SUMMARIZATI

ON OF THE
LESSONS
Presented by: Bio Warriors
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 3.2
CELL CYCLE
AND CELL STAGES OF
DIVISION MITOSIS

3.3 3.4 3.5

SIGNIFICANCE DISORDERS AND
AND DISEASES
STAGES OF IMPLICATIONS OF RELATED TO CELL
MEIOSIS MITOSIS AND MALFUNCTION
MEIOSIS DURING THE CELL
CYCLE
 3.1
CELL
CYCLE
AND CELL
DIVISION
THE GENETIC MATERIAL OF
CELLS
Our cells store genetic information in The complex packaging of DNA
DNA within the nucleus, shaping ensures it fits inside cells, with
traits like eye and hair color. This chromatin transitioning to a more
DNA, organized as chromatin in compact structure during specific
nucleosomes during interphase, can Cell cycle phases. This organization
condense further for efficient cell facilitates the transmission of
functioning. In diploid organisms, genetic information during cell
homologous chromosomes, occurring division, maintaining the integrity of
in pairs, carry identical chromatids traits encoded by DNA.
formed through DNA replication,
known as sister chromatids,
constituting the cell's genome.
INTRODUCTION
TO THE CELL
CYCLE
All species of organisms have their own
life cycle that shows how they are born,
develop, and mature. Like organisms,
individual cells have their own life cycle
known as cell cycle.

The cell cycle is one procedure that is

crucial to the expansion and maturation of
cell. Furthermore, it eventually results in
cell division. The cell cycle is composed of
various phases, much like the life cycles of
various animals, which occur
progressively. There will be certain
activities in each of these phases that
support the cell's general survival and
upkeep.
THE THREE STAGES OF CELL
CYCLE

Interphase M Phase Cytokinesis

During this phase, the cell gets In eukaryotic organisms, this The division of the cytoplasm of
ready for the process of cell event is related to one of two a cell, including its constituent
division, which is how cells processes: meiosis or mitosis. parts, is known as cytokinesis.
divide to create new cells. G1, S, The types of cells have different Daughter cells are the term for its
and G2 phases are further ways of dividing. Gametes and byproducts. During this process,
divisions of interphase. sex cells go through meiosis, animal cells will form a cleavage
while somatic and non-sex cells furrow while plant cells form a
go through mitosis. cell plate.
INTERPHA
SE
SUBDIVISIONS OF INTERPHASE

Gap 1 S Phase Gap 2

During this phase, the cytoplasm Also known as the synthesis The generation of materials
of the cell grows and the number phase. It is where DNA required for cell division and
of cellular organelles doubles. replication occurs. ongoing growth are significant
Additionally, this is the phase processes that take place during
where protein synthesis is this period. During this time,
occurring at its fastest rate. In proteins are also made, although
addition, nutrients, energy not as quickly as they are during
molecules, and enzymes are the G1 phase.
created.
 TAKE NOTE!
The G phases are considered gap
phases because they intervene
between DNA replication and cell
division.
CELL
CYCLE
CHECKPOI
NTS
CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS
The cell stops the cell cycle when it Throughout the whole cell cycle,
notices mistakes or abnormal there are several checkpoints.
conditions. It then attempts to Certain cell-resident protein
correct any problems that may have molecules carry out these checks.
occurred. The cell cycle continues if The G1-to-S, G2-to-M, and
the mistakes are fixed. The cell may metaphase checkpoints are
self-destruct if these mistakes are too examples of checkpoints. The
severe. This happens by a process metaphase checkpoint happens
called programmed cell death, or during mitosis and meiosis, whereas
apoptosis. Errors are prevented from the G1-to-S and G2-to-M
being transferred to the daughter checkpoints happen during
cells via the self-destruction interphase.
mechanism.
G1-TO-S CHECKPOINT
DECISION CRITICAL
POINTS FACTORS
Cell evaluates its for DNA Ensures favorable conditions for
synthesis (S phase). accurate DNA replication.

