wire so as to prevent outside stones from being
washed away.
 If the rocks are small, they should be enclosed in a cage of woven-
wire.

Construction:
 A trench is made across the gully to a depth of about 30 cm. This
forms the base of the dam on which the stones are laid in rows and are
brought to the required height.
 The center of the dam is kept lower than the sides to form spillway.
 To serve as an apron, several large flat rocks may be countersunk
below the spillway, extending about 1 m down-stream from the base of
the dam.

Fig. 7.8. Loose rock dam. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61. USDA, SCS).

7.6.4 Plank or Slab Dam

General:
 These dams are suitable in areas where timber is plentiful, and dam can
be constructed with much less labor as compared to other types of
temporary structures.
 These dams can generally be used in gullies with larger drainage area.

51
Construction:
 The planks are placed across the gully to form the dam. If the planks
are not close fitting, straw or grass may be used for sealing purposes.
 A suitable opening for the spillway notch is made over the headwall.
On the up-stream face, a well tempered earth fill is made.
 On the down-stream, the apron may be made of loose rock, brush, sod
or planks.

7.6.5 Log Check Dam

They are similar to plank or slab dams. Logs and posts used for the construction are placed
across the gully. They can also be built of planks, heavy boards, slabs, poles or old railroad
ties. The main objectives of log check dams are to hold fine and coarse material carried by
flowing water in the gully, and to stabilize gully heads. They are used to stabilize incipient,
small and branch gullies generally not longer than 100 m and with catchment areas of less
than two hectares. The maximum height of the dam is 1.5 m from the ground level. Both, its
downstream and upstream face inclination are 25 percent backwards. The spillway is
rectangular in shape. In general, the length and depth of spillway are one to two meters and
0.5 to 0.6 m respectively (Fig. 7.9).

Fig. 7.9A. Front view of the first log check dam. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61. USDA,
SCS).

52
Fig. 7.9B. A-A cross-section of the first log check dam and counter dam. (Source: Agr.
Handbook No. 61. USDA, SCS).

7.6.6 Boulder Check Dams

Boulder check dams placed across the gully are used mainly to control channel erosion and to
stabilize gully heads. In a gully system or multiple-gully system all the main gully channels
of continuous gullies (each continuous gully has a catchment area of 20 ha or less and its
length is about 900 m) can be stabilized by boulder check dams. These dams can be used in
all regions. The maximum total height of the dam is 2 m. Foundation depth must be at least
half of the effective height. The thickness of the dam at spillway level is 0.7 to 1.0 m
(average 0.85 m), and the inclination of its downstream face is 30 percent (1:0.3 ratio); the
thickness of the base is calculated accordingly. The upstream face of the dam is usually
vertical. If the above-mentioned dimensions are used, it is not necessary to test the stability of
the dam against overturning, collapsing and sliding. The dimensions of the spillway (Fig.
7.10) should be computed according to the maximum discharge of the gully catchment area.
The form of the spillway is generally trapezoidal.

Fig. 7.10. Front view of the boulder check dam. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61. USDA,
SCS).

53
 Lecture 8: Grassed Waterways
Practical 4: Design of Grassed Waterways

Grassed waterways are natural or man made constructed channels established for the
transport of concentrated flow at safe velocities from the catchment using adequate erosion
resistant vegetation which cover the channels. These channels are used for the safe disposal
of excess runoff from the crop lands to some safe outlet, namely rivers, reservoirs, streams
etc. without causing soil erosion. Terraced and bunded crop lands, diversion channels,
spillways, contour furrows, etc. from which excess runoff is to be disposed of, preferably use
constructed grassed waterways for safe disposal of the runoff. The grassed waterways outlets
are constructed prior to the construction of terraces, bunds etc. because grasses take time to
get established on the channel bed. Generally, it is recommended that there should be a gap of
one year so that the grasses can be established during the rainy season.

8.1 Purpose of Grassed Waterways

Grassed waterways are used as outlets to prevent rill and gully formation. The vegetative
cover slows the water flow, minimizing channel surface erosion. When properly constructed,
grassed waterways can safely transport large water flows to the down slope. These waterways
can also be used as outlets for water released from contoured and terraced systems and from
diverted channels. This best management practice can reduce sedimentation of nearby water
bodies and pollutants in runoff. The vegetation improves the soil aeration and water quality
(impacting the aquatic habitat) due to its nutrient removal (nitrogen, phosphorus, herbicides
and pesticides) through plant uptake and sorption by soil. The waterways can also provide a
wildlife habitat.

8.2 Design of Grassed Waterways

The designs of the grassed waterways are similar to the design of the irrigation channels and
are designed based on their functional requirements. Generally, these waterways are designed
for carrying the maximum runoff for a 10- year recurrence interval period. The rational
formula is invariably used to determine the peak runoff rate. Waterways can be shorter in
length or sometimes, can be even very long. For shorter lengths, the estimated flow at the
waterways outlets forms the design criterion, and for longer lengths, a variable capacity
waterway is designed to account for the changing drainage areas.

8.2.1 Size of Waterway

The size of the waterway depends upon the expected runoff. A 10 year recurrence interval is
used to calculate the maximum expected runoff to the waterway. As the catchment area of the
waterway increases towards the outlet, the expected runoff is calculated for different reaches

54
of the waterway and used for design purposes. The waterway is to be given greater cross-
sectional area towards the outlet as the amount of water gradually increases towards the
outlet. The cross-sectional area is calculated using the following formula:

where, a = cross-sectional area of the channel,

Q = expected maximum runoff, and
V = velocity of flow.

8.2.2 Shape of Water Way

The shape of the waterway depends upon the field conditions and type of the construction
equipment used. The three common shapes adopted are trapezoidal, triangular, and parabolic
shapes. In course of time due to flow of water and sediment depositions, the waterways
assume an irregular shape nearing the parabolic shape. If the farm machinery has to cross the
waterways, parabolic shape or trapezoidal shape with very flat side slopes are preferred. The
geometric characteristics of different waterways are shown in Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.2 for
trapezoidal and parabolic waterways respectively.

Fig. 8.1. Trapezoidal Cross-section. (Source: Murty, 2009)

In the figure, d is the depth of water flow, b is bottom width, t is the top width of maximum
water conveyance, T is top width after considering free board depth, (D - d) is the free board
and slope (z) is c/d.
The design dimensions for trapezoidal and parabolic waterways are given in Tables 8.1 and
8.2 respectively.

Table 8.1. Design Dimensions for Trapezoidal Cross-section

55
 Fig. 8.2.
.2. Parabolic Cross
Cross-section.
section. (Source: Murty, 2009)

Table 8.2. Design Dimensions for Parabolic Cross-Section

Section

8.2.3
.2.3 Channel Flow Velocity
The velocity of flow in a grassed waterway is dependent on the condition of the vegetation
and the soil erodibility. It is recommended to have a uniform cover of vegetation over the
channel surface to ensure channel stability and smooth flow. The velocity of flow through the
grassed waterway depends upon the ability of the vegetation in the channel to resist erosion.
Even though different types of grasses have different capabilities to resist erosion; aan average
of 1.0 m/sec to 2.5 m/sec are the average velocities used for design purposes. It may be noted
that the average velocity of flow is higher than the actual velocity in contact with the bed of
the channel. Velocity distribution in a grassed lined cchannelhannel is shown in Fig. 8.3.
Recommended velocities of flow based on the type of vegetation are shown in Table 8.3.

Fig. 8.. 3. Velocity Distribution in Open Channel (Source: Murty, 2009)

56
 Table 8.3. Recommend Velocities of Flow in a Vegetated Channel.

Flow velocity, (m/s)

Type of vegetation cover
Type Magnitude

Spare green cover Low velocity 1-1.15

Good quality cover Medium velocity 1.5-1.8

Excellent quality cover High velocity 1.8-2.5

8.2.4 Design of Cross-Section

The design of the cross-section is done using above given Equation in section 8.2.1 for
finding the area required and Manning’s formula is used for cross checking the velocity. A
trial procedure is adopted. For required cross-sectional area, the dimensions of the channel
section are assumed. Using hydraulic property of the assumed section, the average velocity of
flow through the channel cross-section is calculated using the Manning’s formula as below:

where, V = velocity of flow in m/s; S = energy slope in m/m; R = hydraulic mean radius of
the section in m and n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.
The Manning’s roughness coefficient is to be selected depending on the existing and
proposed vegetation to be established in the bed of the channel. Velocity is not an
independent parameter. It will depend on n which is already fixed according to vegetation, R
which is a function of the channel geometry and slope S for uniform flow. Slope S has to be
adjusted. If the existing land slope gives high velocity, alignment of the channel has to be
changed to get the desired velocity.

Problem 8.1: Design a grassed waterway of parabolic shape to carry a flow of 2.6 m3/s down
a slope of 3 percent. The waterway has a good stand of grass and a velocity of 1.75 m/s can
be allowed. Assume the value of n in Manning’s formula as 0.04.
Solution: Using, Q = AV for a velocity of 1.75 m/s, a cross-section of 2.6/1.75 = 1.485
m2 (~1.5 m2) is needed.
Assuming, t = 4 m, d = 60 cm.

57
The velocity exceeds the permissible limit. Assuming a revised
t = 6 m and d = 0.4 m

The velocity is within the permissible limit.

Q = 1.6 × 1.7 = 2.72 m3/s
The carrying capacity (Q) of the waterway is more than the required. Hence, the design of
waterway is satisfactory. A suitable freeboard to the depth is to be provided in the final
dimensions.

8.2.5 Construction of the Waterways

It is advantageous to construct the waterways at least one season before the bunding. It will
give time for the grasses to get established in the waterways. First, unnecessary vegetation
like shrubs etc. are removed from the area is marked for the waterways. The area is then
ploughed if necessary and smoothened. Establishment of the grass is done either by seeding
or sodding technique. Maintenance of the waterways is important for their proper operation.
Removal of weeds, filling of the patches with grass and proper cutting of the grass are of the
common maintenance operations that should be followed for an efficient use of waterways.

