RESEARCH METHODS

CHAPTER 5&6
BY: ESUBALEW A.
2016 E.C.
 5.1. Basic sampling and statistical Terminology

1. Sampling: is the process of using a small or parts of a larger

population to make conclusions about the whole population.
2. Sample design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
3. Sampling design: is the technique or the procedure the researcher
adopts for selecting items for the sample from the population or
universe.
4. Population element: is the individual participant or object on
which the measurement is taken.
5. Population: is the total collection of elements about which we
wish to make some inferences.
6. Census: is a count of all elements in the population.
7. Sample frame: is the listing of all population elements from
which the sample will be drawn
 5.2. Reasons for selecting sample:
• The following are the major reasons for
sampling:
1. Lower cost : the economic advantage of taking
sample rather than a census are massive.
2. Greater accuracy of results: better interviewing
(testing), more thorough investigation of missing,
wrong, or suspicious information.
3. Greater speed of data collection: reduces the time
between the recognition of a need for information
and the availability of that information.
4. Availability of population elements : sampling the
only process possible if the population is infinite.
 5.3. Censés Survey Versus Semple Survey
• The data which is need for a research could be obtained from
primary and secondary sources.
– There are two methods of study in using primary data for research :
1. Census
2. Survey
1. Census Survey: is collecting all the necessary data from the
whole population under study.
 Advantages of Census Method
• Completeness: data are obtained from each and every unit of population in the
study area.
• Originality: all the target groups are participated in the study.
• Precision (accuracy) & reliability:
• Less sampling error: - there is no subjective judgment in selection of some
study units from the entire population
• Wide applicability: - the data collected has a wide application in the country
as a whole.
 Cont..
– Disadvantage of Census Method
• Huge resources (HR, financial, time resources) requirements
• Time constraints: requires long period of time
• Impossibility of checking biasness,
• Not appropriate for short term study.
2. Sample Survey: is a research design in which
information is gathered from a sample of respondents.
– Advantages of Sample Survey Study Design
• Viability: the results that the researches find out from the study can be
obtained in a short
• period of time.
• Thoroughly: the area of the study is small.
• Administrative convenience
• Practicability
• Possibility of checking biasness
 Cont..
• Disadvantages of Sample Survey Study Design
– Possibility of bias and prejudices
– Difficulty in selecting representative
– Need for specific and specialized knowledge
• Characteristics of A Good Sample Design
– Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
– Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
– Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for
the research study
– Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled
in a better way.
– Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for
– the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
 5.4. Steps in sampling Design

• Sampling process consists of seven steps:

1. Define the population
2. Identify the sampling frame
3. Specify the sampling unit
4. Selection of sampling method
5. Determination of sample size
6. Specify sampling plan
7. Selection of sample
 Cont..
1. Define the population
– Population is defined in terms of፡
• Element - Company's product
• Sampling unit - Retail outlet, super market
• Extent - Bole and Kirkos
• Time - April 5 to May 15, 2016 E.C
2. Identify the sampling frame
 Sampling frame could be:
• Telephone Directory
• Localities of a city using the municipal corporation
listing
• Any other list consisting of all sampling units
 Cont..

3. Specify the sampling unit:

– Individuals who are to be contacted are the sampling units.
4. Selection of sampling method
• This refers to whether
– probability or
– non-probability methods are used.
5. Determine the sample size:
• how many elements of the target population are to be chosen
• The sample size depends upon the type of study that is being conducted.
o For example: If it is an exploratory research, the sample size will be
generally small.
o For conclusive research, such as descriptive research, the sample size
will be large.
6. Specify the sampling plan:
• sampling plan should clearly specify the target population.
7. Select the sample: This is the final step in the sampling process
5.5. Types of Sampling Design and Procedures
• Based on the representation basis there are two
major types of sampling design:
1. Probability sampling design (random sampling)
i. Simple random sampling
ii. Systematic random sampling
iii. Stratified random sampling
iv. Cluster sampling
v. Multistage sampling
2. None probability sampling
i. Convenience sampling
ii. Quota sampling
iii. Snowball sampling
iv. Purposive sampling
 1. Probability sampling Design

