Behaviorism by John B.

Watson
(1878-1958)
Behaviorism

 Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning

which states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is
simply a response to environmental stimuli.
 Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response
behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS (1. All behavior is learned
from the environment)

 Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental

factors in influencing behavior, to the near
exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This
amounts essentially to a focus on learning.
 We learn new behavior through classical or
operant conditioning (collectively known as
'learning theory').
 Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a
blank slate).
2. Psychology should be seen as a science

 Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful

and controlled observation and measurement of behavior.
 Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental
branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.
 The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists
propose the use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of
observable, measurable events).
3. Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable
behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking
and emotion
 While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions,
they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior
can be objectively and scientifically measured.
 Although theorists of this perspective accept that people have "minds",
they argue that it is never possible to objectively observe people's
thoughts, motives and meanings - let alone their unconscious yearnings
and desires.
 Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through
behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).
4. There is little difference between the learning that
takes place in humans and that in other animals

 There's no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and

animal behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well
as humans (i.e., comparative psychology).
 Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for
behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.
 Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for
behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.
Behavior is the result of stimulus-response

 All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-

response association).
 To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the
reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the
reaction.
Methodological Behaviorism

 Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental

branch of natural science
 Methodological behaviorism states that observable behavior should be
studied scientifically and that mental states and cognitive processes don't
add to the understanding of behavior. Methodological behaviorism aligns
with Watson's ideologies and approach.
Radical Behaviorism

 Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner and agreed with the
assumption of methodological behaviorism that the goal of psychology
should be to predict and control behavior.
 Another important distinction between methodological and radical
behaviorism concerns the extent to which environmental factors influence
behavior. Watson's (1913) methodological behaviorism asserts the mind is
tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth.
 In contrast, radical behaviorism accepts the view that organisms are born
with innate behaviors, and thus recognizes the role of genes and biological
components in behavior.
Classical Conditioning by Ivan Palvov

 Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a
tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a
behavior. After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to
produce the behavior.
 The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a naturally
occurring response.
 the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring response (such as
salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus.
 The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly
presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus.
 the conditioned response (CR), is the acquired response to the formerly neutral
stimulus.
ILLUSTRATION
CONCEPTS IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 Extinction refers to the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned
stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.
 Spontaneous Recovery. The increase in responding to the CS following a pause
after extinction.
 Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the
original conditioned stimulus.
 Discrimination — the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar
but not identical.
Watson’s Experiment on Baby Albert
Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner

 Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a

method of learning normally attributed to B.F. Skinner, where the
consequences of a response determine the probability of it being
repeated. Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced
(rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior which is punished will
occur less frequently.
 Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work
was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle,
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely
to be repeated.
Concepts in Operant Conditioning

 Respondent behavior. This refers to a specific response that is elicited by

a known stimulus, the latter always preceding the former in time. Familiar
respondents include papillary constriction or dilation to changes in light
stimulation, knee jerk to a hammer tapped on the patellar tendon, and
shivering to cold.
 Positive reinforcement. Adding something to increase the probability of the
behavior being repeated.
 Negative reinforcement. Annoying thing is taken away to increase the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
 Positive Punishment. This occurs whenever a behavior leads
to an aversive outcome.
 Negative Punishment. This occurs whenever a behavior is
followed by the removal of a positive reinforce.
Schedules of Reinforcement

 Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule (FR). The organism is reinforced

following a predetermined number of appropriate responses. For example,
employees are paid according to the number of units they produce or sell.
 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule (FI). The organism is reinforced
after a set time interval has elapsed since the previous reinforcement. For
example, employees are paid for work done by the week or month.
 Variable-ratio (VR). The organism is reinforced on the basis of some
predetermine average number of responses. Gambling and lottery
games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule
 Variable-interval (VI). The organism is reinforced on this schedule after a
variable time interval has elapsed (unpredictable amount of time).
Therapies

1. Systematic Desensitization. It is used for clients who have a specific phobia.

This involves applying relaxation or coping techniques as people are gradually
exposed to the object or situation.
2. Exposure or response prevention. This is a strategy that involves exposure to
fearful situation and then not engaging in unhelpful coping strategies.
3. Token economy. This reinforces target behavior by given people tokens that can
be exchanged for something else.
4. Modeling. This involves learning behavior by imitation alone.
Drive Theory by John Dollard and Neal Miller

 Dollard and Miller were more concerned with dynamics of behavior,

though they did not ignore structure. In Hullian terms, ‘habit’ is a relatively
stable association and thus may represent structure of personality.
 Drives, stimulus (cue) and reinforcements that lead to development of a
habit are elements of the dynamics.
 Dollard and Miller’s approach to personality rests on the understanding of
these elements.
 Habit.habit is an association between a stimulus (cue)
and the organism’s responses to it. Personality
structure largely constitutes of habits.
 Perhaps your mother was a bit over-anxious whenever
you had a late night party. This is her habit – a
relatively stable bond between your adventure and her
negative apprehensions.
Drive

 It is a stimulus, often internal, which is strong enough to make the

individual engage in action. Hunger is the drive that impels your eating
behavior.
 Drives may be primary or secondary. Primary drives are linked with
physiological processes. Examples are hunger, thirst, sleep, sex etc.
 Secondary drives are acquired through experience. Especially for human
beings, most of what we do throughout the day is energized by secondary
drives. Your passion for music is an acquired or secondary drive.
Cue

 A cue is a stimulus that guides the organism to act in a specific mode.

