THE CELL

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of any living being. It is the fundamental building block,
which when combined with similar cells forms a tissue and organs. A cell comprises several organelles:

1. Cytoplasm
2. Cytoskeleton
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
4. Golgi apparatus
5. Lysosomes and peroxisomes
6. Mitochondria
7. Nucleus
8. Plasma membrane
9. Ribosomes

The cell undergoes a series of events that result in the duplication of cell along with the DNA. This is known as
the cell cycle. Let us have a look at the events taking place in the division of cell during a cell cycle.

Cell Cycle Definition

“Cell cycle refers to the series of events that take place in a cell, resulting in the duplication of DNA
and division of cytoplasm and organelles to produce two daughter cells.”

What is Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle was discovered by Prevost and Dumas (1824) while studying the cleavage of zygote of Frog. It is
a series of stages a cell passes through, to divide and produce new cells.
This entire process where with the help of one single parent cell a new cell population grows and develops is
known as the cell cycle. 

Phases of Cell Cycle

Cell cycle or cell division refers to the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its maturity and
subsequent division. These events include duplication of its genome and synthesis of the cell organelles
followed by division of the cytoplasm.
Human cells exhibit typical eukaryotic cell cycle and take around 24 hours to complete one cycle of growth and
division. The duration of the cycle, however, varies from organism to organism and cell to cell.
A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is divided into two main phases:-

Interphase
Also known as the resting phase of the cell cycle; interphase is the time during which the cell prepares for
division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication. It occupies around 95% time of the overall cycle.
The interphase is divided into three phases:-

 G1 phase (Gap 1) – G1 phase is the phase of the cell between mitosis and initiation of replication of the
genetic material of the cell. During this phase, the cell is metabolically active and continues to grow
without replicating its DNA.

 S phase (Synthesis) – DNA replication takes place during this phase. If the initial quantity of DNA in
the cell is denoted as 2N, then after replication it becomes 4N. However the number of chromosomes
does not vary, viz., if the number of chromosomes during G1 phase was 2n, it will remain 2n at the end
of S phase. The centriole also divides into two centriole pairs in the cells which contain centriole.

 G2 phase (Gap 2) –During this phase, the RNA, proteins, other macromolecules required for
multiplication of cell organelles, spindle formation, and cell growth are produced as the cell prepares to
go into the mitotic phase.
Some cells like cardiac cells in the adult animals do not exhibit division and some others only divide to replace
those cells which have been either damaged or lost due to cell death. Such cells which do not divide further
attain an inactive G0 phase also known as quiescent phase after they exit the G1 phase. These cells remain
metabolically active but do not divide unless called upon to do so.

M phase
This is the mitotic phase or the phase of the equational division as the cell undergoes a complete reorganization
to give birth to a progeny that has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. The other organelles are
also divided equally by the process of cytokinesis which is preceded by mitotic nuclear division. The mitotic
phase is divided into four overlapping stages:-

1. Prophase,
2. Metaphase,
3. Anaphase, and
4. Telophase

Mitosis
The process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the nuclear DNA and chromosomes and divides into two
different but similar sets of nuclei is known as mitosis. The chromosomes are pulled apart by a mitotic spindle,
which is a specialized structure consisting of microtubules.
Cytokinesis
In this phase, the cytoplasm of the cell divides. It begins as soon as the mitosis ends. Plant cells are much
tougher than animal cells, as they have a rigid cell wall and high internal pressure. Thus, cytokinesis occurs in
plant and animal cells differently.

What do you understand by cell cycle?

Cell cycle refers to the series of events that results in the duplication of the cell alongwith the DNA.

What are the four major stages of mitosis?

The four important stages of cell cycle include:

 Interphase
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis

What are the different phases of a cell cycle:

The different phases of a cell cycle include:

 Interphase – This phase includes the G1 phase, S phase and the G2 phase.
  M phase – This is the mitotic phase and is divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
 Cytokinesis – In this phase the cytoplasm of the cell divides.