ASSESMEN DECISION
T OUTCOME
Checks for cell size, nutrients, Determines whether the cell proceeds to
DNA damage, and external the S phase for DNA synthesis or pauses
signals. for repair if conditions are inadequate or
DNA damage is detected.
G2-TO-M AND M CHECKPOINTS

G2-TO-M
CHECKPOINT M CHECKPOINT
Also known as G2 checkpoint, is a crucial Spindle fibers bind to sister
step where elements like DNA integrity chromatids during metaphase of
are analyzed. If DNA is accurately copied mitosis, preparing the way for
without damage, and environmental their separation during anaphase.
conditions are favorable, the cell Only after all spindles are
advances to either mitosis or meiosis. appropriately connected can the
cell go to anaphase.
 TAKE NOTE!
G0 phase is a stage a cell enters if it is not
committed to further prepare for division.
It is considered as a resting stage for a cell
however, it is not resting per se because it
is still metabolically active.
 3.2
STAGES
OF
MITOSIS
WHAT IS MITOSIS?
The division of a cell, Mitosis plays a crucial role
referred to as a parent cell, in the cell cycle by
into new cells, referred to enabling
as daughter cells, is referred the division of a parent cell
to as the mitotic process. into two genetically
Remember that mitosis identical daughter cells,
occurs exclusively in ensuring growth, tissue
somatic (sometimes called repair, and maintenance of
body) cells. a constant chromosome
number.
THE
MITOTIC
PROCESS
INTERPHASE PREPARATION FOR
MITOSIS

G1 & G2 S PHASE
PREPARATION PREPARATION
These stages include the cell’s DNA replication occurs during the
growth and preparation of S
components needed for phase, also known as the synthesis
phase. DNA duplication is required
dividing cells. prior to mitosis because the
process seeks to create daughter
cells with the appropriate quantity
of DNA.
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS

HAPLOID CELLS DIPLOID CELLS

Haploid cells have half the usual Diploid cells possess the full set of
chromosome number. They result from chromosomes (2n), characteristic of most
the process of meiosis and are found in body cells. They are formed through
gametes (sperm and egg cells). Haploid mitosis and serve to maintain the
cells unite during fertilization to restore organism's chromosome number.
the diploid number.
PHASES OF MITOSIS

PROMETAPHA
PROPHASE SE METAPHASE
The prophase primary function is to This phase begins after the During phase the microtubules of
condense or the condensation process. nuclear breaks down. it has two the mitotic spindle attach with
This phase of condensation is (2) centrosomes that move the kinetochores of chromosomes
important because when molecule
condenses it will result into compact
toward opposite sides of the cell cause the chromosomes to align
and small chromosomes that can resulting in one centrosome each at the center of the cell known as
divide during mitosis easily. In this side and each side known as a the metaphase plate.
phase, the material is in still in pole.
chromatin form and when the
chromatin starts to condense it will
form chromosomes.
 TAKE NOTE!
The formation of mitotic spindle is
made up of proteins called
microtubules that functions to
separate the chromatids in mitosis.
PHASES OF MITOSIS

ANAPHASE TELOPHASE CYTOKINESIS

Sister chromatids separate Chromatids reach the poles, and Cytokinesis is the division of the
chromosomes begin to decondense. cell's cytoplasm and organelles.
and move toward opposite Nuclear envelope reforms around each
In animal cells, a cleavage
poles, pulled by spindle set of chromosomes, establishing two
distinct nuclei. Telophase is the final furrow forms, pinching the cell
fibers. Spindle fibers stage of mitosis where chromatids, into two. In plant cells, a cell
shorten, ensuring equal having reached the poles, begin to plate develops at the center,
distribution of genetic decondense. The nuclear envelope gradually creating two separate
reforms around each set of
material. chromosomes, resulting in the
daughter cells, each with its
formation of two distinct nuclei within nucleus.
the cell.
 A. PROPHASE D. ANAPHASE
B
A

B. PROMETAPHASE E. TELOPHASE
C
F

C. METAPHASE D F. CYTOKINESIS
E
PLOIDY IN
MITOSIS
Mitosis preserves diploid ploidy,
ensuring that daughter cells
inherit an identical set of
chromosomes as the parent cell,
maintaining the genetic integrity
and stability of the organism.

