Unit 4: learning and memory

Nature of Learning
Nature of learning (Behavioral vs. cognitive, instinct,
and complex forms of learning).
Classical condition learning and its application
Operant conditioning learning and behavior modification
and shaping
Cognitive learning (cognitive map, insight and
observational learning)
Memory
Memory phenomenon and basic processes (encoding,
storage and retrieval)
Models of memory
Parallel distributed processing model and Information
processing model
Retrieval (Cues, recall, recognition, reconstruction,
and automatic encoding)
Forgetting: nature and causes of forgetting
Memory and the brain
Amnesia and false memories
Objectives of this unit
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
Define the meaning of learning
Differentiate between behavioral and cognitive instinct
of learning
Define the concepts of various theories of learning
Describe classical conditioning and its application
Describe operant conditioning and its application
Describe cognitive learning
Nature of Learning
Learning is the process that allows us to adopt to the
changing conditions of the world around us.
Without learning, there would be no buildings, no
agriculture, no lifesaving medicines and no human
civilization.
 What is learning?
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior
brought about by experience or practice.
The “relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to
the fact that when people learn anything, some part of the
brain is physically changed to record what they have
learned.
Thus, learning is actually a process of memory, for
without the ability to remember what happens, people
cannot learn anything.
Nature of Learning
 It is universal and continuous process.
 It is a change in behavior. (both positive and negative)
 It is purposeful and goal oriented.
 It is influenced by the learner, stimulus and environmental
factors.
 It ranges from simple to complex.
 Learning
 All the changes in behavior are not the result of learning.
 E.g. Native responses or instincts :- breathing, eye blink.
 E.g. Change due to maturation.
 E.g. Change due to fatigue, drug.
 E.g. Change due to illness
Etc.
Theories of Learning
Behavioral Vs. Cognitive
The behavioral instinct of learning is based on Stimulus
and response which defines learning as the relatively
permanent change in behavior or a potential to make a
response that occurs as a result of some experience.
On the other hand, cognitive instinct focuses on the tasks
involving memorizing, problem solving, and thinking. It
focuses on the role perception and understanding play in a
more complex form of learning.
Theories of Learning
1. The Stimulus-response theory (Behavioral)
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning
 Thorndike’s trial and error
 Skinner’s operant conditioning
 Hull’s reinforcement theory
 Guthrie’s contiguity theory
2. The Cognitive theory
 Kohler’s insight learning
 Tolman’s sign learning
 Bandura’s observational learning
 1. Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a

major influence on the school of thought in psychology
known as behaviorism.
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical
conditioning is a learning process that occurs through
associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
based on the assumption that learning occurs through
interactions with the environment.
Two other assumptions of this theory are that the
environment shapes behavior and that taking internal
mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into
consideration is useless in explaining behavior.
 Classical conditioning
It's important to note that classical conditioning involves
placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex.
In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal
was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex
was salivating in response to food. By associating the
neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the
presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could
produce the salivation response.
In order to understand how more about how classical
conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the
basic principles of the process.
 Basic elements in classical conditioning