58
8.3 Selection of Suitable Grasses
The soil and climate conditions are the primary factors in selection of vegetations to be
established for construction of grassed waterways. The other factors to be considered for
selection of suitable grasses are duration of establishment, volume and velocity of runoff,
ease of establishment and time required to develop a good vegetative cover. Furthermore, the
suitability of the vegetation for utilization as feed or hay, spreading of vegetation to the
adjoining fields, cost and availability of seeds and redundancy to shallow flows in relation to
the sedimentation are the important factors that should be considered for the selection of
vegetation.
Generally, the rhizomatous grasses are preferred for the waterway, because they get spread
very quickly and provide more protection to the channel than the brush grasses. Deep rooted
legumes are seldom used for grassed waterways, because they have the tendency to loosen
the soil and thus make the soil more erodible under the effect of fast flowing runoff water.
Sometimes, a light seeding of small grain is also used to develop a quick cover before the
grasses are fully established in the waterway.

8.4.1 Maintenance
The grasses grown in waterway should always be kept short and flexible, so that they shingle
as water flows over them, but do not lodge permanently. For this purpose, the grass should be
mowed two to three times in a year. The mowed grasses must be removed from the
waterway, so that they do not get accumulated at some spots in the waterway and also should
not obstruct the flow. The deposition of mowed grasses in the section of the waterway
reduces the flow capacity of the waterway and also diverts the direction of flowing water
which can cause turbulence and thus damage of the channel. It is also possible to keep the
grasses short by light pasturing, which should not be done in wet condition. When the grass is
pastured, it is necessary to apply manure to discourage grazing. The waterway should not be
used as a road for livestock. After the vegetative cover is established and runoff passes
through them for a long time, a light application of fertilizer should be done because the
flowing runoff removes the plant food from the soil of waterway.
Similarly, if waterways are to be crossed by tillage implements, they should be disengaged,
plough should be lifted and disc straightened. Tillage operation should also be done following
nearly the contour. The waterway and its sides should not be touched during tillage operation.
It is also essential that if there is any damage of the waterway, it should be quickly repaired
so that the damage may not enlarge due to rainfalls. Overall, it should always be remembered
that the waterways are an integral part of watershed conservation or land treatment system. If
they fail to handle the peak discharge due to lack of proper maintenance, then the prolong
flow of runoff through them can develop gullies in the area.

59
Briefly, the maintenance of waterways can be taken up using the following process.
a) The outlets should be safe and open so as not to impede the free flow.
b) Grassed waterways should not be used as footpaths, animal tracks, or as grazing grounds.
c) Frequent crossing of waterways by wheeled vehicles should not be allowed.
d) Newly established waterways should be kept under strict watch.
e) The large waterways should be kept under protection with fencing.
f) Waterways must be inspected frequently during first two rainy seasons, after
construction.
g) If there is any break in the channel or structures, then they should be repaired
immediately.
h) The bushes or large plants grown in the waterway should be removed immediately as
they may endanger the growth of grasses.
i) The level of grass in waterway should be kept as low and uniform as possible to avoid
turbulent flow.

60
 Lecture 9: Soil Loss Estimation by Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
Practical 5: Estimation of Soil Loss

For estimation of soil loss various methods were developed by different scientists over a
period of time. Some of the most useful methods are presented in this chapter.

9.1 Estimation of Soil Loss

The control of erosion is essential to maintain the productivity of soil and to improve or
maintain downstream water quality. The reduction of soil erosion to tolerable limits
necessitates the adoption of properly planned cropping practices and soil conservation
measures. Several methods exist for the measurement of soil loss from different land units.
These include the measurements from runoff plots of various sizes for each single land type
and land use, small unit source watersheds, and large watersheds of mixed land use.
However, to estimate soil erosion, empirical and process based models (equations) are used.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is an empirical equation. It estimates the average
annual mass of soil loss per unit area as a function of most of the major factors affecting sheet
and rill erosions. Estimating soil loss is considerably more difficult than estimating runoff as
there are many variables, both natural such as soil and rainfall and man-made such as
adopted management practices. The soil loss considerably depends on the type of erosion. As
a result, models, whether empirical or process-based, are necessarily complex if they are to
include the effect of all the variables.
For some purposes, meaningful and useful estimates of sediment yield can be obtained from
models, and the best example is the estimation of long-term average annual soil loss from a
catchment by using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE).

9.2 The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

The filed soil loss estimation equations development began in 1940 in USA. Zing (1940)
proposed a relationship of soil loss to slope length raised to a power. Later in 1947, a
committee chaired by Musgrave proposed a soil-loss equation having some similarity to the
present day USLE. Based on nearly 10,000 plot year runoff plot data, Wischmeier and Smith
(1965) developed the universal soil loss equation, which was later refined with more recent
data from runoff plots, rainfall simulators and field experiences. It is the most widely used
tool for estimation of soil loss from agricultural watersheds for planning erosion control
practices. The USLE is an erosion prediction model for estimating long term averages of soil
erosion from sheet and rill erosions from a specified land under specified conditions
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978).

61
It provides an estimate of the long
long-term
term average annual soil loss from segments of arable land
under various cropping conditions. The application of this estimate is to enable farmers and
soil conservation advisers to select combinations of land use, cropping practice, and soil
conservation practices, which will keep the soil loss down to an acceptable level. The
equation (USLE) is presented as below.

where, A = soil loss per unit area in unit time, t ha-1 yr -1, R = rainfall erosivity factor which is
the number of rainfall erosion index units for a particular location, K = soil erodibility factor
- a number which reflects the sus
susceptibility
ceptibility of a soil type to erosion, i.e., it is the reciprocal of
soil resistance to erosion, L = slope length factor, a ratio which compares the soil loss with
that from a field of specified length of 22.6 meters, S = slope steepness factor, a ratio which wh
compares the soil loss with that from a field of specified slope of 9%, C = cover management
factor - a ratio which compares the soil loss with that from a field under a standard treatment
of cultivated bare fallow, and P = support practice factor - a ratio of soil loss with support
practice like contouring, strip cropping or terracing to that with straight row farming up and
down the slope.
The factors L, S, C and P are each dimensionless ratios which allow comparison of the site
for which soil loss iss being estimated with the standard conditions of the database. Knowing
the values of rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility and slope one can calculate the effectiveness of
various erosion control measures with the purpose of introducing a cultivation syste system in an
area with soil loss limited to the acceptable value.
Various factors associated with the above equation are discussed below.

Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)

It refers to the rainfall erosion index, which expresses the ability of rainfall to erode th the soil
particles from an unprotected field. It is a numerical value. From the long field experiments it
has been obtained that the extent of soil loss from a barren field is directly proportional to the
product of two rainfall characteristics: kinetic ener energy
gy of the storm and its 30-minute
30
maximum intensity. The product of these two characteristics is termed as EI or EI30 or rainfall
erosivity. The erosivity factor, R is the number of rainfall erosion index units (EI30) in a given
period at the study location.n. The rainfall erosion index unit (EI30) of a storm is estimated as:

where, KE = kinetic energy of storm in metric tones /ha

/ha-cm, expressed as

62
where, I = rainfall intensity in cm/h, and Ι30 = maximum 30 minutes rainfall intensity of the
storm.
The study period can be a week, month, season or year and this I30 values are different for
different areas. The storm EI30 values for that length of period is summed up. Annual
EI30 values are usually
lly computed from the data available at various meteorological stations
and lines connecting the equal EI30 values (known as Iso-erodent lines)) are drawn for the
region covered by the data stations for ready use in USLE.

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soilil erodibility factor (K) in the USLE relates to the rate at which different soils erode.
Under the conditions of equal slope, rainfall, vegetative cover and soil management practices,
some soils may erode more easily than others due to inherent soil chara characteristics.
cteristics. The direct
measurement of K on unit runoff plots reflect the combined effects of all variables that
significantly influence the ease with which a soil is eroded or the particular slope other than
9% slope. Some of the soil properties which affe affect
ct the soil loss to a large extent are the soil
permeability, infiltration rate, soil texture, size and stability of soil structure, organic content
and soil depth. These are usually determined at special experimental runoff plots or by the
use of empiricall erodibility equations which relate several soil properties to the factor K. The
soil erodibility factor (K) is expressed as tons of soil loss per hectare per unit rainfall
erosivity index, from a field of 9% slope and 22 m (in some cases 22.13 m) field llength. The
soil erodibility factor (K) is determined by considering the soil loss from continuous
cultivated fallow land without the influence of crop cover or management.
The formula used for estimating K is as follows:

where, K = soil erodibility fact

factor, A0 = observed soil loss, S = slope factor, and ΣEI = total
rainfall erosivity index.
Based on runoff plot studies, the values of erodibility factor K have been determined for use
in USLE for different soils of India as reported by Singh et al. (1981). Values of K for several
stations are given in Table 9.1.
.1.

63
 Table 9.1.
.1. Values of K for Several Stations (Source: K. Subramanya, 2008)

Station Soil Type Computed Values of K

Agra Loamy sand, alluvial 0.07

Dehradun Dhulkot silt, loam 0.15

Hyderabad Red cchalka sandy loam 0.08

Kharagpur Soils from laterite rock 0.04

Kota Kota clay loam 0.11

Ootakamund Laterite 0.04

Rehmankhera Loam, alluvial 0.17

Vasad Sandy loam, alluvial 0.06

Topographic Factor (LS)

Slope length factor (L) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length under consideration
to that from the 22.13 m length plots under identical conditions. The slope length has a direct
relation with the soil loss, i.e., it is approximately equal to the square root of the slope length
(L0.5), for the soils on which runoff rate is not affected by the length of slope (Zing, 1940).
Steepness of land slope factor (S) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope gradient to that
from the 9% slope under otherwise identical conditions. The increase in steepness of slope
results in the increase in soil erosion as the velocity of runoff increases with the increase in
field slope allowing more soil to be detached and transported along with surface flow.
The two factors L and S are usually combined into one factor LS called topographic factor. factor
This factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field having specific steepness and length
of slope (i.e., 9% slope and 22.13 m length) to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land.
The value of LS can be calculated
culated by using the formula given by Wischmeier and Smith
(1962):

where, L = field slope length in feet and S = percent land slope.