Mitosis maintains the diploid

ploidy, with daughter cells having
the same chromosome number as
the parent cell
 3.3
STAGES
OF
MEIOSIS
WHAT IS MEIOSIS?
The method by which the During meiosis, two cellular
divisions occur:
reproductive organs
produce gametes, or sex 1. Chromosome number is
cells. A diploid germline halved (diploid →
cell undergoes reduction haploid) by dividing
division to produce four homologous chromosomal
pairs in the first meiotic
genetically different phase.
haploid nuclei.
2. Sister chromatids (formed
by DNA replication
during interphase) are
separated during the
second meiotic division.
THE
MEIOTIC
PROCESS
 A cell will reproduce its
genetic material during the S
phase of interphase. The cell
intended to produce sex cells
will go through meiosis I
once all the checkpoints have
been satisfied. When a cell
goes through meiosis I, it will
have two sister chromatids on
each diploid chromosome.
MEIOSIS I
PROPHASE I
Synapsis of bivalents:
Chromosomes pairing of homologous
condense chromosomes (also
known as tetrads)

Crossing over occurs in

Nucleolus non-sister chromatids
disappears (happens in the chiasma;
chiasmata in plural)

Spindle forms Nuclear envelope

disappears
 TAKE NOTE!
Synapsis involves the pairing of the members
of homologous chromosomes so as to allow
them to undergo crossing over and to
segregate them.
 TAKE NOTE!
Recombination is the process wherein new DNA molecules are
produced from two DNA molecules or from different segments of the
same parent DNA molecule. In the case of meiosis in sexually
reproducing organisms, recombination is achieved through
chromosomal crossing over. If the segments are exchanged, then the
result will be chromosomes with new combinations of genes that
contribute to genetic diversity or the diversity of traits.
PROMETAPHASE I

The events in prometaphase I are

quite similar to the ones in the
prometaphase of mitosis. The nuclear
envelope will also disintegrate and
the creation of the meiotic spindle
will also occur.
METAPHASE I

Chromosomes Spindle microtubules Tetrads line up at the

condense attach to centromeres metaphase plate.
ANAPHASE I

Segregation of one Chromosomes

homologous pair from its moving to the poles
partner homolog in the via spindle.
tetrad.
TELOPHASE I

Chromosomes at
Spindle disappears
poles

Nuclear envelopes Chromosomes

reappear partially uncoil
CYTOKINESIS

The actual process of cell

division, which splits a
parent cell's cytoplasm
into two daughter cells.
INTERKINESIS

To prepare for meiosis II, the

meiotic spindles from meiosis I
will dismantle and then reunite
during interkinesis.
MEIOSIS II
PHASES OF MEIOSIS II

PROMETAPHAS METAPHASE
PROPHASE II E II II
The prophase primary function is to This phase begins after the During phase the microtubules of
condense or the condensation process. nuclear breaks down. it has two the mitotic spindle attach with
This phase of condensation is (2) centrosomes that move the kinetochores of chromosomes
important because when molecule
condenses it will result into compact
toward opposite sides of the cell cause the chromosomes to align
and small chromosomes that can resulting in one centrosome each at the center of the cell known as
divide during mitosis easily. In this side and each side known as a the metaphase plate.
phase, the material is in still in pole.
chromatin form and when the
chromatin starts to condense it will
form chromosomes.
PHASES OF MEIOSIS II

ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II CYTOKINESIS

Sister chromatids separate Chromatids reach the poles, and Cytokinesis is the division of the
chromosomes begin to decondense. cell's cytoplasm and organelles.
and move toward opposite Nuclear envelope reforms around each
In animal cells, a cleavage
poles, pulled by spindle set of chromosomes, establishing two
distinct nuclei. Telophase is the final furrow forms, pinching the cell
fibers. Spindle fibers stage of mitosis where chromatids, into two. In plant cells, a cell
shorten, ensuring equal having reached the poles, begin to plate develops at the center,
distribution of genetic decondense. The nuclear envelope gradually creating two separate
reforms around each set of
material. chromosomes, resulting in the
daughter cells, each with its
formation of two distinct nuclei within nucleus.
the cell.
 TAKE NOTE!
After cytokinesis, each cell that underwent Meiosis II will
have formed two new daughter cells. Thus, if there was one
cell that underwent Meiosis I, this cell will have formed
two daughter cells by the beginning of Meiosis II. Each of
these daughter cells would have undergone Meiosis II to
form two daughter cells each, for a total of four daughter
cells.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND
MEIOSIS II
 TAKE NOTE!
Meiosis I is considered the reductional division in meiosis
because it reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from
two to one. Meiosis II, by contrast, is considered the
equational division in meiosis because there is no further
reduction of the chromosome number in daughter cells.
 3.4
SIGNIFICANCE
AND
IMPLICATIONS
OF MITOSIS
AND
MEIOSIS
SIGNIFICANC
E OF MITOSIS
MAINTENANCE OF GENETIC
MATERIAL