• In probability sampling all units or items in the population

have a chance of being chosen in the sample.
o Each element of the population has a known and non- zero
chance of being selected.
• Probability sampling always produces the smallest possible
sampling error.
• Advantages of probability sampling
i. Sampling errors can be calculated from probability
samples.
ii. Probability samples rely on random process
iii. In a true random process, each element has an equal
chance or probability of being selected. It is possible to
get consistent and unbiased estimate of the population
parameter
 Techniques of probability sampling
• There are five major techniques of probability
sampling:
I. Simple random sampling ;
II. Systematic random sampling;
III. Stratified random sampling
IV. Cluster sampling ;
V. Multi-stage sampling
 I. Simple Random Sampling

• Simple random sampling involves selecting the

sample at random from the sampling frame using
random number.
– Number each of the cases in your sampling frame
with a unique number. The first case is numbered 0,
the second 1 and so on.
– Select cases using random numbers until your actual
sample size is reached.
– Applicable when population is small, homogeneous
and readily available.
 Procedure of Selecting a Random Sample
• The following are commonly used procedures for
selecting a random sample:
i. Lottery Method:
o Each unit in the population of N units may be associated with a chit
or ticket such that each sampling unit has its identification mark
from 1 to N.
o Chits or tickets may be drawn one by one and may be continued until
a sample of the desired size is obtained.
• It is used when the population is small.
ii. Table of Random Numbers:
o when the population is large or infinite.
o A random number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear
independent of each other with equal frequency.
o E.g. If we have to select sample from population of size N= 100, then the
numbers from 001 to 100.
o When the size of the population is less than thousand, three digit
numbers 000, 001, 002, --- 999 are assigned.
 Advantages &Disadvantages of simple random
sampling
• Advantages:
– Free from subjectivity
– Simplicity
– More representative
– Easily assess accuracy
• Disadvantages:
– It requires complete lists of the universe
– It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large
geographic area.
– For a given degree of accuracy, this method requires
larger sample as compared to stratified
– Lack of control of the investigator.
 II. Systematic Random sampling
– Systematic random sampling involves selecting the
sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
• It is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and
then choosing additional elementary units at equi-spaced
intervals until the desired number of units is obtained.
• Each unit in the population is identified and each unit has
an equal chance of being in the sample.
– It is also called Quasi- random sampling.
• systematic sampling involves three steps:
i. Determine the sampling interval, which is symbolized by K
ii. Randomly select a number between 1 and k and include that
person/unit in your sample.
iii. Include all elements in your sample.
 Cont..
• To calculate the sampling fraction or the
proportion of the total population that you need
to select we use the formula
K=
Where:
K is sampling fraction
n is the actual sample size
N is the total population
 Example
• suppose there are 100 participants in your study.
– You want to select 20 participants
• n= 20
• N=200
• K=?
K==
K=1/10
• The sampling interval is 10
• Thus, randomly select the number between 1and 10
– the names are listed on a piece of paper in an alphabetical order.
• 1,2,3,4,5……………..200
• Suppose the number you have picked is 5,
• the continue with the interval as 5,15, 25, 35……..till you get
20 participants
 III. Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling is used when the population is
heterogeneous.
– The population is divided it into certain homogeneous
sub-populations, which are called strata.
• The strata differ from one another but each is homogeneous
within itself.
– The units are selected at random from each of these strata.
– Allocation of Sample in Different Strata:
a. Proportional Allocation:
ni = X n: i= 1,2,3 ….k
When ni= number of sample size population in the strata
Ni= number of population in the strata
N= number of total population
n= number of total sample size
 Cont..
– Example : you want to conduct research on
performance of quality management and work
experience in commercial bank of Ethiopia. The total
population is 800. From these we can use strata based
on work experience as (0-5 years =400, 6-10
years=240, 10 years and above =160). allocate the
sample of size 30 to be drawn from a population of
800 units divided into 3 strata.
• Solution: N1=400, N2=240, N3=160 n=30
– =n x =30x =15
– n2=n x =30x = 9
– n3= n x=30x = 6
 IV. Cluster Sampling
• The groups are termed clusters based on any
naturally occurring grouping.
– For cluster sampling the sampling frame is the
complete list of clusters rather than a complete list of
individual cases within the population.
• The group of data my be manufacturing firm or geographical
area.
• We elect a few clusters, normally using simple random
sampling.
– Data are then collected from every case within the selected clusters
by using the following techniques:
o Choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame.
o Number each of the clusters with a unique number.
o Select your sample using some form of random sampling as
discussed earlier
 V. Multi-stage Sampling
• It is used to overcome problems associated with a
geographically dispersed population.
– when face-to-face contact is needed
– where it is expensive and time consuming to
construct a sampling frame for a large geographical
area.
 2. Non probability sampling Design

