INTRODUCTION TO

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESS
 Why Biochemical engineering
• Chemical engineering curriculum trains a student to
design, develop and optimize a process to convert raw
materials to useful product with great purity
• Basic life science will help in understanding the
mechanism of how the living cell produces product of our
interest
• Modern biotechnology uses recombinant DNA
technology for production of industrially important
products
• An integrated approach of chemical engineering with in-
depth knowledge on life sciences will help in developing
a successful bioprocess- This led to new discipline called
Biochemical Engineering
 Biochemical Process
Overview
Biochemical engineering is the application of chemical
engineering principle to biological system to

a) Understand, model, design and develop processes for

environmental remediation

b) To engineer improvements in pharmaceuticals

c) To work in other areas that combine biochemistry,

microbiology, and chemical engineering
 History of Biochemical Engineering
• Archaeological evidence shows that Egyptians has
started using yeast and other fermentative organisms
for wine and bread making during 1400B.C.
• Late in the 19th century the work of Pasteur and
Tyndall identified m.o. as the critical active agents in
fermentation practice.
• In 20th century Buchner, Neuberg and Weizmann led
to process for production of ethanol, glycerol and
other chemcials
• In 1940s development in biochemistry, microbial
genetics, and engineering marks the birth of
biochemical engineering
Comparison of chemical and Biochemical
process
1. BC processes are cheap; naturally available materials
can be used as nutrients for microbes, e.g. agro waste
2. Require moderate operating conditions
Temp:25-40 0C pH-6-8
3. BC processes are very specific
4. BC Processes are very efficient; enzymatic reactions
are faster; do not form byproducts
5. BC processes produce less toxic compounds
than conventional chemical processes
Growth of Microorganism in batch
culture
Major commercial products obtained from
microbes
 BIOCHEMISTRY

Introduction

Cell Structure and Function

What is Biochemistry

• Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the

study of biological processes at the cellular and
molecular level.

• It emerged as a distinct discipline around the

beginning of the 20th century when scientists
combined chemistry, physiology and biology to
investigate the chemistry of living systems by:
Conti...

A. Studying the structure and behavior of the complex

molecules found in biological material and
B. the ways these molecules interact to form cells, tissues
and whole organism
C. Biochemistry has become the foundation for understanding all
biological processes. It has provided explanations for the causes
of many diseases in humans, animals and plants."
Principles of Biochemistry
• Cells (basic structural units of living organisms) are highly
organized and constant source of energy is required to maintain
the ordered state.

• Living processes contains thousands of chemical rxns. Precise

regulation and integration of these rxns are required to maintain
life

• Certain important rxns E.g. Glycolysis is found in almost all

organisms.

• All organisms use the same type of molecules: CHO, proteins,

lipids & nucleic acids.

• Instructions for growth, reproduction and developments for each

organism is encoded in their DNA
Cells
• Basic building blocks of life

• Smallest living unit of an organism

• Grow, reproduce, use energy, adapt, respond to their environment

• Many cannot be seen with the naked eye

• A cell may be an entire organism or it may be one of billions of

cells that make up the organism

• Basis Types of Cells

 Conti..
Cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living
organism.
Or simply we can say cell is the basic unit of life.
In 1665, an English biologist Robert Hooke invented first
compound microscope and observed the sections of corks
and leaves under this microscope.
 He noticed in them small box like chambers of same size
which he called “cells”.
After this, biologists observed different organisms under
the microscope.
They found that structure of cells was complex.
 What is a cell?
The word cell comes from the Latin word "cella",
meaning "small room", and it was first coined by a
microscopist observing the structure of cork.
The cell is the basic unit of all living things, and all
organisms are composed of one or more cells.
Cells are so basic and critical to the study of life, in fact,
that they are often referred to as "the building blocks of
life".
Organisms - bacteria, amoebae and yeasts, for example
- may consist of as few as one cell, while a typical human
body contains about a trillion cells.
Cells May be Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic

• Prokaryotes include bacteria & lack a nucleus or membrane-bound

structures called organelles

• Eukaryotes include most other cells & have a nucleus and

membrane-bound organelles (plants, fungi, & animals)
Nucleoid region contains the DNA Contain 3 basic cell structures:
•Cell membrane & cell wall • Nucleus
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane) • Cell Membrane
to make proteins in • Cytoplasm with organelles
their cytoplasm
Prokaryotic Cell
 The organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes e.g. bacteria and
cyanobacteria.
 These cells lack a membrane bound nucleus.
 The hereditary material (DNA) is found in cytoplasm.
 These cells lack membrane bound organelles.
 Ribosome’s are of small size in and freely scattered cytoplasm.
 Cellulose is absent in cell wall, rather it is made up of peptido-glycan or murrain.
 These cells are simple and of smaller size (average diameter 0.5 – 10 nm)

Eukaryotic Cell
 The organisms made of Eukaryotic cells are called Eukaryotes, e.g. animals, plants fungi
and protista.
 These cells have a membrane bound nucleus; and hereditary material is found inside the
nucleus.
 These cells have membrane bound organelles.
 Ribosome’s are of large size and are present in endoplasmic reticulum free in cytoplasm.
 Cellulose is present in cell wall of plant cells. The cell wall of most of fungi is composed of
chitin.
 These cells are complex and of larger size (Average diameter 10-100nm).
Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells
Characteristic Bio-membranes and Organelles

Plasma Membrane
A lipid/protein/carbohydrate complex, providing a barrier and
containing transport and signaling systems.

Nucleus
Double membrane surrounding the chromosomes and the nucleolus.
Pores allow specific communication with the cytoplasm. The
nucleolus is a site for synthesis of RNA making up the ribosome

Mitochondrion
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds
called cristae. Functions in energy production through metabolism.
Contains its own DNA, and is believed to have originated as a
captured bacterium.

Chloroplasts (plastids)
Surrounded by a double membrane, containing stacked thylakoid
membranes. Responsible for photosynthesis, the trapping of light
energy for the synthesis of sugars. Contains DNA, and like
mitochondria is believed to have originated as a captured
bacterium.
.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. Covered with ribosomes (causing the "rough" appearance) which
are in the process of synthesizing proteins for secretion or
localization in membranes.
Ribosomes
Protein and RNA complex responsible for protein synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. A site for synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains
enzymes for detoxifying chemicals including drugs and pesticides.

Golgi apparatus
A series of stacked membranes. Vesicles (small membrane
surrounded bags) carry materials from the RER to the Golgi
apparatus. Vesicles move between the stacks while the proteins are
"processed" to a mature form. Vesicles then carry newly formed
membrane and secreted proteins to their final destinations including
secretion or membrane localization.
Lysosymes
A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for degrading
proteins and membranes in the cell, and also helps degrade materials
ingested by the cell.
 Vacuoles
Membrane surrounded "bags" that contain water and storage
materials in plants.

Peroxisomes or Microbodies
Produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic
compound that can be produced during metabolism.

Cell wall
Plants have a rigid cell wall in addition to their cell membranes

Cytoplasm
enclosed by the plasma membrane, liquid portion called cytosol
and it houses the membranous organelles.

Cytoskeleton
Arrays of protein filaments in the cytosol. Gives the cell its
shape and provides basis for movement.
E.g. microtubules and microfilaments.

http://www.biology.arizona.edu copyright © 1997 - 2004..

Cellular genetics - DNA
 Bio-molecules
• Just like cells are building blocks of tissues likewise molecules are
building blocks of cells.

• Animal and plant cells contain approximately 10, 000 kinds of molecules
(bio-molecules)

• Water constitutes 50-95% of cells content by weight.

• Ions like Na+, K+ and Ca+ may account for another 1%

• Almost all other kinds of bio-molecules are organic (C, H, N, O, P, S)

• Infinite variety of molecules contain C.

• Most bio-molecules considered to be derived from hydrocarbons.

• The chemical properties of organic bio-molecules are determined by

their functional groups. Most bio-molecules have more than one.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules

• 1. Amino acids: • Building blocks of proteins.

• 20 commonly occurring.
• Contains amino group and carboxyl group
function groups (behavioral properties)
• R Group (side chains) determines the
chemical properties of each amino acids.
• Also determines how the protein folds and
its biological function.
• Individual amino acids in protein connected
by peptide bond.

• Functions as transport proteins, structural

proteins, enzymes, antibodies, cell
receptors.
Sugars
• Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecule
found in nature.