64
Wischmeier and Smith (1978) again derived the following equation for LS factor in M.K.S.
system, based on the observation
observationss from cropped land on slopes ranging from 3 to 18% and
length from 10 to 100 m. The derived updated equation is:

where, λ = field slope length in meters, m = exponent varying from 0.2 to 0.5, and θ = angle
of slope.

Crop Management Factor (C)

The crop management factor C may be defined as the expected ratio of soil loss from a
cropped land under specific crop to tthe
he soil loss from a continuous fallow land, provided that
the soil type, slope and rainfall conditions are identical. The soil erosion is affected in many
ways according to the crops and cropping practices, such as the kind of crop, quality of cover,
root growth, water use by plants etc. The variation in rainfall distribution within the year also
affects the crop management factor, which affects the soil loss. Considering all these factors,
the erosion control effectiveness of each crop and cropping practi
practice
ce is evaluated on the basis
of five recommended crop stages introduced by Wischmeier (1960). The five stages are:
Period F (Rough Fallow): It includes the summer ploughing or seed bed preparation.
Period 1 (Seed Bed): It refers to the period from seeding to 1 one month thereafter.
Period 2 (Establishment): The duration ranges from 1 to 2 months after seeding.
Period 3 (Growing Period): It ranges from period 2 to the period of crop harvesting.
Period 4 (Residue or Stubble): The period ranges from the harvesting
ting of crop to the summer
ploughing or new seed bed preparation.
For determining the crop management factor the soil loss data for the above stages is
collected from the runoff plot and C is computed as the ratio of soil loss from cropped plot to
the corresponding
esponding soil loss from a continuous fallow land for each of the above five crop
stages separately, for a particular crop, considering various combinations of crop sequence
and their productivity levels. Finally, weighted C is computed. This factor reflec reflects the
combined effect of various crop management practices. Values of factor C for some selected
stations of India are given in Table 9.2.

65
Table 9.2. Values of Crop Management Factors for Different Stations in India (Source:
K Subramanya, 2008)

Station Crop Soil Loss, t ha -1y -1 Value of C

Agra Cultivated fallow 3.80 1.0

Bajra 2.34 0.61

Dichanhium annualtu 0.53 0.13

Dehradun Cultivated fallow 33.42 1.0

Cymbopogon grass 4.51 0.13

Strawberry 8.89 0.27

Hyderabad Cultivated fallow 5.00 1.0

Bajra 2.00 0.40

Support Practice Factor (P)

This factor is the ratio of soil loss with a support practice to that with straight row farming up
and down the slope. The conservation practice consists of mainly contouring, terracing and
strip cropping. The soil loss varies due to different practices followed. Factor P for different
support practices for some locations of India is presented in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3. Different Values of Support Practice Factor (P) for Some Indian
Locations (Source: K. Subramanya, 2008)

Station Practice Factor P

Dehradun Contour cultivation of maize 0.74

Up and down cultivation 1.00

Contour farming 0.68

Terracing and bunding in agricultural watershed 0.03

Kanpur Up and down cultivation of Jowar 1.00

Contour cultivation of Jowar 0.39

Ootacamund Potato up and down 1.00

Potato on contour 0.51

66
9.3 Use of USLE
There are three important applications of the universal soil loss equation. They are as
follows:
 It predicts the soil loss;
 It helps in identification and selection of agricultural practices; and
 It provides the recommendations on crop management practices to be used.
USLE is an erosion prediction model and its successful application depends on the ability to
predict its various factors with reasonable degree of accuracy. It is based on considerably
large experimental data base relating to various factors of USLE.
Based on 21 observation points and 64 estimated erosion values of soil loss obtained by the
use of USLE at locations spread over different regions of the country, soil erosion rates have
been classified into 6 categories. Areas falling under different classes of erosion are shown in
Table 9.4.

Table 9.4. Distribution of various erosion classes in India (Source: K Subramanya,

2008)

Range (Tones/ha/year) Erosion Class Area (km2)

0-5 Slight 801,350

5-10 Moderate 1,405,640

10-20 High 805,030

20-40 Very high 160,050

40-80 Severe 83,300

>80 Very severe 31,895

9.4 Limitations of Universal Soil Loss Equation

The equation involves the procedure for assigning the values of different associated factors
on the basis of practical concept. Therefore, there is possibility to introduce some errors in
selection of the appropriate values, particularly those based on crop concept. Normally R and
K factors are constants for most of the sites/regions in the catchment, whereas, C and LS vary
substantially with the erosion controlled measures, used. The following are some of the
limitations of the USLE:

67
1) Empirical
The USLE is totally empirical equation. Mathematically, it does not illustrate the actual soil
erosion process. The possibility to introduce predictive errors in the calculation is overcome
by using empirical coefficients.

2) Prediction of Average Annual Soil Loss

This equation was developed mainly on the basis of average annual soil loss data; hence its
applicability is limited for estimation of only average annual soil loss of the given area. This
equation computes less value than the measured, especially when the rainfall occurs at high
intensity. The storage basin whose sediment area is designed on the basis of sediment yield
using USLE should be inspected after occurrence of each heavy storm to ensure that the
sedimentation volume in the storage basin is within the limit.

3) Non-computation of Gully Erosion

This equation is employed for assessing the sheet and rill erosions only but can not be used
for the prediction of gully erosion. The gully erosion caused by concentrated water flow is
not accounted by the equation and yet it can cause greater amount of soil erosion.

4) Non-computation of Sediment Deposition

The equation estimates only soil loss, but not the soil deposition. The deposition of sediment
at the bottom of the channel is less than the total soil loss taking place from the entire
watershed. Nevertheless, the USLE can be used for computing the sediment storage volume
required for sediment retention structures., Also the USLE equation can be used as a
conservative measure of potential sediment storage needs, particularly where sediment basins
ranges typically from 2-40 ha and runoff has not traveled farther distance and basin is
intended to serve as the settling area. Again, if the drainage on any site is improperly
controlled and gully erosion is in extensive form, then this equation underestimates the
sediment storage requirement of the retention structure.
During the estimation of contribution of hill slope erosion for basin sediment yield, care
should be taken as it does not incorporate sediment delivery ratio. This equation cannot be
applied for predicting the soil loss from an individual storm, because the equation was
derived to estimate the long term mean annual soil loss. The use of this equation should be
avoided for the locations, where the values of different factors associated with the equation,
are not yet determined.

9.5 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)

Over the last few decades, a co-operative effort between scientists and users to update the
USLE has resulted in the development of RUSLE. The modifications incorporated in USLE
to result the RUSLE are mentioned as under (Kenneth et.al. 1991):

68
  Computerizing the algorithms to assists the calculations.
 New rainfall-runoff
runoff erosivity term (R) in the Western US, based on more than
1200 gauge locations.
 Some revisions and add
additions
itions for the Eastern US, including corrections for
high R-factor
factor areas with flat slopes to adjust splash erosion associated with
raindrops falling on ponded water.
 Development of a seasonally variable soil erodibility term (K).

A new approach for calcula

calculating
ting the cover management term (C) with the sub-
sub
factors representing considerations of prior land use, crop canopy, surface
cover and surface roughness
 New slope length and steepness (LS) algorithms reflecting rill to inter
inter-rill
erosion ratio
 The capacity to calculate LS products for the slopes of varying shapes
 New conservation practices value (P) for range lands, strip crop rotations,
contour factor values and subsurface drainage.

9.6
.6 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)
The USLE was modified by Williams in 1975 to MUSLE by replacing the rainfall energy
factor (R) with another factor called as ‘runoff factor’. The MUSLE is expressed as

where, Y = sediment yield from an individual storm (in metric tones), Q = storm runoff
volume in m3 and qp = the
he peak rate of runoff in m3/s.
All other factors K, (LS), C and P have the same meaning as in USLE (equation 16.1). The
values of Q and qp can be obtained by appropriate runoff models. In this model Q is
considered to represent detachment process and qp iss the sediment transport. It is a sediment
yield model and does not need separate estimation of sediment delivery ratio and is
applicable to individual storms. Also it increases sediment yield prediction accuracy. From
modeling point of view, it has the ad
advantage
vantage that daily, monthly and annual sediment yields
of a watershed can be modeled by combining appropriate hydrological models with MUSLE.

69
Example 9.1: In an area subjected to soil erosion, the following information is available.
Rainfall erosivity index = 1200 metre tone ha-1; Soil erodibility index = 0.20
Crop factor = 0.60; Conservation practice factor = 1.0
Slope length factor = 0.1
What will be estimated annual loss? Explain how this soil loss will decrease by adopting
conservation practices.

Solution:
Using the Universal soil loss equation, the soil loss is obtained as,
A = 1200*0.20*0.60*1.0*0.1 = 14.4 tonnes ha-1 year-1
To reduce the soil loss, if conservation practices are introduced, let us say the factor P is now
0.6.
A = 14.4*0.6 = 10.44 tonnes ha-1 year-1

Example 9.2: Determine the soil loss from a watershed. Following data are given:
Average watershed slope length = 150 m
Average watershed slope = 10% (angle = 5.7°)
Rainfall erosivity factor = 6000 [(t - m)/ha] (mm/h) per year
Soil erodibility factor = 0.02 t/ha/rainfall erosivity factor
Cropping management factor = 0.2
Conservation practice factor for contour farming = 0.5
Slope gradient factor = 1.168
Exponent (m) = 0.53.

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 Lecture 10: Calculation of Erosion Index
Practical 6: Calculation of Erosion Index

10.1 Erosivity of Rainfall

Rainfall erosivity is a term that is used to describe the potential for soil to be washed off from
disturbed, de-vegetated areas and move with into surface waters during storms. It may also be
defined as the potential ability of rain to cause the erosion. It is dependent upon the physical
characteristics of rainfall, which include raindrop size, drop size distribution, kinetic ener
energy,
terminal velocity, etc. For a given soil condition, the potential of two storms can be compared
quantitatively, regarding soil erosion to be caused by them. The power of overland runoff
flow to erode soil material is partly a property of the rainfall, and partly of the soil surface.
Rainfall erosivity is highly related to soil loss. Increased rain erosivity indicates greater
erosive capacity of the overland water flow. Soil erosion by running water occurs where the
intensity and duration of rainstorms eexceeds
xceeds the capacity of the soil to infiltrate the rainfall.
The potential for erosion is based on many factors which include including soil type, slope,
and the energy or force of precipitation expected during the period of surface disturbance.