• Non probability sampling is the process of

sample selection based on personal judgment and
knowledge.
– a desired number of sample units are selected
purposely depending up on the object of the inquiry.
– only the important items representing the true
characteristics of the population are including in the
sample
– It is the most practical sampling method in the
exploratory stages of some research projects, such as
a pilot survey.
 Advantages and disadvantages of none probability
sampling design
• Advantages of Non- Probability Sampling
– requires lower cost
– requires less time
– Acceptable if level of accuracy of the research results is
not utmost importance
• Disadvantages of Non probability sampling
– The research results can‘t be projected generalized to
the total population.
– The researcher doesn‘t know the degree to which the
sample is representative of the population from which
is drawn.
– Sampling error can‘t be estimated.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
I. Convenience Sampling
• It refers to sampling by obtaining people or units that are
conveniently available.
II. Snowball sampling
• It is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members
of the desired population.
• This technique is used to locate members of rare populations
by referrals.
• It includes the following stages:
– Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
– Ask these cases to identify further cases.
– Ask these new cases to identify further new cases (and so on).
– Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as large
as is manageable.
 Cont..
III. Purposive Sampling
– It conforms to certain criteria is called Purposive
sampling.
– There are two major types of purposive sampling:
a. Quota sampling
– It is used to ensure that the various subgroups in a population are
represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact
extent that the investigators desire.
– To select a quota sample we use the following stages:
i. Divide the population into specific groups.
ii. Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and
available data.
iii. Give each interviewer an ‘assignment
iv. Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide the
full sample
 Cont..
b. Judgmental sampling
– It enables the researcher to use his/her judgment to select
cases that will best enable to answer the research question
and to meet the objectives.
• The experienced individual selects the sample based on his or
her judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of
the sample member.
• Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purposes,
even if they are not fully representative.
– Judgment sampling often is used in attempts to forecast election results.
o People frequently wonder how a television network can predict the
results of an election with only 2 percent of the votes reported.
o Political and sampling experts judge which small voting
districts approximate overall state returns from previous
election years;
 then these bellwether precincts are selected as the
sampling units.
 What is the Appropriate Sample Design?
• A researcher must decide on the most appropriate
sample design for a specific project.
– The following are the most common criteria to
identify sampling design:
1. Degree of Accuracy
2. Resources
3. Time
4. Advance Knowledge of the Population
5. National versus Local Project
 Sample Size Determination
• There are five step process in Selecting a Sample-
Size:
1. Determine Goals:
 know the size of the population with which you‘re
dealing.
• If your population is small (200 people or less), it may be
preferable to do a census of everyone in the population, rather
than a sample.
• If the population from which you want to gather information is
larger, it makes sense to do a sample.
 decide the methods and design of the sample you‘re going
to draw
 know what kind of resources you have available
 Cont..
2. Determine the Desired Precision of Results
– The level of precision is the closeness with which the
sample predicts where the true values in the population
lie.
3. Determine the Confidence Level
– Higher confidence levels require larger sample sizes.
4. Estimate the Degree of Variability
– Variability is the degree to which the attributes or
concepts being measured in the questions are distributed
throughout the population.
5. Estimate the Response Rate
– The base sample size is the number of responses you
must get back when you conduct your survey.
 Characteristics of Good sample size
1. The large the size of the universes, the bigger
should the samples size
2. If the resources available are vast a lager sample
size could be taken.
3. The greater the degree of accuracy desired the
larger should be the samples size.
4. If universe consists of homogeneous units a
small sample may serve the purpose & Vic
verse.
5. For intensive & continuous study a small sample
may be suitable.
 CHAPTER 6: DATA SOURCE AND DATA COLLECTION METHODS

6.1. Meaning of Data Collection

6.2. Data source
6.2.1. Sources of primary data
6.2.2. Sources of secondary data
6.3. Methods of data collection
6.3.1. Methods of Collecting Primary Data
1. Questionnaires
2. Interview and schedules
3. Focus Groups
4. Observation
5. Experimentation

6.4. Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

6. Data collection from available database
7. Data collection from documents
8. Data collection using Meta-Analysis
 6.1. Meaning of Data Collection