• Initially synthesized in plants from a complex series

of reactions involving photosynthesis.

• Basic unit is monosaccharides.

• Monosaccharides can form larger molecules e.g. glycogen, plant

starch or cellulose.

Functions
• Store energy in the form of starch (photosynthesis in plants) or
glycogen (in animals and humans).

• Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles.

• Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds.

• Form structural components in cells and tissues.

• Intercellular communications
Fatty acids

• Are monocarboxylic acid contains even number C atoms

• Two types: saturated (C-C sb) and unsaturated (C-C db)

• Fatty acids are components of several lipid molecules.

• E,g. of lipids are triacylglycerol, streiods (cholestrol, sex

hormones), fat soluble vitamins.

Functions
• Storage of energy in the form of fat
• Membrane structures
• Insulation (thermal blanket)
• Synthesis of hormones
Biochemical Reactions

• Metabolism: total sum of the chemical reaction happening in a

living organism (highly coordinated and purposeful activity)
a. Anabolism- energy requiring biosynthetic pathways
b. Catabolism- degradation of fuel molecules and the production of
energy for cellular function

• All reactions are catalyzed by enzymes

• The primary functions of metabolism are:

a. acquisition & utilization of energy
b. Synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and
functioning (i.e. proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, & CHO
c. Removal of waste products
Even though thousands of rxns sound very large
and complex in a tiny cell:

• The types of rxn are small

• Mechanisms o biochemical rxns are simple

• Reactions of central importance (for energy production

& synthesis and degradation of major cell components)
are relatively few in number
Frequent reaction encountered in biochemical
processes
1. Nucleophilic Substitution
• One atom of group substituted for another

2. Elimination Reactions
• Double bond is formed when atoms in a molecule is removed

3. Addition Reactions:
• Two molecules combine to form a single product.
• A. Hydration Reactions
• Water added to alkene > alcohol (common addition rxn)
4. Isomerization Reactions.
• Involve intramolecular shift of atoms or groups

5. Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions

• Occur when there is a transfer of e- from a donor to
an electron acceptor

6. Hydrolysis reactions
• Cleavage of double bond by water.
Energy for Cells

• Living cells are inherently unstable.

• Constant flow of energy prevents them from becoming

disorganized.

• Cells obtains energy mainly by the oxidation of bio-

molecules (e- transferred from 1 molecule to another
and in doing so they lose energy)

• This energy captured by cells & used to maintain highly

organized cellular structure and functions
How do complex structure of cells maintain high internal order?

1. Synthesis of bio-molecules

2. Transport Across Membranes

- Cell membranes regulate the passage of ions and molecules
from one compartment to another.

3. Cell Movement
- Organised movement- most obvious characteristics of living
cells. The intricate and coordinated activities required to
sustain life require the movement of cell components.

4. Waste Removal
- Animal cells convert food molecules into CO2, H20 & NH3. If
these not disposed properly can be toxic.
Cell membrane
It is a thin membrane which is also called Plasma membrane.
It is present in cells of all plants and animals.
It is outer most boundary of animal cell while in plant cells; it
is present inner to cell wall.
Both nucleus and cytoplasm are surrounded by cell
membrane.
Phospholipid bilayer, which contains great amount of
proteins.
According to fluid mosaic model, cell membrane is composed
of two layers of lipids in which protein molecules are partially
or completely embedded.
This model was developed in 1972 by cellular biologists
J.Singer and L.Nicholson.
Functions
• Cell membrane is selectively permeable membrane.
• It Communicates with other cells.
• It means that it allows some things to pass through
easily while some not.
• Thus, it controls the movement of material inside or
outside the cell.
Cellular membranes have 4 components
1. Phospholipid bilayer
• Flexible matrix, barrier to permeability
2. Transmembrane proteins
• Integral membrane proteins
3. Interior protein network
• Peripheral membrane proteins
4. Cell surface markers
• Glycoproteins and glycolipids
Carrier proteins

• Can help transport both ions and other solutes, such as some sugars
and amino acids
• Requires a concentration difference across the membrane
• Must bind to the molecule they transport
• Saturation – rate of transport limited by number of transporters
Membrane Proteins

• Various functions:
1. Transporters
2. Enzymes
3. Cell-surface receptors
4. Cell-surface identity markers
5. Cell-to-cell adhesion proteins
6. Attachments to the cytoskeleton
Functions of Proteins
BIOPROCESS
PRINCIPLES
Unit Operations in
Upstream & Downstream Processing
Definition

What is a Unit operation?