10.1.1 Factors
tors Affecting Rainfall Erosivity
The various factors, which affect the erosivity of rain storm, are given as under:

1) Rainfall Intensity
Rainfall intensity refers to the rate of rainfall over the land surface. It is one of the most
important factors responsible
esponsible for the erosive nature of rainfall. The rainfall intensity is
assumed as the force, by which an individual water droplets strikes over the soil surface. The
kinetic energy is related to the intensity of rainfall by the equation proposed by Wisch
Wischmeier
and Smith (1958) as follows:

where, KE = kinetic energy of rainfall, tons per ha per cm of rainfall, and I = rainfall
intensity (cm/h).

2) Drop Size Distribution

The drop size distribution in a particular rainstorm influences the energy, mome
momentum and
erosivity of the rain in cumulative way. The increases in median drop size, increases the
rainfall intensity. The relationship between the median drop size ((D50) and rainfall intensity,
is given as under (Laws and Parsons, 1943):

71
In which, D50 iss the median drop size (inch) and I is the intensity (inch/h).

3) Terminal Velocity
The effect of terminal velocity of falling raindrops is counted in terms of kinetic energy of
respective rain drops at the time of their impact over the soil surface. IItt is the function of drop
size. A rainstorm composed of large proportion of bigger size raindrops, has greater terminal
velocity and vice-versa.
versa. The kinetic energy of rain storm has following relationship with
terminal velocity, as:

where,
Ek = rainfall energy (watts /m2)3, I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/s), and V = Terminal velocity
of rainfall before impact (m/s).
Ellison (1947) developed an empirical relationship among the terminal velocity, drop
diameter and rainfall intensity, for computing the amount of soil detached by the rainfall as:

where, E = relative amount of soil detached, K = a constant, depends upon the soil
characteristics, V = velocity of raindrop (feet/s), d = drop diameter (mm), and I = rainfall
intensity (inch/h).

4) Wind Velocity
Wind velocity affects the power of rainfall to cause soil detachment, by influencing the
kinetic energy of rain storm. Tropical regions experience the occurrence of windy storm most
of the times. Wind driven storms are more effective than anticipated for breaking the
aggregates. The effect of wind velocity on soil detachment by rain storm is shown in Table 1.

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 Table 10.1.
.1. Effect of Wind Velocity on Soil Detachment at Different Intensities of Rain
Storm. (Source: Lyles et.al, 1969)

Intensity of Rain ( cm/h)

Wind Velocity
(m/s)
1.6 2.84 5.61

% Soil Detachment (arbitrary unit)

0 56 93 97

6.7 95 98 97

13.4 97 100 100

5) Direction of Slope
The direction of land slope also develops significant effect oon n rainfall erosivity. Slope
direction in the direction of the rain storm, effectively alters the actual kinetic energy of the
rain drop. It increases the impact force of the raindrop as the velocity component in the
direction of slope becomes more.

10.1.2 Estimation of Erosivity from Rainfall Data

The rainfall erosivity is related to the kinetic energy of rainfall. The following two methods
are widely used for computing the erosivity of rainfall.
1. EI30 Index method and
2. KE > 25 Index method.

1. EI30 Index Method

This method was introduced by Wischmeier (1965). It is based on the fact that the product of
kinetic energy of the storm and the 30 30-minute
minute maximum rainfall intensity gives the best
estimation of soil loss. The greatest average intensity experie
experienced
nced in any 30 minute period
during the storm is computed from recording rain gauge charts by locating the maximum
amount of rain which falls in 30 minute period and later converting the same to intensity in
mm/hour. This measure of erosivity is referred tto as the EI30 index and can be computed for
individual storms, and the storm values can be added over periods of time to give weekly,
monthly or yearly values of erosivity.
The rainfall erosivity factor EI30 value is computed as follows:

73
where KE is rainfall kinetic energy and I30 is the maximum rainfall intensity for a 30-minute
period. Kinetic energy for the storm is computed from Eqn. 17.1.

Limitation
The EI30 index method was developed under American condition and is not found suitable for
tropical and sub-tropical zones for estimating the erosivity.

2. KE > 25 Index Method

This is an alternate method introduced by Hudson for computing the rainfall erosivity of
tropical storms. This method is based on the concept that erosion takes place only at threshold
value of rainfall intensity. From experiments, it was obtained that the rainfall intensities less
than 25 mm/h are not able to yield the soil erosion in significant amount. Thus, this method
takes care of only those rainfall intensities, which are greater than 25 mm/h. That is why the
name is K.E. > 25 Index method. It is used in the same manner as the EI30 index and the
calculation procedure is also similar.

Calculation Procedure
The estimation procedure is same for both the methods. However, K.E. > 25 method is more
advantageous, because it sorts out many data less than 25 mm/h, hence uses less rainfall data.
For both the methods, it is important to have data on rainfall amount and its intensity.
The procedure involves the multiplication of rainfall amounts in each class of intensity to the
computed kinetic energy values and then all these values are added together to get the total
kinetic energy of the storm. The K.E. so obtained, is again multiplied by the maximum 30-
minute rainfall intensity to determine the rainfall erosivity value.

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Solved Example
1. Find out the total kinetic energy of rainfall and also its erosivity using EI30 and
K.E.> 25 index methods for the following given rainfall amount and intensity
values.

Solution:
1. EI30 Index Method:

Intensity Amount Energy (metric

Total ( col.2 × col.3)
(cm/h) (cm) tones/ha/cm)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

1.5 3 231.97 695.91

2.5 0.75 245.71 184.28

3.5 1.25 258.72 323.40

4.5 2.58 268.43 692.56

5.5 3.57 276.19 986.00

2882.15(metric tones/ha.)

Kinetic energy is calculated by the Eqn. 17.1;

Let I30 is taken to be 45 cm/h, the rainfall erosivity is given as
EI30 = 2882.15 × 45 = 129696.75 metric tonnes/ha.cm/hr. Ans.

2. K.E. > 25 Method:

Intensity (cm/h) Amount (cm) Energy (tons/ha cm) Total (col.2 × col. 3)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

0.015 0.5 47.97 23.98

1.5 2.52 225.97 569.44

1.67 0.021 230.12 4.83

0.025 0.75 67.71 50.78

569.44 m tons/ha

For calculation of total kinetic energy, corresponding terms for rainfall intensity of less than
25 mm/h have not been considered. According to this method,
EI30 = 569.44 × 45 = 25624.28 t/ha cm/h Ans.

75
 Lecture 11: Principles of Wind Erosion and its Control Measures

Wind erosion is the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles by
the action of wind. It occurs in all parts of the world and is a cause of serious soil
deterioration. In India, Rajasthan has severe wind erosion problem. A large part of area the
state is affected by sand dune formation. Some parts of coastal areas also have such
problems. It most commonly occurs in the regions where soil is loose, finely divided and dry,
soil surface is smooth and bare, and where wind is strong to detach the soil particles from the
surface.

11.1 Wind Erosion Control

A suitable surface soil texture is the best key to wind erosion protection. Properly
managed crop residues, carefully timed soil tillage, and accurately placed crop strips and crop
barriers can all effectively reduce wind erosion. Proper land use and adaptation of adequate
moisture conservation practices are the main tools which help in wind erosion control. In arid
and semiarid regions where serious problem of wind erosion is common, several cultural
methods can help to reduce the wind erosion. In the absence of crop residue, soil roughness
or soil moisture can reduce the wind erosion effectively.
Three basic methods can be used to control wind erosion:
 Maintain Vegetative Cover (Vegetative Measures)
 Roughen the Soil Surface by Tillage Practices (Tillage Practices or may be called
Tillage Measures)
 Mechanical or Structural Measures (Mechanical Measures)
There is no single recipe for erosion control as many factors affect the outcome. However,
with an understanding of how soil is eroded, strategies can be devised to minimize erosion.

11.2 Vegetative Measures

Vegetative measures can be used to roughen the whole surface and prevent any soil
movement. The aim is to keep the soil rough and ridged to either prevent any movement
initially or to quickly trap bouncing soil particles in the depressions of the rough surface. A
cover crop with sufficient growth will provide soil erosion protection during the cropping
season. It is one of the most effective and economical means to reduce the effect of wind on
the soil. It not only retards the velocity near the ground surface but also holds the soil against
tractive force of wind thereby helping in reduction of soil erosion.

76
From the basic concept, the velocity of wind decreases near the ground surface because of the
resistance offered by the vegetation. The variation in wind velocity with respect to height
above the land surface increases exponentially.
Vegetative measures can be of two types:
1. Temporary Measures
2. Permanent Measures
The use of these measures depends upon the severity of erosion.

11.3 Tillage Practices

The tillage practices, such as ploughing are importantly adopted for controlling wind erosion.
These practices should be carried out before the start of wind erosion. Ploughing before the
rainfall helps in moisture conservation. Ploughing, especially with a disc plough is also
helpful in development of rough soil surface which in turn reduces the impact of erosive wind
velocity. Both the above effects are helpful in controlling the wind erosion.
Surface roughening should only be considered when there is insufficient (less than 50%)
vegetation cover to protect the soil surface or when the soil type will produce sufficient clods
to protect the surface. Roughening can be used in both crop and pasture areas. Surface
roughening alone is inadequate for sandy soils because they produce few clods. Tillage
ridges, about 100 mm high, should be used to cover the entire area prone to erosion. Ridges
that are lower than 100 mm get quickly filled with sand, whilst the crest of the ridge that is
higher than 100 mm tends to erode very quickly.
The common tillage practices used for wind erosion control are as under:
 Primary and Secondary Tillage
 Use of Crop Residues
 Strip Cropping

11.4 Mechanical Measures

This method consists of some mechanical obstacles, constructed across the prevailing wind,
to reduce the impact of blowing wind on the soil surface. These obstacles may be fences,
walls, stone packing etc., either in the nature of semi-permeable or permeable barriers. The
semi-permeable barriers are most effective, because they create diffusion and eddying effects
on their downstream face. Terraces and bunds also obstruct the wind velocity and control the
wind erosion to some extent. Generally, in practice two types of mechanical measures are
adopted to control the wind erosion; i) wind breaks and ii) shelter belts.