• Data collection: is a process of gathering data

systematically for a particular purpose from
various sources.
– The process is usually preliminary to statistical
analysis of the data.
• Data: is the information collected from various
sources.
– It can be expressed in quantitative or qualitative
form for a specific purpose.
 6.2. Types and Sources of Data
• There are two major types of data:
1. Primary data: are those which are collected afresh and for the
first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
 Primary sources includes:
– diaries, correspondence, ships' logs.
– original documents e.g. birth certificates, trial transcripts.
– biographies, autobiographies, manuscripts.
– interviews, speeches, oral histories.
– case law, legislation, regulations, constitutions.
– government documents, statistical data, research reports.

2. Secondary data: are those which have already been

collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
– Common sources of secondary data for social science
include:
o censuses, information collected by government departments,
o organizational records and data that was originally collected for other
research purposes.
 6.3. Methods of Data Collection
I. Primary data collection methods
– The following are important methods of collecting
primary data:
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaires
4. Focus group discussion
1. Observation : involves systematically selecting,
watching and recording behavior and non behaviour
characteristics of living things , objects or phenomena.
• It is most commonly used method especially in studies relating
to behavioral sciences.
• It is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability.
 Cont..
2. Interview : involves oral questioning of respondents, either
individually or as a group.
– Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by
writing them down:
• during the interview itself
• immediately after the
• Interview
• by tape-recording the responses,
• by a combination of both.
– Interviews can be either unstructured or structured.
• Structured interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of
highly standardized techniques of recording.
– No freedom to rephrase the questions
• unstructured interview do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information
– allowed much greater freedom to ask
– There may be:
– Personal interviews
– Telephone interview
 Cont..
3. Questionnaire : is a systematic compilation of
questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desired
– There are two types of questionnaire:
i. Close-ended questionnaires- are those questionnaires in
which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined
questions.
– Closed questions offer respondents a choice of answers, or
response categories.
ii. open-ended questioners- are not specified and
comments in the respondent’s own words
– Open questions require the respondent to produce their own
answers
 Cont..
4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD):
– FGD is an important structured discussion in which a
small number of participants guided by a moderator or
facilitator, talk about topics of special importance to a
particular research issue.
• The focus group is a special type of group in terms of purpose,
size, composition, and procedures.
– It is typically composed of seven to twelve participants who are
– unfamiliar with each other and conducted by a trained interviewer.
– The moderator introduces the topic, observes, and takes notes and or
tapes the discussions.
• FGD can be conducted in a meeting hall or using FM radio or
television as a medium.
• Moreover, online services such as Facebook and Twitter can
also be used to run a focus group discussion.
 II. Secondary Data Collection methods
• Secondary data collection techniques are mainly related to data
collection from:
1. available database,
2. data collection from documents,
3. content analysis, and meta-analysis.
1. Data collection from available database
• large amount of data that has already been collected by others.
– The data may not necessarily have been analyzed or published.
o For example is data collected by governmental and non-governmental organizations
for their own purposes.

2. Data collection from documents (data mining)

– It is particularly helpful method of secondary data collection to identify
research questions.
– It is also helpful to validate your research findings.
– It helps us compare your conclusions with the documentary facts in the
organization in question.
– It is commonly used in accounting and finance researches.
 Cont..

3. Data collection using Meta-Analysis

– Meta-analysis combines the results of studies being
reviewed.
• For instance, you may want to conduct extensive literature
review on climate change financing.
– The natural starting point is to collect theoretical and empirical
research papers in the area of climate change financing.
– Meta-analysis findings form a basis for establishing
new theories, models and concepts
CHAPTER 7: DATA PROCESSING AND
ANALYSIS
7.1.Data processing
7.1.1. Editing
7.1.2. Coding
7.1.3. Classification
7.1.4. Tabulation
7.2.Types of analysis
7.2.1. Descriptive Analysis
7.2.2. Inferential Analysis
7.3.Various statistical models for research
7.3.1. Hypothesis Testing
7.3.2. Chi-Square Test
7.3.3. Measures of Association
 7.1.Data processing
• After collecting data from the field, the
researcher has to process and analyze.
• The Following are the stages through which the
raw data must be processed in order ultimately
to deliver the final products.
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation
 1. Editing