Chemical and Bioprocess Industries
consist of widely varying sequences of
steps that have different combinations
for different manufacturing cycles.

However these widely varying steps can be reduced or broken

down to simple operations which are identical in fundamentals
regardless of the material being processed.

These “fundamental” operations are what

are called “unit operations”.
Historical Definition

• This definition was used by A.D Little in 1915 to describe Unit

Operations.
• “Unit operations deal mainly with the transfer of energy and the
transfer and change of materials primarily by physical means”.
• What is a Unit Process?
Different Unit Operations
 Drying TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
 Momentum Transfer
 Distillation  Fluid Flow
 Adsorption  Sedimenation
 Mixing
 Membrane separation
 Heat Transfer
 Leaching  Drying

 Sedimentation  Evaporaytion (SHMT)

 Mixing  Distillation
 Mass Tranfer
 Liquid Liquid Extraction  Absorption

 Absorption  Adsorptin
 Distillation
Stages of a Bioprocess

• A biotechnical process to produce a product can be subdivided into

five successive major segments, with some overlap:

• upstream processing
• fermentation
• downstream processing
• product finishing
• treatment of waste if any
Stages of a Traditional Bioprocess
Stages of a Bioprocess (Details)

• Preparation of sterile medium.

• Addition (inoculation) of microbe ( pure culture) into this
medium
• Cultivation (incubation) under controlled conditions
• Sterilising fermentation apparatus and preparing and
sterilising feed streams to the fermentor
FERMENTATION
• Isolation and purification of the product from the fermented
medium
• Packaging of the product
• Treatment of the waste products if any
Unit Operations in a Bioprocess
Upstream Processing

“Pure Upstream processing” has essentially

three functions:
• Growth of a pure culture of microorganisms in one or more steps its
scale up and strain development.
• Sterilization of the apparatus and piping.
• Mixing and sterilizing the necessary raw materials and fermentation
media to be supplied to the fermentation unit.
Fermentation Stage

• Sometimes considered as an Upstream process while some

bioprocess engineers consider it as a separate Stage in itself.
Never considered as a downstream processing stage
• Actual fermentation is commonly a batch or fed batch
process in a stirred tank fermentor.
• It lasts from a few hours to several days.
• The optimal conditions for growth of the organisms and
production of the product are established. Those include
temperature, pH, sterile aeration and, in fed-batch
processes, continuous addition of substrate at its optimal
composition.
 SCALE UP (DEFINITION)

•Scale up: The transfer of a process from small-scale

laboratory equipment to large-scale commercial
equipment

• Shake flash Experiments

• Lab scale fermentor (5-10 L)
• Pilot scale fermentor (300-3000 L)
• Commercial fermentor (10,000-500,000 L)
Scale up
lab flask
(100 mL)

lab-scale
fermentor
(1–10 L)

pilot plant
scale
(300-3000 L)
commercial scale
(10,000-500,000 L)
Industrial Scale up
Industrial Fermentation Setting
Fermentor sizes for various purposes
Some problems in Scale up

• Oxygen transfer is much more difficult to obtain in large-scale

• Mixing and aeration more easily accomplished in small volumes
• Methods of temperature control must change with scale-up
• Sterilization protocols must change with scale-up
• Bioprocess Engineers required with Chemical Engineering skills:
adept in gas and mass transfer, fluid dynamics, mixing,
thermodynamics
Downstream processing

• Downstream processing (DSP) encompasses all processes

following the fermentation.