GENOME MUTATIONS
o The complete set of genes that o Having cells with modifications in
can be found in each cell the genome can introduce many
changes to the organism.
o Contains information that codes o These modifications can occur
for all of the traits of the through mutations, which can affect
organism the genes of a cell
 TAKE NOTE!
The maintenance of the identity and number of the genetic material
during mitosis is important to keep the genes consistent between
parent and daughter cells. If the genes are not maintained
between parent and daughter cells, the result will then be an
organism whose cells contain different types of genetic
information. This can become problematic for the organism later
on, both structurally and functionally.
GROWTH

In the biological However, growth

sense, it refers to an may sometimes
increase in body size occur due to the
usually because of an enlargement of the
increase in the size of a cell and not
number of cells. due to cell number.
 TAKE NOTE!
In most cases, cells cannot divide indefinitely. Cells are
usually limited by a certain number of times that they
can divide before being too aged to further undergo
mitosis. This limit is known as the Hayflick limit,
which is estimated to be somewhere between forty to
sixty mitotic divisions in human cells.
DEVELOPMENT
Some of the differences that
cleavage may have from
Mitosis can also occur as soon normal mitosis are the
as fertilization is accomplished. following:
In this case, development refers
the advancement of the life o Sometimes, cytokinesis
stage that the organism is in. may not occur in between
Both growth and development cleavage stages.
are possible through a modified o Growth between cell
version of mitosis known as division stages may
cleavage. sometimes be limited.
o Cleavage occurs after
fertilization.
REPAIR AND RECOVERY
The body uses mitosis for Mitosis is also important for
replacing dead and dying cells. helping the body recover. The
Cells that are too old and too body, in fact, uses mitosis for
damaged are replaced through addressing many types of
the process of mitosis. Note injuries. Example, the healing
that we shed dead and process of wounds requires
keratinized cells every day as tissue repair through mitosis.
the actively dividing cells deep The time for this process to be
in our skin tissue push the old complete, however, may vary.
ones that are closer to the
surface.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction only

involves a lone parent
Others can use a process
transmitting its genetic
called budding, wherein an
material to the offspring.
outgrowth from an
Some organisms can
organism breaks off to
asexually reproduce
produce a new organism.
through binary fission or
transverse fission.
SIGNIFICANC
E OF MEIOSIS
REDUCTION OF GENETIC MATERIAL AND SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

If reduction does not occur,

This reduction is important then the sex cells will have 46
to the proper development chromosomes each (instead of
of an organism during the normal 23 for each of the
sexual reproduction. If the sperm and egg cells). After
amount of genetic material fertilization, these cells
is not reduced, then the will fuse and will have a total
of 92 chromosomes, which is
resulting zygote will have
abnormal. This will lead to
an problems such as spontaneous
abnormally high number of abortions.
chromosomes
INHERITANCE AND GENETIC
DIVERSITY
This is because the genetic
Genetic diversity refers to material in the mother mixes
how diverse or varied the with the genetic material
traits are of the members of from the father. This is also
the same species. This the reason why some
variation in sex cells children inherit traits from
becomes even more the mother, some traits
pronounced when sexual from the father, and some
reproduction occurs. traits being a mixture of
both.
SURVIVAL