• Editing means to look for and remove any errors,

incompleteness or in consistency in the data.
– The editor is responsible for seeing that the data are:
• As accurate as possible ;
• Consistent with other facts secured; uniformly entered;
• as complete as possible;
• Acceptable for tabulation; and
• Arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
– There are two categories of editing:
i. Field Editing: consists in the review of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing.
– It is s necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can be
difficult for other to decipher.
– It should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferable on the very
day or on next day
ii. Central Editing: it should take place when all forms or schedules
have been completed and returned to the office.
 2. Coding
• Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or
other symbols to answers so that responses can be put
in to a limited number of categories or classes.
– coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire.
– Following are important guidelines for coding:
i. Coding should be mutually excusive
ii. Set of categories should be collectively exhaustive so that all
responses should be classified in one or the other category
iii. Separate categories should be created for recording non-
response‘ and no knowledge response.
iv. Inter coder and inter-coder agreement tests should be
conducted through out the entire coding process to check its
reliability.
v. To help ensure that responses are being coded systematically.
 3. Classification

• Most research studies result in a large volume of

raw data which must reduced in to homogenous
groups for getting meaningful relationships.
– In this step data having common characteristic are
placed in one class and in this way the entire data get
divided in to a number of groups or classes.
• Classification can be of like following two types, depending
upon the nature of the phenomenon involved
i. Classification according to Attributes
• descriptive
• numerical.
ii. Classification according to class-intervals:
• statistics of variables such as : ncome production, age, weight
etc.
 4. Tabulation
• Tabulation is process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form for the further
analysis.
– Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows.
– It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
statement to a minimum
– It facilitates the process of comparison
– It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of
errors and omissions;
– It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
• Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or
electronic devices.
 7.2. Types of analysis
• Analysis may therefore be categorized as:
i. descriptive analysis and
ii. Inferential analysis
i. Descriptive Analysis (statistics)
– Descriptive statistics can summarize responses from
large numbers of respondents in a few simple
statistics.
• It is largely the study of distributions of one variable
• It includes the following:
– Measures of central Tenancy or Averages
– Measures of Dispersion
– Measures of Skew ness
– Measure of Kurtosis
 Cont..
ii. Inferential Analysis
– Empirical testing typically involves inferential
statistics.
• When the population is consisting of more than one variable
it is possible to measure the relationship between them.
• Statistical analysis can be divided into several groups
– Statistical measures for Bivariate Analysis
– statistical Measures for Multivariate Analysis
7.3. Various statistical models for research
1. Hypothesis Testing
– Important parametric tests used for testing of
hypothesis are: z-test, and t-test,
– The following are important Procedure for testing of
hypothesis:
i. State the null hypothesis as well as the alternate
hypothesis
ii. Establish a level of significance (prior to sampling)
iii. Choosing a suitable test statistic
iv. Defining the critical rejection regions and making
calculations for test statistics
 2.Chi-Square Test
• A chi-square () test can be used when the data
satisfies four conditions.
– There must be two observed sets of data or one
observed set of data and one expected set of data
(generally, there are n-rows and c-columns of data)
– The two sets of data must be based on the same sample
size.
– Each cell in the data contains the observed or expected
count of five or large?
– The different cells in a row of column must have
categorical variables (male, female or younger than 25
years of age, 25 year of age, older than 40 years of age
etc.)
 3.Measures of Association
• Research questions in business frequently
revolve around the study of relationship between
two or more variables.
– Various objectives may be served by such an
analysis.
– It includes the following techniques
• Bivariate correlation analysis
• Linear regression equation
• The coefficient of determination
 CHAPTER 8
REPORT WRITING