Who discovered cell cycle?

Walther Flemming discovered cell cycle in the 19th century. He was a professor at the Institute of Anatomy.

What is the importance of cell division?

The cell division is important because of the following reasons:

 It helps in the survival and growth of organisms.

 Maintanence of chromosome number.
 Renewal of damaged cells

Which is the most important stage of cell cycle?

Interphase is the most important stage of cell cycle. The cell stays in the interphase for maximum periods.
During this phase the cell prepares itself for division. The cell undergoes cell growth and replication during this
phase.

What is the significance of G1, S and G2 phases of the interphase?

 During the G1 phase the cell continues to grow but does not replicate.
 During the S phase the DNA of the cell replicates.
 During the G2 phase the RNA, proteins and other macromolecules required for mitotic division are
produced by the cell.

Mitosis Definition
“Mitosis is that step in the cell cycle where the newly formed DNA is separated and two
new cells are formed with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent
nucleus.”
Mitosis is a process of asexual reproduction observed in unicellular organisms. Read on to explore what is mitosis,
and the different stages of mitosis.

What is Mitosis?
Cell division is the driving process of reproduction at the cellular level. Most eukaryotic cells divide in a manner
where the ploidy or the number of chromosomes remains the same, except in the case of germ cells where the
number of chromosomes is halved.
 Mitosis Diagram showing the different stages of mitosis
Mitosis is the phase of the cell cycle where the nucleus of a cell is divided into two nuclei with an equal amount of
genetic material in both the daughter nuclei. It succeeds the G2 phase and is succeeded by cytoplasmic division
after the separation of the nucleus.
Mitosis is essential for the growth of the cells and the replacement of worn-out cells. Abnormalities during mitosis
may alter the DNA, resulting in genetic disorders.

Features of Mitosis
1. In each cycle of cell division, two daughter cells are formed from the parent cell.
2. The cell is also known as equational cell division because the chromosome number in the parent cell and
daughter cell is the same.
3. In plants, mitosis leads to the growth of vegetative parts of the plant like root tip, stem tip, etc.
4. Segregation and combination do not occur in this process.

The processes occurring during mitosis have been divided into different stages.

Stages of Mitosis
Right before prophase, the cell spends most of its life in the interphase, where preparations are made before the
beginning of mitosis (the DNA is copied). However, since the actual process involves the division of the nucleus, the
prophase is technically the first stage of this process.
The different stages of mitosis occurring during cell division are given as follows-

Interphase
Before entering mitosis, a cell spends a period of its growth under interphase. It undergoes the following phases
when in interphase:

 G1 Phase: This is the period before the synthesis of DNA.

  S Phase: This is the phase during which DNA synthesis takes place.
 G2 Phase: This is the phase between the end of DNA synthesis and the beginning of the prophase.

Prophase
Prophase immediately follows the S and G2 phases of the cycle and is marked by condensation of the genetic
material to form compact mitotic chromosomes composed of two chromatids attached at the centromere.
The completion of the prophase is characterised by the initiation of the assembly of the mitotic spindle, the
microtubules and the proteinaceous components of the cytoplasm that help in the process.
The nuclear envelope starts disintegrating.

Prophase

Prometaphase
In the prometaphase, the nuclear envelop disintegrates. Now the microtubules are allowed to extend from
the centromere to the chromosome. The microtubules attach to the kinetochores which allow the cell to move the
chromosome around.

Metaphase
At this stage, the microtubules start pulling the chromosomes with equal force and the chromosome ends up in the
middle of the cell. This region is known as the metaphase plate. Thus, each cell gets an entire functioning genome.
 Metaphase

Anaphase
The splitting of the sister chromatids marks the onset of anaphase. These sister chromatids become the
chromosome of the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes are then pulled towards the pole by the fibres attached to
the kinetochores of each chromosome. The centromere of each chromosome leads at the edge while the arms trail
behind it.

