HSB Week 17

HUMAN AND SOCIAL
BIOLOGY
WEEK 17
THE SKIN
• The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is made up of

three layers:
• The epidermis, which is the outermost layer.
• The dermis, which is below the epidermis.
• The subcutaneous layer, which is the bottom layer made up mainly
of fat cells.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is maintaining a constant
internal environment.
Conditions surrounding cells must be
very carefully controlled; these include
the water content or concentration of
blood plasma and body fluids, levels of
carbon dioxide in the blood, body
temperature and blood sugar levels.
Feedback mechanisms and
homeostasis
Homeostasis is achieved by using negative
feedback mechanisms that involve both the
nervous system and hormones. If the level of
something in the body changes, receptors in
the body detect the change and send messages
to the appropriate effectors causing them to
respond and return the level to normal, i.e. the
effectors exert an opposite or negative effect.
If the corrective mechanism
fails, the level cannot be
returned to normal and will
continue to increase or
decrease.
This can result in a person’s
health being impaired, e.g.
diabetes, and may even
cause death.
Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the regulation of the water content of blood plasma and body
fluids.
Their water content must be kept constant to prevent water from moving into and
out of body cells unnecessarily.
• If body fluids contain too much water (become too dilute), water will enter body
cells by osmosis. The cells will swell and may burst. Drinking a lot of liquid or
sweating very little because of being in cold weather can cause body fluids to
become too dilute.
• If body fluids contain too little water (become too concentrated), water will leave
body cells by osmosis. The cells shrink and the body becomes dehydrated. If too
much water leaves cells, metabolic reactions cannot take place and cells die. Not
drinking enough, excessive sweating or eating a lot of salty foods can cause body
fluids to become too concentrated.
The kidneys regulate the water content of body fluids by
controlling how much water is reabsorbed into the blood plasma
during selective reabsorption. This determines how much water is
lost in urine.
Control involves:
• The hypothalamus of the brain, which detects changes in the
concentration of blood plasma.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is produced by the pituitary
gland at the base of the brain in response to messages from the
hypothalamus. ADH is carried by the blood to the kidneys where it
controls the permeability of the walls of the tubules and collecting
ducts to water.
THE PROCESS OF
OSMOREGULATION
NOTE THAT HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ARE NOT THE SAME:
• HEAT IS THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY AN OBJECT CONTAINS. IT IS MEASURED IN
JOULES OR J.
• TEMPERATURE IS A MEASURE OF HOW HOT OR HOW COLD AN OBJECT IS. IT IS
MEASURED IN DEGREES CELSIUS OR °C.
REGULATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS
Carbon dioxide reacts with water in plasma and forms carbonic

acid. As carbon dioxide levels increase the blood becomes more
acidic (its pH decreases). Carbon dioxide levels must be controlled
to stop the blood from becoming too acidic or too alkaline.
Receptors, mainly in the medulla of the brain, detect changes in
pH and send messages to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm
to adjust the rate and depth of breathing
REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR (GLUCOSE)
LEVELS
The normal concentration of glucose is approximately 80 mg
per 100 cm3 of blood. The pancreas constantly monitors the
level of glucose in the blood and secretes two hormones
directly into the blood to keep the level constant:
• If the blood glucose level rises, e.g. after a meal rich in
carbohydrates, the pancreas secretes insulin. Insulin stimulates
body cells to absorb glucose for respiration and the liver cells
to convert excess glucose to glycogen, which it stores.
• If the blood glucose level falls, e.g. between meals, or during
exercise or sleep, the pancreas secretes glucagon. Glucagon
stimulates liver cells to convert stored glycogen to glucose,
which enters the blood.
ACTIVITY:
COMPLETE REVISION QUESTIONS ON PAGE 70 OF TEXT
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HUMAN AND SOCIAL

• The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is made up of

Carbon dioxide reacts with water in plasma and forms carbonic

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