77
11.4.1 Wind Breaks
This is a permanent vegetative measure which helps in the reduction of wind erosion. It is
most effective vegetative measure used for controlling severe wind erosion. The term wind
break is definedd as any type of barrier either mechanical or vegetative used for protecting the
areas like building apartments, orchards or farmsteads etc. from blowing winds. The wind
break acts as fencing wall around the affected areas, normally constructed by one row or
maximum up to two rows across the prevailing wind direction.
A further use for "windbreaks" or "wind fences" is for reducing wind speeds over erodible
areas such as open fields, industrial stockpiles, and dusty industrial operations. As erosion is
proportional
rtional to the cube of wind speed, a reduction in wind speed by 1/2 (for example) will
reduce erosion by over 80%. The largest one of these windbreaks is located in Oman (28 m
high by 3.5 km long) and was created by Mike Robinson from Weather Solve StructuStructures.

11.4.2 Shelter Belts

A shelterbelt is a longer barrier than the wind break, is installed by using more than two rows,
usually at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds. The rows of belt can be developed
by using shrubs and trees. It is main
mainly
ly used for the conservation of soil moisture and for the
protection of field crops, against severe wind erosion.
Shelterbelt is more effective for reducing the impact of wind movement than the wind break.
Apart from controlling wind erosion, it provides ffuel,
uel, reduces evaporation and protects the
orchard from hot and cold winds.
Woodruff and Zingg (1952) developed the following relationship between the distance of full
protection (d) and the height (h) of wind break or shelter belt.

Where, d is the distance

ce of full protection (m), h is the height of the wind barrier (wind break
or shelter belt) (m), vm is the minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to move the
most erodible soil fraction (m/s), v is the actual velocity at 15 m height, and θ is the angle of
deviation of prevailing wind direction from the perpendicular to the wind barrier.
This relationship (equation) is valid only for wind velocities below 18 m/s. This equation
may also be adapted for estimating the width of strips by using the crop he height in the
adjoining strip in the equation. The value of vm for a bare smooth surface after erosion has
been initiated and before wetting by rainfall and subsequent surface crusting is about 9.6 m/s.

78
11.5 Sand Dunes Stabilization
A ‘Dune’ is derived from English word ‘Dun’ means hilly topographical feature. Therefore a
sand dune is a mount, hill or ridge of sand that lies behind the part of the beach affected by
tides. They are formed over many years when windblown sand is trapped by beach grass or
other stationary objects. Dune grasses anchor the dunes with their roots, holding them
temporarily in place, while their leaves trap sand promoting dune expansion. Without
vegetation, wind and waves regularly change the form and location of dunes. Dunes are not
permanent structures.
Sand dunes provide sand storage and supply for adjacent beaches. They also protect inland
areas from storm surges, hurricanes, flood-water, and wind and wave action that can damage
property. Sand dunes support an array of organisms by providing nesting habitat for coastal
bird species including migratory birds. Sand dunes are also habitat for coastal plants. For
example: ‘The Seabrook dunes’ are home to 141 species of plants, including nine rare,
threatened and endangered species.
There are three essential prerequisites for sand dune formation:
(1) An abundant supply of loose sand in a region generally devoid of vegetation (such as an
ancient lake bed or river delta);
(2) A wind energy source sufficient to move the sand grains.
(3) A topography whereby the sand particles lose their momentum and settle down.
The best method by which the sand dunes can be stabilized is to reduce the erosive velocity.
Therefore, various methods which are employed for sand dune stabilization are based on the
principle to dissipate the erosive power of wind, so that the detachment and transportation of
soil particles cannot take place. Some methods employed for sand dune stabilization are:
 Vegetation/Vegetative Measures
 Mechanical Measures
 Straw (Checkerboard and Bales)/Mats and Netting
 Chemical Spray

11.5.1 Vegetative Measures

This method is most common and preferred worldwide for sand dune stabilization. It is a
most effective, least expensive, aesthetically pleasing method which mimics a natural system
with self‐repairing provision. However, it has some disadvantages as the plant establishment
phase is critical, it needs irrigation and maintenance until self-sustaining system is developed.
Most common practices adopted under this are:

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11.5.1.1 Raising of Micro Wind Breaks
It is preferred in those areas where wind velocity is intensive and rainfall is less than 300 mm
per year. The raising of wind break should be completed before the onset of monsoon. Twigs
or brush woods are inserted into the soil parallel to one another at about 5 m spacing. The
spacing depends on the intensity of erosive wind velocity, if the velocity is more spacing is
less and vice versa. The fencing of dunes using brush woods reduces evaporation loss and
also enriches the humus content in the soil.

11.5.1.2 Retreating the Dunes

In this, the micro wind breaks are treated again by planting tree saplings and grasses in the
space left. The grasses grown in the intersection of plants of wind break reduce the soil loss
from the dune surface significantly.

11.5.2 Mechanical Measures

Wind breaks, shelterbelts, stone pitching, fences etc., either manmade or natural barriers are
helpful to reduce the wind velocity thereby favoring the stabilization of sand dunes.

11.5.3 Straw Checker Boards

This technique of sand dunes stabilization is extensively used in China since 1950’s. Wheat
or rice straw or reeds (50 – 60 cm in length) are placed vertically to form the sides of the
checkerboard, which are typically 10 to 20 cm high. Optimum grid size of checker ranges
from 1 x 1 m to 2 x 2 m, depending on local wind and sand transport conditions. Smaller
grids are used in areas where winds are stronger.

11.5.4 Chemical Spray

Sometimes crude oils are used for the successful stabilization of sand dune. The oil is heated
to 50 °C and sprayed on the dune at the rate of 4 m3/ha. It is a temporary measure, lasting
only for 3-4 years and during those years, it is expected that the vegetation growth will take
place in that area. This method is costly and suitable only for small areas.

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Solved Problems:
1. Determine the spacing between windbreaks that are 15 m high. 5 year return period wind
velocity at 15 m height is 15.6 m/s and the wind direction deviates 10° from the
perpendicular to the field strip. Assume a smooth, bare soil surface and a fully protected field.

Solution:
Given: h = 15 m
V = 15.6 m/s
θ = 10°
Vm = 9.6 m/s (for smooth, bare soil surface)
Spacing = distance of full protection by a windbreak,
Therefore,

Thus, the spacing between windbreaks = 154.54 m.

2. Determine the full protection strip width for field strip cropping if the crop in the adjacent
strip is wheat, 0.9 m tall, and the wind velocity at 15 m height is 8.9 m/sec at 90° with the
field strip.

Solution:
Given: h = 0.9 m
v = 8.9 m/s
θ = 0°
Assuming vm = 8.9 m/sec (Because theoretical vm = 9.6 m/sec which is greater than the
prevailing wind velocity). Since the field conditions are not specified taking vm = v.
Full protection width-

Thus, strip width = 15.30 m.

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 Lecture 12: Water Harvesting and its Techniques

12.1 Importance of Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting, in its broadest sense, is a technology used for collecting and storing
rainwater for human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments using simple
techniques such as jars and pots as well as engineered techniques. Rainwater harvesting has
been practiced for more than 4,000 years, owing to the temporal and spatial variability of
rainfall. It is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking any
kind of conventional, centralised supply system. It is also a good option in areas where good
quality fresh surface water or ground water is lacking. Water harvesting enables efficient
collection and storage of rainwater, makes it accessible and substitute for poor quality water.
There are a number of ways by which water harvesting can benefit a community.
 Improvement in the quality of ground water,
 Rise in the water levels in wells and bore wells that are drying up,
 Mitigation of the effects of drought and attainment of drought proofing,
 An ideal solution in areas having inadequate water resources,
 Reduction in the soil erosion as the surface runoff is reduced,
 Decrease in the choking of storm water drains and flooding of roads and
 Saving of energy to lift ground water.

12.2 Types of Water Harvesting

Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is defined as the method for
inducing, collecting, storing and conserving local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions. Three types of water harvesting are covered by rainwater harvesting.
 Water collected from roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces
is used for domestic purpose or garden crops.
 Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of collecting surface runoff from a
small catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin.
The basin is planted with a tree, a bush or with annual crops.
 Macro-catchment water harvesting, also called harvesting from external catchments is
the case where runoff from hill-slope catchments is conveyed to the cropping area
located at foothill on flat terrain.

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Flood Water Harvesting: Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and
storage of creek flow for irrigation use. Flood water harvesting, also known as ‘large
catchment water harvesting’ or ‘Spate Irrigation’, may be classified into following two forms:
 In case of ‘flood water harvesting within stream bed’, the water flow is dammed and
as a result, inundates the valley bottom of the flood plain. The water is forced to
infiltrate and the wetted area can be used for agriculture or pasture improvement.
 In case of ‘flood water diversion’, the wadi water is forced to leave its natural course
and conveyed to nearby cropping fields.

Groundwater Harvesting: Groundwater harvesting is a rather new term and employed to

cover traditional as well as unconventional ways of ground water extraction. Qanat systems,
underground dams and special types of wells are a few examples of the groundwater
harvesting techniques. Groundwater dams like ‘Subsurface Dams’ and ‘Sand Storage Dams’
are other fine examples of groundwater harvesting. They obstruct the flow of ephemeral
streams in a river bed; the water is stored in the sediment below ground surface and can be
used for aquifer recharge.

12.3 Water Harvesting Technique

This includes runoff harvesting, flood water harvesting and groundwater harvesting.

12.3.1 Runoff Harvesting

Runoff harvesting for short and long term is done by constructing structures as given below.

12.3.1.1 Short Term Runoff Harvesting Techniques

Contour Bunds: This method involves the construction of bunds on the contour of the
catchment area (Fig. 28.1). These bunds hold the flowing surface runoff in the area located
between two adjacent bunds. The height of contour bund generally ranges from 0.30 to 1.0 m
and length from 10 to a few 100 meters. The side slope of the bund should be as per the
requirement. The height of the bund determines the storage capacity of its upstream area.