Anaphase

Telophase
The chromosomes that cluster at the two poles start coalescing into an undifferentiated mass, as the nuclear
envelope starts forming around it. The nucleolus, Golgi bodies and ER complex, which had disappeared after
prophase start to reappear.

Telophase
Telophase is followed by cytokinesis, which denotes the division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. Thus,
it marks the completion of cell division.
Also Read: Cell Cycle

Functions of Mitosis
Following are the two important functions of mitosis:
 1. Mitosis helps in the development of an organism. In single-celled organisms, mitosis is the process of
asexual reproduction.
2. Mitosis helps in the replacement of damaged tissues. The cells near the damaged cells begin mitosis when
they do not sense the neighbouring cells. The dividing cells reach each other and cover the damaged cells.

Significance of Mitosis
1. Mitosis is responsible for the development of the zygote into an adult.
2. Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
3. It is responsible for the growth and development of an individual.
4. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
5. Mitosis is required for asexual reproduction, vegetative propagation in plants and is also responsible for the
repair and regeneration of damaged tissues.
6. Mitosis helps in maintaining the purity of the genome as no recombination or crossing over takes place.
7. It is responsible for the repair and regeneration of old and damaged cells in animals e.g. gut epithelium,
blood cells, etc.

Also Read: Difference Between Mitosis And Meiosis

To know more about what is mitosis, the stages of mitosis, its definition, the mitosis diagram and other related
topics, register at BYJU’S or download the BYJU’S app.

Definition of Meiosis
“Meiosis is the type of cell division that results in four daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.”

What is Meiosis?
Meiosis is the process in which a single cell divides twice to form four haploid daughter cells. These cells are the
gametes – sperms in males and egg in females. The process of meiosis is divided into 2 stages. Each stage is
subdivided into several phases.
Meiosis I:

 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I
 Cytokinesis I
Meiosis II:

 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II
 Cytokinesis II
Read on to explore what is meiosis and meiosis cell division along with the different meiosis stages in detail.
Also Read: Mitosis

Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis cell division takes place in the following stages:

Meiosis I
Prophase I

 The nuclear envelope disintegrates.

 Chromosomes begin to condense.
 Spindle fibres appear.

Prometaphase II
Spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes at the centromere.

Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial plate ensuring genetic diversity among offspring.

Anaphase I
The homologous chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite poles.

Telophase I

 Spindle fibres disappear.

 Nuclear envelope is reformed.

Cytokinesis I
The cytoplasm and the cell division result in 2 non-identical haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II
Prophase II
  The chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
 Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
 Centrosomes migrate to either poles.
 Spindle fibres are reformed.

Metaphase II
The chromosomes align along the equatorial plate. On the contrary, the chromosomes in metaphase I were in
homologous pairs.

Anaphase II
Sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles.

Telophase II
Nuclear envelope redevelops and the spindle fibres disappear.

Cytokinesis II
The cytoplasm and cell divide producing 4 non-identical haploid daughter cells.
To know more about what meiosis is and the process of meiosis cell division along with the different stages, keep
visiting BYJU’S website or download BYJU’S app for further reference.

Transport Across Cell Membrane

Cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that regulates the entry and exit of molecules. Diffusion, osmosis and
active transport are some forms of transport seen across the cell membrane. Here, let’s learn about them in
detail.

Table of Contents
 Movement of Substances Across Cell Membrane
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active Transport
 Frequently Asked Questions

Movement of Substances Across Cell Membrane

The contents of a cell are completely surrounded by its cell membrane or plasma membrane. Thus, any
communication between the cell and the extracellular medium is mediated by the cell membranes. These cell
membranes serve two important functions:

1. It must retain the dissolved materials of the cell so that they do not simply leak out into the environment.
2. It should also allow the necessary exchange of materials into and out of the cell.