Thus cues give direction to our actions.
 If you are driven by hunger you would take anything that reduces the
drive. If you get a piece of bread, you would chew it. If you get a glass of
milk you would drink it. Chewing and drinking behaviors are different. Your
choice of behavior depends on the ‘cue’ you get – a solid thing on a plate
or a liquid thing in a glass.
Reinforcement

 After a response has taken place, you may see two possible
consequences. It can reduce your drive, or your drive may continue in the
same or even greater intensity.
 If you are thirsty and you drink water, your thirst will be quenched. If you
eat a couple of biscuits, you would feel thirstier. So water would be a
positive reinforcer, while biscuits would be a punishment. You would learn
to drink water and avoid biscuits whenever you feel similar dryness in your
throat.
 Reinforcers can be primary or secondary. Food is a reinforcer to your
primary drive of hunger. A concert by BBTS is a reinforcer for your
secondary drive of enjoying music and dance.
Types of Conflict

 Approach-approach. the individual must make a choice between two

rewarding stimuli, such as having ice cream or cookies for dessert. This
type of conflict is easily resolved, since one reward is likely to be more
inviting (perhaps you haven’t had ice cream for a while).
 Approach-avoidance. a situation involving a single goal or option that has
both desirable and undesirable aspects or consequences.
 Avoidance-avoidance. The avoidance-avoidance conflict refers
to making a decision between two equally undesirable choices. A simple
example of this could be making a decision between doing a homework
assignment or doing housework.
Four Critical Training Periods of Childhood

 Feeding occurs upon birth and satisfies the hunger drive, so is inherently
rewarding. The responses the infant makes before being fed become
strengthened by the reward of food, and associations with feeding become
secondary rewards- mother’s smell, touch, sounds of comfort, etc.
 If a child is left to cry when hunger, s/he loses the response of crying for
food. These children go within and become very non-responsive, as you
see in infants growing up in overcrowded orphanages, or with
nonresponsive parents. Character traits of apathy or anxiety develop.
 When the child is appropriately responded to, the child develops love for
parents, self-respect for one’s needs, and a more sociable personality,
able to give and take, since there is no great anxiety about getting basic
needs met interpersonally.
Cleanliness training

 This means the child must learn to override internal drives to empty his
bladder/bowels at will, and develop complex behavior such as finding a
bathroom, taking off clothes, getting on the toilet, and relieving oneself
according to those specific situational cues.
 This is very complex behavior for a 2-year-old. If there is too much
criticism or too high an expectation for training, the child may learn
avoidance of the parent to avoid punishment (hiding to do it in the pants.)
 D&M suggest this stage be delayed until the child has enough language to
produce mediating cues. Freud described anxiety/ guilt as producing the
superego control. D&M do describe anxiety/ guilt as being related to this
training if it is not done sensitively.
Early sex training

 D&M see this stage as also related to sexual training- as parents may
punish children for masturbating when they explore their bodies. This
produces anxiety around any sexual impulses. They favor a relaxed
attitude around children’s explorations of their bodies, since too much
control or criticism can set up fears of authority figures & inhibitions.
Anger-anxiety conflicts

 Frustration occurs in response to childhood dependency, limitations

physically and mentally, & sibling control or antagonism. When frustrated,
children first act out with aggression- public displays of anger. When they
are punished, they learn to be anxious about anger. This produces self-
control around their angry impulses.
 If parents shut down anger too completely, however, they can render their
children helpless in the face of reasonable provocation which should be
stopped. These children don’t learn effective assertiveness which sets
good boundaries with others who would take advantage of them.
 Anger can be effectively motivating in the right circumstances. If appropriate anger is not
labeled or acknowledged, it can lead to repression or mislabeling- “I’m just tired.”
 Anger becomes conceptualized as bad, no matter how important it may be in the right
circumstances.
 Children need to have anger described to them and to learn how to use this powerful
emotion responsibly.
The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

 They explained aggression as purely the result of frustration, blocking of

one’s goals, not a death instinct. The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
described aggression as the result of frustration, which occurs when
obstacles interfere with drive reduction.
 Aggression is defined as behavior intended to harm another. Aggression is
more likely when the drive is strong, or the interference is more complete,
or when the frustration is repeated (Sometimes seen in victims of
domestic abuse finally rebelling with extreme violence against the
perpetrator, leading to his death.)