The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally,
naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For
example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you
may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the
smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that
occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.
In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the
smell of food is the unconditioned response.
 Contd….
The Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that,
after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus,
eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your
favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the
whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the
whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound
would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case,
the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response (CR)
The conditioned response is the learned response to the
previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned
response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound
Example:
Classical Conditioning a Fear Response
One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B.
Watson's experiment in which a fear response was conditioned in a young
boy known as Little Albert. The child initially showed no fear of a white rat,
but after the presentation of the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary
sounds, the child would cry when the rat was present. The child's fear also
generalized to other fuzzy white objects.
Let's examine the elements of this classic experiment. Prior to the
conditioning, the white rat was a neutral stimulus. The unconditioned
stimulus was the loud, clanging sounds and the unconditioned response was
the fear response created by the noise. By repeatedly pairing the rat with the
unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus) came
to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).
This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical
conditioning. In many cases, a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog,
for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog) can lead
to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).
Ivan Pavlov’s theory
Conditioning Processes: basic principles
Pavlov’s experiment revealed five major processes of
classical conditioning. They are:
1. Acquisition (training stage)
2. Extinction
3. Spontaneous recovery
4. Generalization
5. Discrimination
6. Second-order conditioning or Higher-order conditioning
Applications of classical conditioning
In recent days, there is a growing consensus among
psychologists that classical conditioning involves more
than just laboratory research involving animals. Other
applications:
1. Treatment of a behavior problem
2. Treatment of phobias
3. Learning taste-aversion and preparedness
4. Study of sensory capacity
2. Operant Conditioning
The pioneer of Operant conditioning is B.F. Skinner, who
began his experiment in the 1930’s.
B.F. Skinner was greatly influenced by J.B. Watson’s
behavioral view of psychology and Edward L. Thorndike’s
law of effect, which states that rewarded behavior is likely
to recur.
Definition
Operant conditioning is the term that is derived from the
word ‘operate’.
When our behavior operates in the outside world, it
produces some kind of effect for us and these effects
determine whether we continue to engage in that behavior.
If the consequences are rewarding, this response will be
repeated and will grow in strength.
Thus, the relationship between the response and the
reward is the essence of operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is also called instrumental
conditioning.
Contd…
Operant conditioning developed by the behaviorist, B.F.
Skinner believed that one should focus on the external
observable courses of behavior (rather than try to unpack
the internal thoughts and motivations).
Skinner’s operant conditioning
Skinner developed operant conditioning chamber in the
1930’s known as skinner box.
The skinners box was a sound proof chamber with a bar or
keys inside that an animal if presses, or pecks, releases food
or water as reward.
A hungry rat was placed inside the box for an experiment.
Skinner developed a ‘behavior technology’ that
enabled him to teach pigeons, animals and humans a
desired behavior, and mitigating and maladjusting
behavior.
The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects
of pleasant and unpleasant consequences is known as
operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning Theory
This model states that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
It is learning of habit through reinforcement.
Reinforcement is anything that the learner finds
rewarding. It increases the strength of response. It
induces the likelihood of repetition of behaviour.
 Operant Conditioning
This theory is based on Response Stimulus connection. It
involves reinforcement for desired behaviour as central
process of learning.
People learn to behave to get something they want or to
avoid something they don’t want.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where
behavior is controlled by consequences. Key concepts
in operant conditioning are
positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement,
positive punishment ,
negative punishment.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is giving something pleasant after
a behavior. This increases the probability that the
behavior will continue. Examples are:
 Having a job and going to work every day to receive a
paycheck.
 Receiving praise after a musical performance would
increase the amount that you perform.
 A teacher complimenting students when they answer
correctly will increase that behavior.
 In the Skinner Box experiment, a rat got food as a reward
for acceptable behavior, such as pressing a lever.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is taking away or removing
something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is
acceptable. This is also meant to increase the behavior.
Examples are:
 Listening to music to removing boredom.
 Applying ointment to remove pain.

The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the

behavior to increase.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior
after presenting something unpleasant after the
behavior. E.g.
 An employee exhibits bad behavior at work and the
boss criticizes him. The behavior will decrease because
of the boss’s criticism.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior
and is removing something pleasant after the behavior. E.g.
 An employee is habitually late for work so begins losing
the privilege of listening to music while working. The
behavior will decrease because of losing a privilege.

The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a

behavior to decrease.
Examples of Operant conditioning
Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or
some other prize.
A school teacher awards points to those students who are
the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually
realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and
better behaved, then they earn more points.
A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an
animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion)
presses a lever.
Major phenomenon of Operational Conditioning

1. Extinction
2. Spontaneous recovery
3. Stimulus generalization
4. Discrimination
5. Shaping
6. Reinforcement
7. Punishment
Application of operant conditioning
1. In education
2. At business
3. At home
4. At clinical situation
 Cognitive Learning Theoris
Bandura’s Observational learning
Kohler’s insight learning
Tolman’s sign learning
Bandura’s Observational/Social Learning
This theory states that people can learn through both
observation and direct experience.
It combines operant conditioning and cognitive
theories.
Observational/Social Learning
People learn from watching models.
They can be parents, teachers, peers, bosses, movies
and television stars.
Learning occurs by observing others and then
modeling their behaviour for reward.
Bandura’s Observational learning
The learning of new behaviour through the observation of a
model (watching someone else who is doing that behaviour).

Observational learning, also known as social learning,

imitational learning was developed by psychologist Albert
Bandura.