Fig. 12.1. Contour Bunds. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

83
Semicircular Hoop: This type of structure consists of an earthen impartment constructed in
the shape of a semicircle (Fig. 28.2). The tips of the semicircular hoop are furnished on the
contour. The water contributed from the area is collected within the hoop to a maximum
depth equal to the height of the embankment. Excess water is discharged from the point
around the tips to the next lower hoop. The rows of semicircular hoops are arranged in a
staggered form so that the over flowing water from the upper row can be easily interrupted by
the lower row. The height of hoop is kept from 0.1 to 0.5 m and radius varies from 5 to 30 m.
Such type of structure is mostly used for irrigation of grasses, fodder, shrubs, trees etc.

Fig. 12.2. Layout of Semi-Circular Hoop. (Source: Barron and Salas 2009)

Trapezoidal Bunds: Such bunds also consist of an earthen embankment, constructed in the
shape of trapezoids. The tips of the bund wings are placed on the contour. The runoff water
yielded from the watershed is collected into the covered area. The excess water overflows
around the tips. In this system of water harvesting the rows of bunds are also arranged in
staggered form to intercept the overflow of water from the adjacent upstream areas. The
layout of the trapezoidal bunds is the same as the semicircular hoops, but they unusually
cover a larger area (Fig. 28.3). Trapezoidal bund technique is suitable for the areas where the
rainfall intensity is too high and causes large surface flow to damage the contour bunds. This
technique of water harvesting is widely used for irrigating crops, grasses, shrubs, trees etc.

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 Fig. 12.3. Layout of Trapezoidal Bund. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Graded Bunds: Graded bunds also referred as off contour bunds. They consist of earthen or
stone embankments and are constructed on a land with a slope range of 0.5 to 2%. The design
and construction of graded bunds are different from the contour bunds. They are used as an
option where rainfall intensity and soils are such that the runoff water discharged from the
field can be easily intercepted. The excess intercepted or harvested water is diverted to the
next field though a channel ranges. The height of the graded bund ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 m.
The downstream bunds consist of wings to intercept the overflowing water from the upstream
bunds. Due to this, the configuration of the graded bund looks like an open ended trapezoidal
bund. That is why sometimes it is also known as modified trapezoidal bund. This type of
bunds for water harvesting is generally used for irrigating the crops.

Rock Catchment: The rock catchments are the exposed rock surfaces, used for collecting the
runoff water in a part as depressed area. The water harvesting under this method can be
explained as: when rainfall occurs on the exposed rock surface, runoff takes place very
rapidly because there is very little loss. The runoff so formed is drained towards the lowest
point called storage tank and the harvested water is stored there. The area of rock catchment
may vary from a 100 m2 to few 1000 m2; accordingly the dimensions of the storage tank
should also be designed. The water collected in the tank can be used for domestic use or
irrigation purposes.

Ground Catchment: In this method, a large area of ground is used as catchment for runoff
yield. The runoff is diverted into a storage tank where it is stored. The ground is cleared from
vegetation and compacted very well. The channels are as well compacted to reduce the
seepage or percolation loss and sometimes they are also covered with gravel. Ground

85
catchments are also called roaded catchments. This process is also called runoff inducement.
Ground catchments have also been traditionally used since last 4000 years in the Negev (a
desert in southern Israel) where annul crops and some drought tolerant species like pistachio
dependent on such harvested water are grown.

12.3.1.2 Long Term Runoff Harvesting Techniques

The long term runoff harvesting is done for building a large water storage for the purpose of
irrigation, fish farming, electricity generation etc. It is done by constructing reservoirs and big
ponds in the area. The design criteria of these constructions are given below.
 Watershed should contribute a sufficient amount of runoff.
 There should be suitable collection site, where water can be safely stored.
 Appropriate techniques should be used for minimizing various types of water losses
such as seepage and evaporation during storage and its subsequent use in the
watershed.
 There should also be some suitable methods for efficient utilization of the harvested
water for maximizing crop yield per unit volume of available water.
The most common long term runoff harvesting structures are:
 Dugout Ponds
 Embankment Type Reservoirs

Dugout Ponds: The dugout ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground
surface. These ponds may be fed by ground water or surface runoff or by both. Construction
of these ponds is limited to those areas which have land slope less than 4% and where water
table lies within 1.5-2 meters depth from the ground surface (Fig. 28.4). Dugout ponds
involve more construction cost, therefore these are generally recommended when
embankment type ponds are not economically feasible. The dugout ponds can also be
recommended where maximum utilization of the harvested runoff water is possible for
increasing the production of some important crops. This type of ponds require brick lining
with cement plastering to ensure maximum storage by reducing the seepage loss.

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 Fig. 12.4. Illustration of Dugout Pond. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Embankment Type Reservoir: These types of reservoirs are constructed by forming a dam
or embankment on the valley or depression of the catchment area. The runoff water is
collected into this reservoir and is used as per requirement. The storage capacity of the
reservoir is determined on the basis of water requirement for various demands and available
surface runoff from the catchment. In a situation when heavy uses of water are expected,
then the storage capacity of the reservoir must be kept sufficient so that it can fulfill the
demand for more than one year.
Embankment type reservoirs are again classified as given below according to the purpose for
which they are meant.

Irrigation Dam: The irrigation dams are mainly meant to store the surface water for
irrigating the crops. The capacity is decided based on the amount of input water available and
output water desired. These dams have the provisions of gated pipe spillway for taking out
the water from the reservoir. Spillway is located at the bottom of the dam leaving some
minimum dead storage below it.

Silt Detention Dam: The basic purpose of silt detention dam is to detain the silt load coming
along with the runoff water from the catchment area and simultaneously to harvest water. The
silt laden water is stored in the depressed part of the catchment where the silt deposition takes
place and comparatively silt free water is diverted for use. Such dams are located at the lower
reaches of the catchment where water enters the valley and finally released into the streams.
In this type of dam, provision of outlet is made for taking out the water for irrigation

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purposes. For better result a series of such dams can be constructed along the slope of the
catchment.

High Level Pond: Such dams are located at the head of the valley to form the shape of a
water tank or pond. The stored water in the pond is used to irrigate the area lying
downstream. Usually, for better result a series of ponds can be constructed in such a way that
the command area of the tank located upstream forms the catchment area for the downstream
tank. Thus all but the uppermost tanks are facilitated with the collection of runoff and excess
irrigation water from the adjacent higher catchment area.

Farm Pond: Farm ponds are constructed for multi-purpose objectives, such as for irrigation,
live-stock, water supply to the cattle feed, fish production etc. The pond should have
adequate capacity to meet all the requirements. The location of farm pond should be such that
all requirements are easily and conveniently met.

Water Harvesting Pond: The farm ponds can be considered as water harvesting ponds.
They may be dugout or embankment type. Their capacity depends upon the size of catchment
area. Runoff yield from the catchment is diverted into these ponds, where it is properly
stored. Measures against seepage and evaporation losses from these ponds should also be.

Percolation Dam: These dams are generally constructed at the valley head, without the
provision of checking the percolation loss. Thus, a large portion of the runoff is stored in the
soil. The growing crops on downstream side of the dam, receive the percolated water for their
growth.

12.3.2 Flood Water Harvesting

To harvest flood water, wide valleys are reshaped and formed into a series of broad level
terraces and the flood water is allowed to enter into them. The flood water is spread on these
terraces where some amount of it is absorbed by the soil which is used later on by the crops
grown in the area. Therefore, it is often referred to as "Water Spreading" and sometimes
"Spate Irrigation". The main characteristics of water spreading are:
 Turbulent channel flow is harvested either (a) by diversion or (b) by spreading within
the channel bed/valley floor.
 Runoff is stored in soil profile.
 It has usually a long catchment (may be several km)
 The ratio between catchment to cultivated area lies above 10:1.
 It has provision for overflow of excess water.

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The typical examples of flood water harvesting through water spreading are given below.

Permeable Rock Dams (for Crops)

These are long low rock dams across valleys slowing and spreading floodwater as well as
healing gullies (Fig. 28.5). These are suitable for a situation where gently sloping valleys are
likely to transform into gullies and better water spreading is required.

Fig. 12.5. Permeable Rock Dams. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Water Spreading Bunds (for Crops and Rangeland): In this method, runoff water is
diverted to the area covered by graded bund by constructing diversion structures such as
diversion drains. They lead to the basin through channels, where crops are irrigated by
flooding. Earthen bunds are set at a gradient, with a "dogleg" shape and helps in spreading
diverted floodwater (Fig. 28.6). These are constructed in arid areas where water is diverted
from watercourse onto crop or fodder block.

Fig. 12.6. Floodwater farming systems: (a) spreading within channel bed; (b) diversion
system. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

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Flood Control Reservoir: The reservoirs constructed at suitable sites for controlling the
flood are known as flood control reservoirs. They are well equipped with self-operating
mechanical outlets for letting out the harvested water into the stream or canal below the
reservoir as per requirement.

12.3.3 Groundwater Harvesting

Qanat System: A qanat consists of a long tunnel or conduit leading from a well dug at a
reliable source of groundwater (the mother well). Often, the mother well is dug at the base of
a hill or in the foothills of a mountain range. The tunnel leading from the mother well slopes
gradually downward to communities in the valley below. Access shafts are dug
intermittently along the horizontal conduit to allow for construction and maintenance of the
qanat (Fig. 12.7). The Qanat system was used widely across Persia and the Middle East for
many reasons. First, the system requires no energy, relies on the force of gravity alone.
Second, the system can carry water across long distances through subterranean chambers
avoiding leakage, evaporation, or pollution. And lastly, the discharge is fixed by nature,
producing only the amount of water that is distributed naturally from a spring or mountain,
ensuring that the water table is not depleted. More importantly, it allows access to a reliable
and plentiful source of water to those living in otherwise marginal landscapes (Fig. 12.8).

Fig. 12.7. Cross Section Showing Qanats. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

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 Fig. 12.8. Ariel view of Qanats. (Source: www.visualphotos.com)

12.4 Runoff vs. Flood Water Harvesting

 Water harvesting techniques which harvest runoff from roofs or ground surfaces fall
under the term rainwater harvesting while all systems which collect discharges from
watercourses are grouped under the term flood water harvesting.
 Runoff harvesting increases water availability for on-site vegetation while flood
waters harvesting provide a valuable source of water to local and downstream water
users and play an important role in replenishing floodplains, rivers, wetlands and
groundwater.
 Runoff harvesting reduces water flow velocity, as well as erosion rate and controls
siltation problem while in flood water harvesting,floodwater enters into the fields
through the inundation canals, carrying not only rich silt but also fish which can swim
through the canals into the lakes and tanks to feed on the larva of mosquitoes.