There are two major methods for moving molecules across a membrane, and it is related to whether or not cell
energy is used. Passive mechanisms, such as diffusion, require no energy to function, whereas active transport
does. In passive transport, an ion or molecule crosses the membrane and moves down its concentration or
electrochemical gradient. The different types of transport mechanisms across cell membranes are as follows:

1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
 3. Osmosis

Diffusion
Diffusion is a spontaneous process in which a substance moves from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration, eventually eliminating the concentration difference between the two regions.

Simple Diffusion
Transport across the plasma membrane occurs unaided in simple diffusion, i.e., molecules of gases such as
carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as small molecules like ethanol, enter the cell by crossing the cell
membrane without the assistance of any permease. A small molecule in an aqueous solution dissolves into the
phospholipid bilayer, crosses it, and then dissolves into the aqueous solution on the opposite side during simple
diffusion. The relative rate of molecule diffusion across the phospholipid bilayer is proportional to the
concentration gradient across the membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion
This is a type of passive transport in which molecules that cross the cell membrane move quickly due to the
presence of specific permeases in the membrane. Facilitated diffusion occurs only in the direction of a
concentration gradient and does not require metabolic energy. It is distinguished by the following
characteristics:

 The rate of molecule transport across the membrane is much faster than would be expected from simple
diffusion.
 This is a specific process; each facilitated diffusion protein transports only one type of molecule.
  There is a maximum rate of transport, which means that when the concentration gradient of molecules
across the membrane is low, increasing the concentration gradient results in an increase in the rate of
transport.

Osmosis
Water molecules can transport through the cell membrane. The movement of water molecules through the cell
membrane is caused by differences in the concentration of the solute on its two sides. Osmosis is the process by
which water molecules pass through a membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of
lower water concentration.

 The process by which water molecules enter the cell is known as endosmosis, whereas the process by
which water molecules exit the cell is known as exosmosis.
 Excessive exosmosis causes the cytoplasm and cell membrane in plant cells to shrink away from the cell
wall. This is known as plasmolysis. It is due to plasmolysis that a plant loses its support and wilts.
 When two compartments of different solute concentrations are separated by a semipermeable
membrane, the compartment with higher solute concentration is called hypertonic relative to the
compartment of lower solute concentration, which is described as hypotonic.
 If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it rapidly gains water by osmosis and swells. Conversely, a
cell placed into a hypertonic solution rapidly loses water by osmosis and shrinks.
 When the internal solute concentration equals the external solute concentration, it is said to be isotonic.
Here, no net movement of water in or out of the cells occurs.
 The amount of water contained within the cell creates a pressure termed hydrostatic pressure (osmotic
pressure). The cell membrane regulates the osmotic pressures of intracellular and intercellular fluids.
Also Check: Difference between Diffusion and Osmosis

Active Transport
Active transport is a kind of cellular transport in which substances like amino acids, glucose and ions are
transported across cell membranes to a region that already has a high concentration of such substances. As a
result, active transport employs chemical energy like ATP to move substances against their concentration
gradient. This type of transport is commonly found in the small intestine wall and root hair cells.
Active transport is performed by a special type of protein molecules of the cell membrane called the transport
proteins or pumps. They consume energy in the form of ATP molecules.

Primary Active Transport

Photon energy and redox energy are two sources of energy for primary active transport. The mitochondrial
electron transport chain, which uses the reduction energy of NADH to transport protons across the inner
membrane of mitochondria against their concentration gradient, is an example of primary active transport using
redox energy. The proteins involved in photosynthesis are an example of primary active transport using photon
or light energy.
Primary active transport is demonstrated by glucose uptake in the human intestine.

Secondary Active Transport

Secondary active transport allows one solute to move downward (along its electrochemical potential gradient)
in order to generate enough entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute upward (from a low
concentration region to a high concentration region). This is also known as coupled transport. There are two
types of coupled transport – antiport and symport. Antiport transport involves the movement of two ion or other
solute species in opposite directions across a membrane, whereas symport transport involves the movement of
two species in the same direction.