CELL BIOLOGY

EVOLUTION OF THE CELL

• It is the biological science which deals with the study of
structure, functions, molecular organisation, growth,
reproduction and genetics of the cell.
• Classical cytology: deals with only light microscopically
visible structure of the cell
• Cell physiology: deals with biochemistry, biophysics and
function of the cell
• Cell biology: deals with molecules such as nucleic acids and
proteins
• Aristotle and Paracelsus posited that “all animals and plants no
matter how complicated constitute few elements which are repeated
in each of them e.g. macroscopic structures of roots, leaves and
flowers.

• De Vinci(1485): recommended the uses of lenses in viewing small

objects. It was Conrad Gesner (1855) published the results of studies
on protist called foraminifera

• Growth and development of cell biology led to the development of

compound microscope
• First compound microscope was invented by Francis Janssen and
Zacharias Janssen (1590). “flea glasses”

• In 1610 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) invented a simple microscope

having only one magnifying lens. Used to examine the arrangements
of facets in the compound eye of insects
• Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) was the first to use microscope to
describe thin animal tissues from organs of the brain, liver, kidney,
spleen, lungs and tongue.
• Robert Hooke(1635-1703) was credited with the term “ CELL” .He
examined a thin slice cut from dried cork under compound
microscope. The crude microscopes did not permit the observation of
intracellular structure.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) improved magnification of
microscopes to 300X.
• He was the first to observe living free-living cells from rain water
(bacilli, cocci, spirilla and other Monera), protozoa, rotifers and Hydra.

• He was the first to describe the sperm cells of humans, dogs, rabbits,
frogs, fish and insects and to observe the movement of blood cells of
mammals, birds, amphibians and fish.
• Nehemiah Grew (1641-1721) published microscopic sections through
flowers, roots and stems of plants tissue.
• Mirbel (1807) stated that all plant tissues were composed of cells.

• Rene Dutrochet (1776—1827) concluded that all animal and plant

tissues were aggregates of “globular cells”.

• Robert Hooke (1771-1858) discovered and named the nucleus in the

cells from the epidermis of stigmas and pollen grains of Tradescantia
plant.
 CELL THEORY
• Mathias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor Schwann (1810-
1882) postulated that cell is the basic unit of structure and function in
all life.
• Nageli, K. and Rudolf Virchow confirmed the principles that cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
• Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) supported the Virchow theory
• Modern version of cell theory:
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells and cell
products.
2. All metabolic reactions in unicellular and multicellular organisms
takes place in the cell.
3. Cells originate from another cell i.e. no cell can spontaneously or de
novo comes into being only by division and duplication of pre existing
cells.
4. The smallest clearly defined unit of life in the cell.
Exception to Cell Theory: All true cells share the following basic
characteristics
(a) Must have a set of genes which constitute the blue prints for
regulating cellular activities and producing new cells.
(b) A limiting plasma membrane that permits controlled exchange of
matter and energy.
(c) A metabolic machinery for sustaining activities such as growth,
reproduction, and repairs of parts.
• A VIRUS do not easily fit into these parameters of true cell
• (a) definite genetically determined macromolecular organizations
• (b) contains a genetic or hereditary material in the form of either DNA
or RNA.
• (c) A capacity of auto-reproduction.

What is the difference between protoplasm and organismal theory?

• Cytotaxonomy (Cytology and Taxonomy): Each plant and animal have
a definite number of chromosomes in its cells and the chromosomes
of the individuals of a species resemble one another in shape and
size. Cytotaxonomy is defined as the cytological science which
provides cytological support to the taxonomic position of any species.

• Cytogenetics: is the branch of cell biology concerned with cytological

and molecular basis of heredity, variation, mutation, phylogeny,
morphogenesis and evolution of organisms.

• Cell physiology: is the study of life activities such as

nutrition,metabolism, growth, cell division etc
• Cytochemistry: is the branch of cytology which deals with chemical
and physico-chemical analysis of living matter. It has revealed the
presence of carbohydrate, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid, etc.

• Cytopathology: the application of molecular biology to understand

basis of human diseases at molecular level. Alteration in genetic code
in DNA results in changes in enzymes and metabolic activities.

• Cytoecology: studies the effects of ecological changes on the

chromosome number of the cell.
• PROKARYOTES: is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that
lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotic
DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called
the nucleoid.
• A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and
other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles,
which have specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means “true
kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the membrane-
bound nucleus in these cells.
 PLAMA MEMBRANE: Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma
membrane made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding
environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty
acid chains, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group. The plasma
membrane regulates the passage of some substances, such as organic
molecules, ions, and water, preventing the passage of some to maintain
internal conditions, while actively bringing in or removing others. Other
compounds move passively across the membrane.
Structure of plasma membrane
CYTOPLASM
The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear envelope. It is made up of organelles
suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various
chemicals. Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent
water, it has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the proteins
within it. However, proteins are not the only organic molecules found in
the cytoplasm.
Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic
acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are found there too.
Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements are also
dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, including protein
synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules,
plus a network of protein fibers that helps to maintain the shape of the
cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and
vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to
move independently. There are three types of fibers within the
cytoskeleton: microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, intermediate
filaments, and microtubules.
The Endomembrane System
The endomembrane system (endo = within) is a group of membranes
and organelles in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify,
package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear
envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi apparatus. Although not technically within the cell, the plasma
membrane is included in the endomembrane system and interacts with
the other endomembranous organelles.
 NUCLEUS
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. The
nucleus houses the cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the
synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.
The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes
the outermost portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer
membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers. The
nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of
ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
It is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that collectively
modify proteins and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions
are performed in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum:
The rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, respectively.
The hollow portion of the ER tubules is called the lumen or cisternal
space.
• RER synthesize and transport proteins
• SER synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids),
and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons;
alcohol metabolism; and storage of calcium ions.
Lysosomes
• Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out
organelles.
• Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-
causing organisms that might enter the cell.
• Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein
synthesis.

• Mitochondria: are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that

have their own ribosomes and DNA. They are responsible for making
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying
molecule. The inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the
surface area of the inner membrane. The area surrounded by the
folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix
have different roles in cellular respiration.
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single
membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty
acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter
the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells.
• The ___________ is the basic unit of life. a. organism b. cell c. tissue
d. organ
• Which of the following is found both in eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells? a. nucleus b. mitochondrion c. vacuole d. ribosome
• Draw a well labelled diagram of an animal cell or plant cell as seen
through an electron microscope. Describe the functions of nucleus,
nucleus, mitochondria. Ribosomes, and microtubules.
Which of the following is not a component of the endomembrane
system?
• a. mitochondrion, b. Golgi apparatus c. endoplasmic reticulum
d. Lysosome
The cytosol is best described as (a) a set of internal cellular membranes
( b) a component found only in prokaryotic cells (c) a viscous fluid that is
the site of many chemical reactions (d) a collection of filamentous
organelles (e) the highly structured internal membranes of mitochondrial
and chloroplasts.
Which is a functional mismatch? a Nucleolus-RNA synthesis b. Golgi
complex-packaging and sorting secretions c. lysosomes-synthesis of
polysaccharides d. ribosomes-synthesis of proteins