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 Lecture 13: Surveying and Field Area Calculation

The purpose of topographic survey is to get the necessary data to produce a topographic map
of the earth’s surface. This map will include contour lines, location of natural features, such
as streams, gullies, and ditches and man-made features like bridges, culverts, roads, fences,
etc. which are essential for detailed planning. The best practical method of presenting
topography is by means of land surveys and contour maps.

13.1 Survey of Land

Land surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the
relative position of points or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of
the earth and to depict them in a usable form, or to establish the position of points or details.
These points are usually on the surface of the earth and they are often used to establish land
maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. Furthermore, it is the detailed
study or inspection by gathering information through observations, measurements in the field,
questionnaires, or research of legal instruments and data analysis for the purpose of planning,
designing, and establishing property boundaries. It involves the re-establishment of cadastral
surveys and land boundaries based on documents of record and historical evidence, as well as
certifying surveys (as required by statute or local ordinance) of subdivision plans/maps,
registered land surveys, judicial surveys and space delineation.
Land surveying can include associated services such as mapping, related data accumulation,
construction layout surveys, precision measurements of length, angle, elevation, area,
volume, as well as horizontal and vertical control surveys. It also includes the analysis and
utilization of land survey data. Surveying has been an essential element in the development of
the human environment since the beginning of recorded history (about 5,000 years ago). It is
required in the planning and execution of nearly every form of construction. It’s most
familiar modern uses are in the fields of transport, building and
construction, communications, mapping and the definition of legal boundaries for land
ownership.
The earliest surveys were performed only for the purpose of recording the boundaries of plots
of land. Due to advancements in technology, the science of surveying has also attained its due
importance. In the absence of accurate maps, it is impossible to lay out the alignment of
roads, railways, canals, tunnels, transmission, power lines, and microwave or television
relaying towers. Detailed maps of the sites of engineering projects are necessary for the
precise installation of sophisticated plants and machineries. Surveying is the first step for the
execution of any such project.

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13.2 Types of Maps and Mapping Units
The following types of maps are used in land surveying.
 Plan:A plan is a graphical representation of the features on the earth surface
or below the earth surface as projected on a horizontal plane. This may not
necessarily show its graphical position on the globe. On a plan, horizontal
distances and directions are generally shown.
 Map: The representation of the earth surface on a small scale is called a map.
The map must show its geographical position on the globe with the help of
latitude and longitude. On a map the topography of the terrain, is depicted
generally by contours, hachures and spot levels.
 Topographical Map: The maps which are on sufficiently large scale to
enable the individual features shown on the map to be identified on the
ground by their shapes and positions, are called topographical maps.
 Geographical Maps: The maps which are on such a small scale that the
features shown on the map are suitably generalised and give a picture of the
country as a whole and not a strict representation of its individual features,
are called Geographical maps.
Two kinds of measurements are used in plane surveying;
 Linear Measurement, i.e. Horizontal or Vertical Distance
 Angular Measurement, i.e. Horizontal or Vertical Angles.

i) Linear Measures: According to the standards of Weight and Measure Act (India)
1956, the metric system has been introduced in India. Before 1956, F.P.S (Foot, pound,
second) system was used for the measurements. For measurements of distances, metre and
centimetre have been recommended as standard units.

10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
10 decimetre = 1 metre
Basic units of length in
10 metres = 1 decametre
metric system:
10 decametres = 1 hectametre
10 hectametres = 1 kilometres
1.852 kilometres = 1 nautical mile

100 sq. metres = 1 are

Basic units of area in
10 ares = 1 deka-are
metric system
10 deca ares = 1 hecta-are

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 1000 cub. millimetres = 1 cub. centimetre
Basic units of volume in
1000 cub. centimetres = 1 cub. decimetre
metric system
1000 cub. decimetres = 1 cub. metre

12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5.5 yards = 1 rod, pole, or 1 sq. perch
4 poles = 1 chain (66 feet)
Basic units of length in
10 chains = 1 furlong
FPS system
8 furlong = 1 mile
6 feet = 1 fathom
120 fathoms = 1 cable length
6080 feet = 1 nautical mile

Basic units of volume in 1728 cu. inches = 1 cu. Foot

FPS system 27 cu. Feet = 1 cu. Yard

Conversion Factor for Lengths

Metres Yards Feet Inches

1 1.0936 3.2808 39.37

0.9144 1 3 36

0.3048 0.3333 1 12

0.0254 0.0278 0.0833 1

Conversion Factor for Areas

Sq. metres Sq. yards Sq. feet Sq. inches

1 1.196 10.7639 1550

0.8361 1 9 1296

0.0929 0.1111 1 144

0.00065 0.00077 0.0069 1

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 Conversion Factor for Areas

Ares Acres Sq. metres Sq. yards

1 0.0247 100 119.6

40.496 1 4046.9 4840

0.01 0.000247 1 1.196

0.0084 0.00021 0.8361 1

Conversion Factor for Volumes

Cub. metres Cub. yards Gallons (Imps)

1 1.308 219.969

0.7645 1 168.178

0.00455 0.00595 1

ii) Angular Measures: Angles may be defined as the difference in the direction of two
intersecting lines; it is the inclination of two straight lines. The unit of a plane angle is
‘radian’. Angle is defined as the measure between two radii of a circle which contain an arc
equal to the radius of the circle. The popular system of angular measurements, are:

Sexagesimal System of Angular Measurements:

In this system the circumference of a circle, is divided into 360 equal parts, each part is
known as one degree. 1/60th part of a degree is called aminute and 1/60th part of a minute, is
called a second. i.e.
1 circumference = 360 degree of arc
1° = 60 minutes of arc
1 minute = 60 seconds of arc

Centesimal System of Angular Measurements:

In this system circumference of a circle is divided into 400 equal parts, each part is known as
grad. One hundredth part of a grad is known ascentigrad and one hundredth part of a
centigrad is known centi-centigrad. i.e.

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1 circumference = 400 grads
1 grad = 100 centigrads
1 centigrad = 100 centi-centigrads
From the ancient times, sexagesimal system is being widely used in different countries of the
world. Most complete mathematical tables are available in this system and most surveying
instruments i.e. theodolites, sextants etc. are graduated according to this system. Due to
increased facility in computation and interpolation, the centesimal system for angular
measurements is gaining popularity in the western countries these days.

13.3 Contour Maps Preparation

An imaginary line on the ground, joining the points of equal elevation above the assumed
datum is called a contour line. It is a plan projection of the plane passing through the points
of equal elevation on the surface of the earth. Concept of a contour can be made clear by
surveying the boundary of still water in a pond. If the level of the water surface is 100 m,
then the periphery of water represents a contour line of 100 m. If the water level is reduced
by 5 metres, the new periphery of water will then represent a contour of 95 m. The following
characteristics of contours are kept in view while preparing or reading a contour map.
 Two contours of equal elevation do not cross each other except in the case of
an over-hanging cliff.
 Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the
case of a vertical cliff.
 Contours lines located close to each other indicate a steep slope and those
located far apart represent a gentle slope.
 Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. Parallel, equidistant and
straight contours lines represent an inclined plane surface.
 Contours at any point are perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at the
point.
 A contour line must close itself but need to be necessarily within the limits of
the map itself.
 Ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring
contours with lower values inside represent a pond or a depression without
an outlet.
 When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes
across them. Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher
value contours lies towards the next lower value contour and a valley if the
concavity of the lower value contours lies towards the higher value contour.
 The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Field work for locating contours may be in various ways according to the instruments used.
The various methods of locating contours may be divided into two main classes:
 Direct Method
 Indirect Method

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i) Direct Method: In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the
ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and
finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and tedious and thus used
for large scale maps, small contour interval and high degree of precision. A temporary
benchmark is established near the area to be surveyed with reference to a permanent bench
mark. The level is then set up in such a position so that the maximum number of points can
be commanded from the instrument station. The height of instrument is determined by taking
a back sight on the benchmark and adding it to the reference level of bench mark. The staff
reading required to fix points on the various contours is determined by subtracting the
Reduced Level (R.L.) of each of the contours from the height of instrument.

ii) Indirect Method: In practice, generally indirect method is used. In this method sufficient
numbers of points are given spot levels. The location of such points can be conveniently
plotted on a plane table section as these generally form the corners of the well, shaped
geometrical figures i.e. squares, rectangles, triangles, etc. It is seldom possible to have exact
spot level of any point on exact value of the contour. The spot level of the important features
which represent hill tops, ridge lines, bed of streams and lowest points of the depression are
also taken, to depict their correct features while drawing contour lines. The contours in
between spot levels are interpolated and drawn. This method of contouring is sometimes
known as contouring by spot levels. Indirect method of contouring is commonly employed in
small scale surveys of extensive areas. This method is cheaper, quicker and less tedious as
compared to the direct method of contouring.

13.4 Uses of Contour Maps in SWCE

Keeping in view, the characteristics of contours enumerated above, different natural features
may be shown by contours. Followings are some of the important uses:
 To study the general character of the tract of the country without visiting the
ground. With the knowledge of the characteristic of the contours, it is easier
to visualise whether the country is flat, undulating or mountainous.
 To decide the most economical and suitable sites of re-engineering for
engineering works such as canals, sewers, reservoirs, roads, railways etc.
 To determine the catchment area of the drainage basin and hence the capacity
of the proposed reservoir.
 To compute the earth work required for filling or cutting along the linear
alignment of projects such as canals, roads, etc.
 Site selection and dimensioning of soil and water conservation measures like
contour bunds, contour trenches etc.

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13.5 Use of surveying and leveling instruments
Surveying is defines as the art of determining the relative positions of various points above,
on or below the surface of the earth. The ultimate object of survey is to prepare a map or
plant using the data obtained through the survey. The collection of data by linear and angular
measurements and elevation difference is called the field work. The processing of data
plotting and computation of area and volume are called office work.