8.1. Types of reports

8.1.1. Technical report
8.1.2. Popular report
8.2. Report format
8.3. Referencing In the Text
8.4. Referencing In the Bibliography
8.5. Precautions In Preparing Report
8.6. Oral Presentation
 REPORT WRITING
• Writing a research report is a technical activity
that demands all the skills and patience of the
researcher.
– It is the end product of research activity.
– It is highly skilled work; it is an interesting,
fascinating, challenging, grueling and sometimes
even exasperating experience.
– Perfection in a research report is achieved by
continuous and persistent thought and creative and
intelligent writing.
 8.1. Types of reports
• Research reports may differ in length and form.
– Business firms prefer reports in the form of letters.
• Banks, insurance companies and financial institutions
require short balance-sheet type of tabulation in their
annual reports to customers and shareholders.
– There are two major categories of writing the results
of a research investigation:
a. Technical report
b. Popular report
 a. Technical report
• A technical report is written for fellow researchers and
therefore should be organized on a different footing
altogether.
– A technical report consists of the following aspects.
1. Major findings and contents: it will contain the main findings just in
two or three pages.
2. Nature of the research work: describes the general objectives of the
study, formulation of the problem in operational items, etc.
3. Research methodology : explains the various methods used in the study
and their limitations.
4. Data analysis: analyses the data and their sources, characteristics and
limitations.
5. Presentation of findings: presents his main findings of the study with
supporting data in the form of tables and charts.
6. Main conclusion: the main findings of the research are presented
7. Bibliography : contains the main sources of secondary data.
8. Technical appendices: contain all technical matters
 b. Popular report

• Popular report stresses on simplicity and attractiveness.

– Its writing is clear, with minimum statistical details and the
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
– The following is the general outline of a popular report:
1. Major findings and conclusions: findings of practical interest
and their implications.
2. Follow-up action: suggest follow-up action on the basis of the
findings of the study
3. Objectives of the study: the problem is presented, along with
the specific objectives of the study.
4. Methodology : a description of the methods and techniques used
5. Results: resented in clear and non-technical terms with the
liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams
and the like.
6. Appendices: consists of detailed information on the methods
used, forms, etc.
 8.2. Report format
• Research Report is a product in the sense that it must satisfy the
parties.
– The mechanical format of a research report consists of three parts :
i. The Preliminaries
• Title Page (inside the hard cover)
• Preface including acknowledgements (if desired or necessary)
• Table of contents
• List of Tables
• List of Abbreviations uses in the report
• List of Figures or illustrations,
• Abstract
ii. The Text
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Main body of the report (presented in appropriate modules or chapter form)
• Conclusions
iii. Reference Material
– Bibliography
– Appendix or appendices
– Index (if necessary)
 Title Page
• It should be as brief as possible but self-
explanatory.
• It should contain basically :
– The name (title) of the subject investigated,
– date of submission (some times month is sufficient
and they year),
– name of the author(s), and
– the name of the agency to whom it is submitted
• The font of the above should be appropriately
set to attract the reader.
 Preface
• The preface (often used synonymously with
foreword) may include:
– the purpose in conducting the study,
– a brief resume of the background,
– scope, purpose, general nature of the
– research upon which the report is being based and
– acknowledgement.
• Acknowledgements‘ recognize the persons to whom the
writer is indebted for guidance and assistance during the study
and the funding institutions for providing finances to
implements the study.
• The word, preface and Acknowledgements should
be printed in capital letters.
 Table of Contents
• The purpose of a table of contents is to provide
an analytical overview of the material included
in the study or report.
– Any report of more than six to ten pages should have
contents page
– It must indicate the pate numbers
• for each of the items like acknowledgement (Arabic
numerals),
• list of tables, list of figures, list of abbreviations, and list
of illustrations.
 The Text
• The Text is the most important part of the report.
• In this section the researcher presents the facts
observed or the basic aspects of argument
 Introduction:
• It should be prepared with considerable care with two major
aims፡
– introducing the problem in a suitable context and
– arousing and stimulating the reader‘s interest.
– An introductory chapter should contain the following፡
1. lucid, complete and concise statement of the problem being investigated.
2. A description of the scope of the study
3. An explanation of the need for the study and its importance
4. A preview of the organization of the thesis
5. A resume of the historical background and present importance of the
problem
6. Preliminary results of the exploration
7. A brief statement regarding the sources of data, the techniques used for
analyzing the data, the assumptions used in the analysis and the technical
terminology used.
8. An analytical review of literature should also be an important part of
introduction.
 Methodology
• Explanation of methodology is necessary in both
technical and management reports explanation o
– It is the core aspect of the report to evaluate the scientific
nature of the study.
– The reliability and validity of research process depends
upon the strength of methodology.
– A scientific methodology is composed of an explanation
about:
• sampling design,
• data collection design,
• experimental design,
• tools of data analysis,
• limitations, time frame,
• techno format etc.
 Main Body of the Report
• Materials should be organized systematically and
presented under appropriate headings.
– The following order may be adopted:
• Statement of specific question or hypothesis under study
• Presentation of relevant data
• Interpretation of data
• Conclusions and interpretations for each specific question
– In the body of the report, according to the necessary
charts, graphs, tables and diagrams can be employed.
– They must be appropriately numbered.
• At the end of each chapter, a summary of the arguments,
findings and relevant data may be given in clear and
concise terms
 Conclusions
• The conclusions, recommendations, and possible
problems that could be further researched must be
presented in a classified manner.
• Each conclusion must be supported by empirical
data and evidence.
 Bibliography