• In “downstream processing”, the fermentor is emptied after

the fermentation is complete. The microorganisms are killed
and, if necessary, removed by ultrafiltration. The liquor may
be concentrated by evaporation. If necessary, the active
ingredient may be isolated by a suitable separation process
such as crystallization, ion-exchanging or chromatography.
The subsequent product finishing is intended to transform
the product into the desired marketable form, e. g., into a
dry pourable granulation. That is accomplished by classical
drying and granulation processes.
Industrial Biological Process
Unit Operations in
Down Stream Processing

Cell disruption
Stabilization
Pre- treatment Sterilization
Pasteurization
Flocculation

Solid /liquid Filtration

Sedimentaion
Separation Centrifugation
Membranes
Precipitation
Concentration Extraction
Evaporation
Freeze Concentration

Precipitation
Extraction
Purification Diafilteration
Adsorption
Chromatography
Drying
Prilling
Formulation Extrusion
Granulation
Tabletting
Choice of selecting unit operations
Relationship (between cost and and fermentation
concentration)
Separation Range of Downstream Unit
Operations
Product Quality Profile
(during Downstream Processing Stages)
Differences
Upstream Processing Downstream processing
Live Organisms No organisms
Large Volume Progressively Less Volume
Many Components Progressively less
components
Heterogeneous mixture Homogenous Mixture
Fewer Operations Many Operations
Lower Cost materials Higher Cost materials
Downstream Processing

• Downstream Processing begins upstream…why?

• A “holistic” approach to DSP is required and the entire process as a

whole should be considered. The economic use of cheap industrial
fermentation sources could cause interactions that could increase
downstream processing difficulty and cost.. Hence a balance should
be sought in the whole process which should be done by the
Bioprocess Engineer.
Research Areas in Upstream processing

• Research areas in upstream processing being carried out today

• Testing, modeling, optimization, control of novel or
improved recombinant and non-recombinant cell cultures
• New biochemical reactors, and new biological processes to
produce useful and high value products.
• Basic genome and proteome based biomolecular
engineering studies that lead to improved design and
performance of fermentation and cell culture processes.
• By using on-line and real time sensing and monitoring
techniques and high throughput analytical techniques
• Quantitative assessment of biomolecular rate processes
inside a cell toward increasing aeration and transfer rates
Research Areas in Downstream processing

• The capability to purify bioproducts in a cost-effective

manner on a commercial scale and to meet the required
high purity specification for the medical grade bioproducts is
an important technical goal of R & D.
• Research in areas as posttranslational protein processing,
protein refolding, protein purification techniques, membrane
technology,
• Various types of chromatography including bioaffinity
systems, separation techniques using combined force fields,
and filtration methods.
Industrial Applications of
Microorganisms
Fermenter
Microbial Products of Industrial
Importance
Microbial biomass production
Recombinants of industrial importance
Application of microbes in Health care
Application of microbes in food and
beverages
Application of microbes in food additives and
supplements
MICROBIAL STRAIN
 1. Production of Lactic
acid
• Several carbohydrates such as corn and potato starch, molasses and whey
can be used to produce lactic acid

• Starch must first be hydrolysed to glucose by enzymatic hydrolysis; then

fermentation is performed in the second stage

• The choice of carbohydrate material depends upon its availability, and

pretreatment is required before fermentation.

• Large quantities of whey constitute a waste product in the manufacture of

dairy products such as cheese

• Whey contains lactose, nitrogenous substances, vitamins and salts.

• Organisms can utilize lactose and grow on cheese wastes; the most
suitable of them are Lactobacillus species such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus
 Production of Lactic
acid
• Organism grows rapidly, is homofermentative and thus capable of
converting lactose to the single end-product of lactic acid

• Stock cultures of the organism are maintained in skimmed milk

medium.

• The 3–5% of inoculum is prepared and transferred to the main

bioreactor
and the culture is stored in pasteurised skimmed milk at an incubation
temperature of 43 °C

• pH is controlled by the addition of slurry of lime to neutralise the product

to prevent any product inhibition.

• After 2 days of complete incubation the material is boiled to coagulate the

protein, and then filtered.

• Solid filter cake is a useful, enriched protein product, which may be used
as an animal feed supplement.

• The filtrate containing calcium lactate is then concentrated by removing

water under vacuum, followed by purification of the final product.
Production of Lactic acid from Whey
Whey is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained.
 2.Production of Pencillin
(Antibiotic)
• Of all the microbial products manufactured commercially,
antibiotics are the most important

• Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by

microorganisms to kill other microorganisms

• They are used in the treatment of infectious

diseases.