Greater genetic diversity can Take note that high genetic

help a species survive and diversity does not completely
multiply. This is because greater guarantee survival. It merely
genetic diversity leads to more increases the chances of
traits in the population. This, in having organisms that have
some cases, may be adaptations that can help
accompanied by higher chances them survive. Adaptations, in
that some organisms in the the biological sense, are traits
population will have traits that that are beneficial in certain
are favorable for their survival. conditions of the environment.
APPLICATIO
NS OF
MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS
STEM CELL TECHNOLOGY
Conversely, many types of
Stem cells, which are harnessed stem cells can divide through
in various applications, refer to mitosis in order to produce
cells that are undifferentiated, more stem cells. Modern
meaning, they are yet to turn medicine makes use of these
into specialized cells. For stem cells to actively replace
example, some human stem aged or damaged body cells.
cells can turn into different This leads to the aged or
types of blood cells such as red damaged cells being replaced
blood cells, white blood cells, with fresh cells, which are
and platelets. usually free from any form of
abnormality.
 TAKE NOTE!
Cosmetics is one application of stem cell therapy.
Many people undergo stem cell therapy to help
replenish their aging skin cells in order to keep them
looking young. This is one of the reasons why many
celebrities retain their youthful appearances even if
they are already advanced in age.
GENETIC ENGINEERING

Meiosis results in variations in

gene pools. Scientists have After the introduction of
learned to do this artificially foreign genes into an
through genetic engineering.
organism, it is essential
This refers to the manipulation
of an organism’s genetic
that subsequent divisions
material. One of the best known take place to ensure that
instances of genetic engineering the organism will manifest
is the modification of an the desired trait.
organism’s genes so that new
traits manifest.
 3.5
DISORDERS AND
DISEASES
RELATED TO
CELL
MALFUNCTION
DURING THE
CELL CYCLE
ERRORS IN THE CELL CYCLE

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Errors during mitosis may be inherited as In meiosis, one of the most famous faults
damaged or modified DNA. In order to occurs as meiotic nondisjunction. If
create daughter cells with genetic material identical chromosomes are present or the
identical to that of the parent cell, mitosis sister chromatids fail to separate correctly,
must succeed. As a result, any mistakes then one of the daughter cells will end up
that have accumulated in the parent cell left with a greater amount of DNA than
may be transferred to the daughter cells. another daughter cell. Nondisjunction is
defined as the abnormal splitting of
chromosomes or chromatids.
DISEASES AND
DISORDERS
CAUSED BY
ERRORS IN THE
CELL CYCLE
CANCER
The abnormal cell growth is usually
A group of diseases that caused by an error in the cell cycle
consist of abnormal cell checkpoints. If the cell cycle
development that checkpoint is defective, then even
uncontrollably divide and defective cells can proceed with the
have the capability of cell cycle. This results in the
abnormal cells proceeding with
spreading to various parts
mitosis and passing on their defects
of the body through a to these daughter cells. This
process referred to as uncontrollable division eventually
metastasis. The abnormal cell results in a neoplasm, which is an
growth is usually caused by an abnormal growth of the defective
cells. If the neoplasms form a
error in the cell cycle
distinct mass, then it is known as a
checkpoints. tumor.
FACTORS THAT CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
CANCER:

Use of dangerous
substances such as alcohol
Obesity increases the risk
and cigarettes
of developing certain types
of cancer.
Long-term radiation
exposure may have an
impact because it can Another factor is exposure
introduce DNA changes to agents that cause cancer,
or carcinogens. Heavy
metals, benzene, asbestos,
and arsenic are a few
A person may be exposed
examples of carcinogens.
to carcinogens in addition
to pollution.
In accordance to the World Health Organization (WHO),
most well-known types of cancer are in the following:
LUNG BREAST
CANCER CANCER
o Has affected 2.09M o Has affected the same
amount as Lung Cancer

COLORECTAL PROSTATE
CANCER CANCER
o Has affected 1.80M o Has affected 1.28M
NONDISJUNCTION DISORDERS

ANEUPLOIDY POLYPLOIDY
One of nondisjunction's most prevalent side There is an abnormal number of sets of
effects. Happens when a cell possesses an chromosomes. A human being is polyploid
unusually high number of chromosomes. if, for instance, they have three sets of
These may result from having one or more chromosomes rather than the typical two.
extra chromosomes, or from not having any
On the other hand, that individual is
chromosomes at all. For instance, a human
aneuploid if they have three copies of
with 48, 47, 45, or more chromosomes rather
than the typical 46. chromosome 21 rather than the typical
two.
DOWN SYNDROME

It is among the most well-known examples of

aneuploidy disorders. Down syndrome is
caused by a trisomy which is the condition of
or
having three copies of a chromosome. In Down
syndrome, there is a trisomy of chromosome
21. This results in the person having 47
chromosomes instead of the normal 46.
Some of the most notable symptoms and effects that
Down syndrome may cause are the following:

Delays in development, The development of

with those affected physical features like
developing more slowly slanted eyes, shortened
than others of the same neck, and changes in the
age. shape of the head.