Use of agricultural survey

Surveying is primarily divided into two types.
(1) Plane surveying
(2) Geodetic surveying
Agricultural surveying is the simplest form of plane surveying. With the use of survey, the
boundaries of fields can be correctly located and area can be accurately computed. Land
leveling and grading may be perfectly done if the differences in elevations are known.
Alignments of canals for irrigation and drainage can be effectively done by proper surveying.
Surveying plays a vital role in soil conservation measures like contour bunding, graded
bunding, bench terracing construction of farm ponds and percolation ponds etc. In addition to
this, surveying plays a key role in laying underground pipe line system, alignment of
irrigation channels, drainage systems, farm roads and farm stead construction etc. For linear
and angular measurements in the plains, chain, compass and plane table surveys are used with
necessary instruments. To determine the difference in elevation a dumpy level is used.

The details of instruments used in each survey are given below:

1. Chain survey
1. Chain and Tape
2. Cross Staff
3. Ranging rods
4. Offset Rods
5. Arrows
2. Compass Survey
1. Prismatic Compass
2. Chain
3. Ranging Rods
4. Offset Rods
3. Plane Table Survey
1. Plane Table with Tripod Stand
2. Alidade
3. Trough Compass
4. ‘U’ frame with plumb bob

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 5. Spirit Level
6. Chain
7. Ranging Rods
4. Leveling
1. Dumpy Level
2. Tripod Stand
3. Telescopic Metric Staff

13.6 Field area calculation

Aim: To locate the boundaries of a given field and also to determine the area.
Instruments required: Chain, Cross staff, Arrows, Ranging rods and Offset rods

Procedure:
In order to calculate the area of any irregular shaped field, it is necessary to divide that area
into number of right angled triangles and trapezoids. Corners along the boundary of the field
should be first identified and named as A, B, C, D, E, F, G etc. in clockwise direction. Any
two stations located in opposite sides should be selected in such a way that distance between
them is the longest of other stations and almost equal numbers of corners/ stations are located
on both sides. Chaining should be started along the base line and offset distance to the
corners on both sides to be measured simultaneously after ranging, as already explained. All
the details should be entered in the field book.
Care should be taken that no offset is overlooked before the chain is moved forward. To
check the accuracy of the field work boundary line between any two corners should be
measured directly and compared. After the field work is over the survey data may be plotted
to a suitable scale on a drawing paper.
The area enclosed by the boundary lines is divided into a number of triangles and trapezoids.
Measurement by a chain and cross staff is based upon two formulas
 The area of a right angled triangle is equal to the base multiplied by half the
perpendicular, and
 The area of a trapezoid is equal to the base multiplied by half the sum of the
perpendiculars
Example 1) Plot the following cross-staff survey of a field ABCDEFGA and calculate its
area in hectares. All distances are in meters.
B C
40 90
A0 80 100 125 140 160 200 D
10 70 35
G F E

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 Practical 7: Water Lifting Pump Capacity and Power Requirements for
Pumping

7.1 Types and Selection of Pumps

The mechanical device or arrangement by which water is caused to flow at increased pressure
is known as a pump and the process of using a pump for this purpose is known as pumping.
Irrigation pumps, in general, are driven either by engines or electric motors. Basically, the
following four principles are involved in pumping water. Atmospheric pressure, centrifugal
force, positive displacement and movement of columns of fluid caused by differences in
specific gravity. Pumps are classified on the basis of mechanical principles of operation as

Positive Displacement Pumps

(a) Reciprocating Pump
(b) Rotary Pump

Variable Displacement Pumps

(a) Centrifugal Pump
(b) Turbine Pump
a. Deep well turbine
b. Submersible pump
(c) Propeller Pump
(d) Jet Pump
(e) Air Lift Pump

7.2 Positive Displacement Pump

In a positive displacement pump, the fluid is physically displaced by mechanical devices such
as the plunger, piston, gears, cams, screws etc. In this type of pump, a vacuum is created in a
chamber by some mechanical means and then water is drawn in this chamber. The volume of
water thus drawn in the chamber is then shifted or displaced mechanically out of chamber,

(a) Reciprocating Pumps: In this type of pump, a piston or a plunger moves inside a closed
cylinder. On the intake stroke, the suction valve remains open and allows water to come into
the cylinder. The delivery valve remains closed during intake stroke. On the discharge stroke,
the suction valve is closed and water is forced in delivery pipe through delivery pipe through
delivery valve which opens during discharge stroke.

100
The reciprocating pumps may be single acting or double acting. In the former type water is
discharged only on the forward stroke of the piston and in the latter type, water is discharged
on forward and return strokes of the piston. This type of pump is quite suitable for greater
discharge under high head of water. Force required to work a reciprocating pump is P =
w*a*1 where, ‘P’ is the force required to lift the piston in kg, ‘a’ is area of cylinder in m2, ‘l’
is the length of stroke in m and ‘w’ is the specific weight of water is 1000 kg m-3. Work done
in one upstroke is w*a*1*h, where ‘h’ is the total height through which the water is raised, m.

(b) Rotary Pumps: In this type of pump, the reciprocating motion is substituted by the rotary
motion. The rotary motion is achieved by cams or by gears. There are two cams or gears
which fit with each other. They rotate in opposite directions. The water enters through the
suction pipe and it is trapped between cams or teeth of gears and casing. It is then thrown
with force into the discharge pipe. This type of pump is useful for moderate heads and small
discharges not greater than 40 litres per second.

7.3 Variable Displacement Pump

The distinguishing feature of variable displacement pumps is the inverse relationship between
the discharge rate and the pressure head. As the pumping head increases, the rate of pumping
decreases. They are also termed as Roto Dynamic Pumps.

(a) Centrifugal Pump: A centrifugal pump may be defined as one in which an impeller
rotating inside a close – fitting case draws in the liquid at the centre and, by virtue of
centrifugal force, throws out through an opening at the side of the casing. In operation, the
pump is filled with water and the impeller rotated. The blades cause the liquid to rotate with
the impeller and, in turn, import a high velocity to the water particles. The centrifugal force
causes the water particles to be thrown from the impeller reduces pressure at the inlet,
allowing more water to be drawn in through the suction pipe by atmospheric pressure. The
liquid passes into the casing, where its high velocity is reduced and converted into pressure
and the water is pumped out through the discharge pipe. The conversion of velocity energy
into pressure energy is accomplished either in a Volute casing or in a Diffuser.

(b) Turbine Pumps: Turbine pumps consist of impellers placed below the water level and
are driven by a vertical shaft rotated by an engine or motor placed at the ground level or
under the water.
1. Vertical Turbine Pump (or) Deep well Turbine Pump: is a vertical axis centrifugal or
mixed flow type pump comprising of stages which accommodate rotating impellers and
stationary bowls possessing guide vanes with the motor fixed on the ground level. The pump
bowl is surrounded by a screen to keep coarse sand and gravel away from entering the pump.

101
These pumps are adopted to high lifts and high efficiencies under optimum operating
conditions. The pressure head developed depends on the diameter of the impeller and the
speed at which it is rotated. Since the pressure head developed by a single impeller is not
great, additional head is obtained by adding more bowl assemblies or stages. Turbine pumps
could be water lubricated or oil lubricated. It is preferable to use oil lubricated pumps for
wells giving fine sand along with water.

2. Submersible Pump is a turbine pump coupled to a submersible electric motor. A cable

passing through the water supplies power to the motor. Both the pump and the motor are
suspended and operate under the water, pumping water through the discharge column. The
pump eliminates the long shaft and bearings that are necessary for a vertical turbine pump.
Submersible pumps are cheaper than the vertical turbine pumps. Suitable for deep settings
and also for crooked wells which are not perfectly vertical. The installation of the pup is easy
and the initial cost of installation low. The repair of the submersible pumps, when they go out
of order is not easy and require technical skill. Submersible pump requires little maintenance,
after 6000 hours of operation or two years of service life, it may be necessary to with draw
the pump from the bore hole and overhaul it. Selection of the submersible pump is mainly
depending upon the bore well size, type, well discharge etc.

3. Propeller Pumps: The principal parts of the propeller pumps and method of operation are
similar to the turbine pumps. The main difference is in design of the impellers, which give
high discharges at low heads. Two types of impellers i.e. axial flow type and mixed flow type
are used in this pump. In single stage pumps only one impeller is used and in multistage
pumps more than one impeller is used. The selection of a propeller pump is done based on the
characteristic curves compared with the well discharge and head.

4. Jet Pumps: Consist of a combination of a centrifugal pump and a jet mechanism or ejector.
Jet pump is used when the suction lift of the centrifugal pump exceeds the permissible limits.
A portion of the water from the centrifugal pump is passed through the drop pipe to the
nozzle of the jet assembly. This water is forced through the throat opening of the diffuser,
creating a vacuum which causes water to be drawn from the well. The water mixed with the
boost water is carried up through the diffuser where the high velocity energy is converted into
useful pressure energy, forcing the water up through the delivery pipe to the centrifugal
pump.

5. Air-lift Pump operates by the injection of compressed air directly into the water inside a
discharge or eductor pipe at a point below the water level in the well. The injection of the air
results in a mixture of air bubbles and water. This composite fluid is lighter in weight than
water so that the heavier column of water around the pipe displaces the lighter mixture facing
it upward and out of the discharge pipe. The piping assembly consists of a vertical discharge
pipe called the eductor pipe – and a smaller air pipe. Airlift pumping is extensively used in
the development and preliminary testing and cleaning of tube wells. The advantages of air-lift
102
pumps are simplicity,
implicity, tube well need not be perfectly straight or vertical, and impure water
will not damage the pump. The main disadvantage is its low efficiency about 30 per cent.

7.4 Power Requirements for Pumping

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Example 1) Compute the cost of pumping 2 x 106 liter water from a well with a centrifugal
pump from the following data: (a) suction head = 3 meters (b) Delivery head = 5.5 meters (c)
Friction head = 1.5 m (d) Output of pump 15,000 lits./ hour (e) Pump efficiency = 70 % (f)
Motor efficiency = 85 % cost of electricity = Rs.6/- per unit.

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105