• The worldwide bulk sales of the four most important groups

of antibiotics, penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines and
erythromycin are US$4.2 billion per annum

• The annual production of bulk penicillin is about 33

thousand metric tonnes with annual sales market of more
than US$400 million
Antibiotics produced by
microorganism

Antibiotic Producing microorganism

Cephalosporin Cephalosporium acrimonium
Chlorampheni Streptomyces venezuelae
col
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus
Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvin
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum
Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus
Tetracycline Streptomyces aureofaciens
Gentamicin Micromonospora purpurea
 A. Fleming E. Chain H. Florey
• In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming, a Scottish biologist, observed that
Penicillium notatum, a common mold, had destroyed
staphylococcus bacteria in culture
• He took a sample of the mold from the contaminated plate. He found
that it was from the Penicillium family, later specified as Penicillium
notatum

• Fleming presented his findings in 1929. He published a report on

penicillin and its potential uses in the British Journal of Experimental
Pathology.

• The production of penicillin is now done by a better penicillin-

producing mould species Penicillium chrysogenum

• Development of submerged culture techniques enhanced the cultivation

of the mould in large-scale operation by using a sterile air supply.
 Penicillium

The name Penicillium comes from penicillus = brush, and this is based on
the brush-like appearance of the fruiting structures
Molecular Structure
 Action of Penicillin
• All penicillin like antibiotics inhibit synthesis of
peptidoglycan, an essential part of the cell wall
• They do not interfere with the synthesis of other
intracellular components.
• These antibiotics do not affect human cells because human cells
do not have cell walls
• Penicillin are active against Gram positive bacteria

• Some members (e.g. amoxicillin) are also effective against Gram

negative bacteria but not Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Penicillin was the first important commercial product
produced by an aerobic, submerged fermentation
• First antibiotic to have been manufacture in bulk.

• Used as input material for some semi synthetic antibiotics.

• It is fermented in a batch culture

• Primary metabolites are
produced during active cell
growth, and secondary
metabolites are produced
near the onset of stationary
phase

• Like all antibiotics, penicillin is a

secondary metabolite, so is
only
produced in the stationary
phase
Steps involved in Penicillin
Production
 3. Production of Vinegar
• vinegar involves two steps of biochemical changes:
(1) Alcoholic fermentation in fermentation of a carbohydrate.
(2) Oxidation of the alcohol to acetic acid.

• There are several kinds of vinegar. The differences between them are
primarily associated with the kind of material used in the alcoholic
fermentation, e.g. fruit juices, sugar and hydrolysed starchy
materials

• There are a few types of vinegar: vinegar, cider vinegar, apple

vinegar

• The products are made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous

fermentations of the apple juice

• The acetic acid content is about 5%

• Yeast fermentation is used for the production of alcohol

• The alcohol is adjusted to 10–13%, then it is exposed to
acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter species), whereby oxygen
is required for the oxidation of alcohol to acetic acid