• It is a source of the major information concerning the

dissertation.
– It must focus on subject books, and central theme of the research
process.
– In comprehensive listing, bibliography should follow a logical
arrangement in alphabetical (dictionary) style of presentation)
order.
– Again it should be noted that reference notes are different from
bibliography
– The essential information for each book or journal article should
be shown as under:
1. In case of books; the order is to be followed: name of the author(s)
year of publication; Title of the book; edition number preferably in
brackets; place of publication; and name of the publisher.
 Example: Guildford, J. P., (1995) Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and
Education (4th ed.), New York: McGraw Hill.
 Cont..
2. In case of a journal the place of publication and the
publisher‘s name are not included.
– But the volume number and the inclusive pages which contain
the article are given.
• Example: Turner, L.C.F. (1998). The Russian Mobilization in 1914.
Journal of Contemporary History, 3, 65-68
3. In case of Reports the name of the authority for whom
the report is prepared followed by the title of the Report,
place and year of publication.
– Example: Ministry of Information and Publications,
Government of Ethiopia, Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, 1995
 8.3. Referencing In the Text
• The Harvard system, uses the author‘s name and
data of publication to identify cited documents
within the text.
– For example:
• It has been shown that… (Saunders, 1993).
• When referring generally to work by different authors on the
subject, place the authors in alphabetical order: (Baker, 1991;
Lewis, 1991; Thornhill, 1993).
• When referring to dual authors: (Saunders and Cooper, 1993).
• When there are more than two authors: (Bryce et al., 1991).
• For corporate authors, for instance a company report: (Hanson
Trust Plc, 1990).
• For publications with no obvious author; for example an
employment gazette: (Employment Gazette, 1993).
 8.4. Referencing In the Bibliography
• In the bibliography, the referenced publications are listed
alphabetically by author‘s name.
– All the author‘s surnames and initials are listed in full.
– If there is more than one work by the same author, these are
listed chronologically.

• An example of a reference to a book would be: Saunders, M.N.K. and

Cooper, S.A., (1993) Understanding Business Statistics, London, DP
Publications.
• A reference to a book other than the first edition would be: Morris, C.,
(1993) Quantitative Approaches to Business Studies (3rd ed.,) London,
Pitman Publishing.
• A reference to a book with no obvious author would be: Department of
Trade and Industry (1992). The Single Market: Europe open for
Professions, UK Implementation, London, HMSO.
• A reference to a particular chapter in a book would be: Robsoon, C.,
(1993) Real World Research, Oxford, Blackwell, Chapter 3.
 Footnotes
• Researchers must insert footnotes in the
appropriate places.
– These fulfill two purposes:
• The proper identification of materials used in quotations in
the report.
• The footnotes provide supplementary value to the main
body of the text.
– Based on the footnotes‘ description, one can easily refer the cross
references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement
and elucidation or explanation of a point of view.
 8.5. Precautions In Preparing Report
• The following precautions must be taken while preparing it:
1. It should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to
maintain interest.
2. The reports should be written in an objective style in simple
language, avoiding expressions such as it seems there may be‘ and
the like.
3. The report must make the findings readily accessible.
4. The layout of the research should be well thought out.
5. The report should be free from grammatical mistakes.
6. The report must present a logical analysis of the subject matter.
7. Appendices should be enlisted for all the technical data in the
report.
8. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report.
9. The report must have an attractive appearance. It should be neat
and clean, whether typed or
10. printed.
 8.6. Oral Presentation
• Often the researchers are asked make oral
presentation of his research process and findings
which is also called as Briefing‘.
– The oral presentation should cover the following
major points:
1. Opening remarks to explain the nature of the project,
problem, found, and how it is processed to solve.
2. Findings and conclusions should be the basis of
presentation.
– They must be brief and comprehensive
3. Presentation of recommendation.
– They must have relevance to the conclusions and findings stated
earlier.