Some people with Down Musculoskeletal effects

syndrome have like short stature, having
intellectual disabilities. poor muscle tone,
among others.
PATAU’S SYNDROME

Refers to a trisomy disorder of a person

having three copies of chromosome 13.
It is a serious condition that could lead
to a miscarriage, stillbirth, or infant
death.
Some of the features that babies with Patau’s
syndrome are the following:

Holoprosencephaly,
Low birth size and birth
which is a condition
weight due to
wherein the brain does
abnormalities in the
not become divided into
growth of the fetus.
the left and right brain

Abnormalities in the Problems in the baby’s

face and the head. organs.
KARYOTYPES OF TRISOMY
DISORDERS

Trisomy 21 (Down Trisomy 13 (Patau’s

Syndrome) Syndrome)
 TAKE NOTE!
Down syndrome and Patau’s syndrome are examples of
disorders that result from an abnormality in an autosome.
Human autosomes are chromosome pairs 1 to 22, which
are the non-sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes refer to
pair 23, which is characterized by XX for females and XY
for males. Disorders can also result from abnormalities in
the sex chromosomes.
TURNER SYNDROME

Turner syndrome is also known as 45, X since it

results from an abnormality in that sex
chromosome. (45 for the remaining number of
chromosomes and X for the remaining sex
chromosome, thus accounting for the name
45,X). As a result, only females can have Turner
syndrome.
Turner syndrome has many effects and symptoms on those
that are affected. Some of these include the following:

Physical manifestations of Developmental delays,

the disorder, such as a broad especially in terms of
neck, a broad chest, short sexual and physical
stature, swelling of the development.
hands, among the other
symptoms.

Problems in some Hearing or sight

organs, like the heart problems.
and ovaries.
MOSAICISM
This refers to the presence of Mosaicism does not refer
multiple sets of cells with different to any specific disease but
genotypes in an organism. rather a set of disorders
Mosaicism is often caused by
errors in mitosis early on in a
that people can be
person’s development. afflicted with. For example,
During embryonic development, if a form of Down syndrome
an error in mitosis occurs and the known as mosaic Down
chromosomes aren’t divided
syndrome is characterized
equally or abnormalities occur,
then this may result in some cells by mosaicism of some cells
being normal and others normal. with trisomy 21.
KLIPPEL–TRÉNAUNAY
SYNDROME
This is a rare condition wherein lymph
and blood vessels do not form and
develop properly. This usually results in
varicose veins, skin discoloration,
improper lymph development, among
other symptoms.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Alzheimer's disease is a grave
illness that impacts millions of A significant number of brain
people globally. To completely neurons die off, which causes
comprehend the root cause of this serious issues with memory
illness and the appropriate course and cognition. High levels of
of treatment, further study is
amyloid plaques, which are
required. It is an illness whose
protein clumps that harm the
precise causes remain unknown to
medical professionals and brain. It is thought that a large
scientists. Some studies suggest number of Alzheimer's disease
that defects in chromosome issues are brought on by these
segregation in the cell cycle may plaques.
be to blame.
 TAKE NOTE!
Some studies suggest that mosaicism of trisomy 21
may be linked to the development of Alzheimer’s
disease. As proof, there is already a strong link
between Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and
Alzheimer’s. These suggest that mitotic errors may
lead to the development of Alzheimer’s.
MICROCEPHALY

These are individuals who are smaller in

head circumference at birth, and so
have smaller brains than average.
Those who are born with microcephaly
may have mental retardation.
PSYCHIATRIC DISEASES

As with many other studies concentrating on

diseases, the connections between psychiatric
disorders and the specific underlying cause are
still being worked out. On the other hand,
studies indicate that certain psychiatric
disorders may also arise as a result of mistakes
in the cell cycle.
Some notable disorders that are linked are the following:

MAJOR SCHIZOPHREN BIPOLAR

DEPRESSIVE IA DISORDER
DISORDER
A mental illness that impairs This illness is marked by
It is marked by episodes of one's perception of reality. periods of mania and
extreme depression. depression.
THANKS!
Lerio, Gianna Micah
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