• The desired temperature for Acetobacter is 15–34 °C

Microbial Nutrition & Growth
Learning Objective
• List the essential nutrients of a bacterial cell.
• Differentiate between macronutrients and
micronutrients.
• List and define four different terms that describe an
organism’s sources of carbon and energy.
• Compare and contrast the processes of diffusion and
osmosis.
• Identify the effects of isotonic, hypotonic, and
hypertonic conditions on a cell.
• Name two types of passive transport and one type
of active transport.
Microbial Nutrition
• Essential nutrient: any substance that must be provided to an organism
• Macronutrients: required in relatively large quantities and play principal
roles in cell structure and metabolism
- Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Micronutrients: also known as trace elements
- Present in much smaller amounts and are involved in enzyme function and
maintenance of protein structure
- Examples: manganese, zinc, nickel
Microbial Nutrition (cont’d)
• Inorganic nutrient
- An atom or simple molecule that contains a combination of atoms other than
carbon and hydrogen
- Found in the crust of the earth, bodies of water, and the atmosphere
• Organic nutrients
- Contain carbon and hydrogen atoms and are the products of living things
- Simple organic molecules such as methane
- Large polymers (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
Chemical Analysis of the Microbial
Cytoplasm
• Water – 70% of all components
• Proteins
• Organic compounds – 97% of dry cell weight
• Elements CHONPS – 96% of dry cell weight
• Most chemical elements available to the cell as compounds and not
as pure elements
• Only a few types of nutrients needed to synthesize over 5,000
different compounds
What Microbes Eat
• Heterotroph: an organism that must obtain its carbon in an organic
form
• Autotroph: an organism that uses inorganic CO2 as its carbon source
- Has the capacity to convert CO2 into organic
compounds
- Not nutritionally dependent on other living
things
• Phototroph: microbes that photosynthesize
• Chemotroph: microbes that gain energy from chemical compounds
 Autotrophs and
Their Energy Sources
• Photoautotrophs:
- Photosynthetic:
• Produce organic molecules using CO2 that can be used by themselves and by
heterotrophs
• Chemoautotrophs:
- Chemoorganic autotrophs: use organic compounds for energy and inorganic
compounds as a carbon source
- Lithoautotrophs: rely totally on inorganic minerals and require neither sunlight
nor organic nutrients
 Heterotrophs and
Their Energy Sources
• Chemoheterotrophs:
- Derive both carbon and energy from organic
compounds
- Process these molecules through respiration or
fermentation
• Saprobes:
- Free-living organisms that feed on organic detritus from
dead organisms
- Decomposers of plant litter, animal matter, and dead
microbes
- Recycle organic nutrients
Heterotrophs and
Their Energy Sources (cont’d)
• Parasites:
- Derive nutrients from the cells or tissues of a living host
- Pathogens: cause damage to tissues or even death
- Range from viruses to helminths
- Ectoparasites: live on the body
- Endoparasites: live in the organs and tissues
- Intracellular parasites: live within cells such as the
leprosy bacillus and the syphilis spirochete
- Obligate parasites: unable to grow outside of a living
host
Other Important Nutrients
• Sodium (Na): important for certain types of cell transport
• Calcium (Ca): stabilizer of cell wall and endospores of bacteria
• Magnesium (Mg): component of chlorophyll and a stabilizer of
membranes and ribosomes
• Iron (Fe): important component of the cytochrome proteins of cell
respiration
• Zinc (Zn): essential regulatory element for eukaryotic genetics
 How Microbes Eat:
Transport Mechanisms
• Transport of necessary nutrients occurs across the cell membrane, even in
organisms with cell walls.
• The driving force of transport is atomic and molecular movement.
• Diffusion: the phenomenon of molecular movement, in which atoms or
molecules move in a gradient from an area of higher density or
concentration to an area of lower density or concentration
 The Movement of Water: Osmosis
• Osmosis: the diffusion of water through a
selectively, or differentially, permeable membrane
- Has passageways that allow free diffusion of water, but
block certain other dissolved molecules
- When the membrane is placed between solutions of
differing concentrations of solute and the solute cannot
pass through the membrane, water will diffuse at a
faster rate from the side that has more water to the side
that has less water.
- This will continue until the concentration of water is
equalized on both sides of the membrane.
Active Transport
• Active transport:
- The transport of nutrients against the diffusion gradient or in the same direction
as the natural gradient, but at a rate faster than by diffusion alone
- The presence of specific membrane proteins (permeases and pumps)
- The expenditure of energy
• Examples of substances transported actively: monosaccharides, amino
acids, organic acids, phosphates, and metal ions
Endocytosis:
Eating and Drinking By Cells
• Endocytosis:
- Cell encloses the substance in its membrane
- Simultaneously forms a vacuole and engulfs the
substance
• Phagocytosis:
- Accomplished by amoebas and white blood cells
- Ingest whole cells or large solid matter
• Pinocytosis:
–Ingestion of liquids such as oils or molecules in
solution
1. Discuss in detail about the role of a biochemical engineer.
2. Compare chemical process over Biochemical process.
3. Compare Prokaryotes with Eukaryotes based on various features.
4. Write detailed note on production of penicillin
5. Write an overview of biomolecules
6. Write about cell organelles
7. Write detailed note on production of lactic acid, vinegar
8. Write detailed note on the specific nutritional requirements of
microorganisms in industrial fermentation.
9. Explain in detail about cellular genetics.
10. What is primary metabolite and secondary metabolite. write about major
commercial products obtained from microbes
11. Types of biochemical reactions
12. Differentiate upstream and downstream processing