Observational learning generally takes place in a social

situation involving a model and an imitator. The imitator
observes the model experiences the model’s behavior and its
consequences.
Bandura’s Observational learning
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
Bandura analysed the nature of observational learning
and found it to be governed by four related
mechanisms:
a) Attention Process
b) Retention/Memory Process
c) Motor Reproduction/Imitation Process
d) Reinforcement/Motivation Process
Bandura’s Observational learning
Four elements of observational learning
 Attention : To learn anything through observation, the learner
must first pay attention to the model’s behavior because the
imitator cannot learn a lot if he/she doesnot focus accurately the
salient cues and distinctive features of model’s behavior.
Bandura’s Observational learning
Four elements of observational learning
Retention/Memory Process: The learner must also be able to
retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the
steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show.
Bandura’s Observational learning
Four elements of observational learning
Motor Reproduction/Imitation Process : The learner must be
capable of reproducing or imitating the actions of model. All
symbolically coded memories must be taken into appropriate
actions for learning.
Sometimes the individual’s own physical abilities lacks the skill
to enact on model’s performance. E.g. A 2 years child might be
able to watch someone tie shoelaces and might even remember
most of the steps, but 2 years old chubby little fingers will not
have the dexterity necessary for actually tying the laces.
Bandura’s Observational learning
Four elements of observational learning
Reinforcement/Motivation Process : Observational learning is
the role played by motivation in learning the behavior. A person
can acquire, retain and process to a behavior if he/she see a
purpose, and sufficient reinforcement associated with the
behavior.
Social learning emphasizes that people are not only
influenced by experiences produced by their own actions, but
also influenced by the observed consequences.
Bandura’s Observational learning
Applications:
 Positive Aspects
Observational learning is the main method used to learn about
culture, customs, traditions and environment
It also advocates productive behaviors. Eg. Children learn cooking
certain dishes by observing.

Negative Aspects
 OL may contribute to development of unhealthy behavior like
smoking. Eg. During adolescent, peer acceptance is a powerful
influence which makes adolescents start smoking just to be part of
the group if their peer smokes.
 OL also reinforces antisocial models in family or
neighborhood or TV.
 Insight Learning
Insight learning is the sudden understanding of the
relation between a problem and a solution.
Insight learning rely on the cognitive process.
‘Insight’ means sudden perception of relationships
among various parts of a problem, allowing the
solution to the problem to come quickly.
Insight is related to the intellectual level. Human
beings have more insight than lower animals.
Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist advocated
insight learning with his experiment with a
chimpanzee called ‘Sultan’.
In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler
was studying the behavior of apes. He designed some
simple experiments that led to the development of one
of the first cognitive theories of learning, which he
called insight learning.
Characteristics of Insight Learning
Insight will come easily if the required materials and
tools are arranged in perfect order to perceive the
relationship.
The solution to problems once solved with insight can
be repeated and reused easily.
Once a solution occurs with insight, it can be applied
in new situations.
Age, past experience, familiarity and keen observation
facilitates insight learning.
Insight Learning
Learning by insight is criticized by some of the
psychologists who argue that gaining is matter of
practice and gradual process.
Transfer of Learning
When skill learned in one task influences the learning of
another task we call it transfer of learning.
Types of Learning:
Positive Learning: If learning one skill facilitates
learning of another we have the positive transfer effect.
The learning is progressive.
Negative Learning: If learning one skill hampers the
acquisition of another skill we call it negative transfer.
This phenomenon is called ‘habit interference’.
Zero Learning: When no transfer occurs between two
tasks we call it zero or neutral transfer.
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
Cognition is process of acquiring knowledge. It refers
to individual’s thoughts, knowledge, interpretation and
understanding about oneself and environment.
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
This theory is associated with Edward Tolman.
Tolman believed individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions, and they strive toward goals.
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
Tolman coined the term cognitive map, which is an
internal representation (or image) of external
environmental feature or landmark.
He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of
cues (i.e. signals) from the environment and could use
these to build a mental image of an environment (i.e. a
cognitive map).
 Sign Learning/Cognitive map
 Tolman has conducted an experiment to elucidate the cognitive
learning theory.
 In their study 3 groups of rats had to find their way around a
complex maze. At the end of the maze there was a food box.
Some groups of rats got to eat the food, some did not.

Group 1: Rewarded
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 2: Delayed Reward
Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.
Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 3: No reward
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
The delayed reward group learned the route on days 1
to 10 and formed a cognitive map of the maze.
They took longer to reach the end of the maze because
there was no motivation for them to perform.
From day 11 onwards they had a motivation to
perform (i.e. food) and reached the end before the
reward group.
Sign Learning/Cognitive map
This shows that between stimulus (the maze) and
response (reaching the end of the maze) a mediational
process was occurring the rats were actively
processing information in their brains by mentally
using their cognitive map.