???

Did you ever wonder

how the universe
started?
PRIMING ACTIVITY

THE STORY OF US
(Universe and the
Solar System)
 PRIMING ACTIVITY
Directions: Each group will be given strips of
papers labelled A, B, C and D. Whenever each
question is given using an electronic tool, the
group representatives should raise the letter of
their answer. If all the groups have similar
answers to the questions, the answer will be
revealed but if the groups have different answers,
every representative should reason out to defend
his/her group’s answer until the whole class
comes up with just one uniform answer, then the
correct answer will be revealed.
 ACTIVITY 1

ANAGRAM: How far does the

universe extend?
Using an electronic tool unscramble
an anagram of the words or phrases
about the universe. One member of
the group should stand to give your
answer.
 _ _ S_O_ _G_
1. What is the study of the
origins, creation, and changes
of the planets, Sun and the
Universe?

COSMOLOGY
_ I _ _ A_ G _ _ EO_ _
2. According to ____, the universe
was created sometime between 10
billion and 20 billion years ago from
a cosmic explosion that hurled
matter and in all directions

BIG BANG
THEORY
_ T _AD _ S_ _TE _ _ EO_ _

3. According to ____, the

universe is continuously
contracting and expanding.

STEADY STATE
THEORY
 _ _ EA_ _ O_ _ _ EO_ _

4. GOD created the heavens

and the earth.

CREATION
THEORY
 _ SC_LL_ _IO_ _ _ EO_ _

5. This is nothing more than a

recurring Big Bang every 80
billion years.
OSCILLATION
THEORY
 _E_ _L_

6. The Sun was formed from

a ____.

NEBULA
 _ I _ T_ - _OU_

7. Our solar system has how

many moons?

SIXTY-FOUR
 _E_E_ _ _ TE

8. ____ are believed to be

pieces of material that
originated in the formation of
the Solar System about 4.6
billion years ago.
METEORITES
HOW DID THE UNIVERSE BEGIN?
There are three main theories of the origin of the universe.

•Big Bang theory

•Steady State theory
•Creation theory
•Oscillation theory
•Is the event about 3.7 billions of years ago when
time, space, matter, and energy came into existence.
•Billions of years ago the universe was packed in a
small space-Primeval Atom.
•It explodes and threw matter in all directions.
•The explosion caused the formation of the galaxies.
Georges Lamaitre (1894-1966)
- Belgian cosmologist who first
formulated the idea of an
expanding universe
“hypothesis of the primeval
atom” or the “cosmic egg.”
- Though named big bang, it was
not an explosion rather it was
an expansion of space.
Georges Lamaire – deducted that if
Einstein’s theory was true, the
universe must have been expanding.
Edwin Hubble – galaxies are moving
away from each other at high speeds
Lamaitre-hypothesized that there was
once a primodial atom that contained
everything in the universe.
George Gamow-developed the big
bang theory
- He hypothesized - big bang
produced helium and the other
heavier elements.
- Predicted that cosmic
microwave background
radiation, the afterglow of the
big bang.(Arno Penzias &
Robert Wilson)
•The universe has always
been as it is today
•New matter is always being
produced
•The universe is continuously
contracting and expanding.
Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi & Tommy Gold (1940s)
- The universe is expanding and
that new matter is being created
thereby keeping the density the
same and assumed that the age
of stars will be the same.
•God created the Heavens and
the Earth.
•Adam and Eve
•Religion
Oscillation Theory

This is nothing more than a

recurring Big Bang every 80
billion years. Each explosion
begins a new cycle that ends
with another explosion.
 WHAT IS RED SHIFT?
Scientists
examining the light
emitted by stars
observe dark lines
in the spectrum.
These dark lines are caused
by different elements, such
helium, in the stars being
studied.
 WHAT IS RED SHIFT?

Edwin Hubble observed that the

pattern of dark lines in light from
distant galaxies is shifted towards the
red end of the spectrum.

This red shift suggests that distant

galaxies are moving away from
Earth and supports the idea of an
expanding Universe.
 WHAT IS RED SHIFT?

Red shift occurs because of the

Doppler effect, which can be
observed in sound waves and
electromagnetic waves.
HOW DOES DOPPLER EFFECT
WORK IN SPACE
The Doppler effect means
that sound moving away
from an observer appears
to be lower in frequency.

The same thing happens with light from

distant galaxies, which appears to be
shifted towards the low frequency, red end
of the spectrum.
HOW DOES DOPPLER EFFECT WORK IN
SPACE?
This means the distant
galaxies must be moving
away from the Earth.
It has also been observed that
the further away a galaxy is,
the greater the amount of red
shift.
This means that very distant galaxies must be
moving faster than near, all of which is evidence for
the
. Big Bang theory.
Big bang Theory

- Steady State theory

Oscillation Theory

Creation Theory
 Origin of the Planets
 Estimated about 4.6 billion years ago.
 Sun formed from a nebula.
 4 terrestrial planets formed from left over
dust from our Sun’s original nebula.
 4 gaseous planets formed from left over
gases from our Sun’s original nebula.
 Pluto-
There is no enough proof of other planets,
because it is difficult to see non-luminous
planets in black space. we might get some
proof.
ORIGIN
Origin ofOF
theTHE SOLAR
Solar SYSTEM
System

1. Dualistic or Encounter
Hypothesis

2. Nebular Hypothesis
3. Protoplanet Hypothesis
DUALISTIC HYPOTHESIS
Dualistic Hypothesis
Nebular Hypothesis
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Why
Terrestrial Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

 Giant Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

The Nebular Theory
• This Theory holds that
our solar system formed
from a giant, swirling
interstellar cloud of gas
and dust.
 Nebular Model

Original Cloud This results in a

The cloud heats
is large and spinning,
up and spins
diffuse with flattened
faster
little disk, with mass
and faster as
rotation concentrated
it contracts
near the center
Protoplanetary
disks around
stars
in the
constellation
Auriga
The Nebular Theory* of Solar System
Formation
Interstellar Cloud (Nebula) *
It is also called the
‘Protoplanet Theory’.

Gravitational Collapse

Protosun Protoplanetary Disk

Heating  Fusion Condensation (gas to solid)

Sun Metal, Rocks Gases, Ice

Accretion Nebular
Capture

Leftover Materials Terrestrial Jovian Leftover Materials

Asteroids Planets Planets Comets

3. Protoplanet Hypothesis
 suggests that a cloud of gas and dust
that is about 10 million kilometers in
diameter rotated slowly. Then, either
because of its own gravity or by the
explosion of a passing star, the cloud
of gas and dust began to collapse.
the collapse decreased the size of the
cloud of gas and dust resulting to an
increase in rotation.
. . . Protoplanet Hypothesis

the compression made the interior so hot

creating a hydrogen fusion and the sun
was formed.
 surrounding the sun was a great plate-like
disk containing huge whirlpool or eddies
where matter accumulates due to friction.
 the whirlpool or eddies shrank into
compact masses forming the protoplanets
that later become the planets and moons.
Using nuclear fusion
How do stars begin and end?
What is a supernova?
How can a black hole be ‘seen’?
What makes earth
the only habitable
planet?
 ATMOSPHERE

LANDSLIDE BIOSPHERE
(Event)
LITOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE
What is the Earth system?

• A system is a group of related

objects or parts that work
together to form a whole.

• The Earth system is all of the

matter, energy, and processes
within Earth’s boundary.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
What is the geosphere?

• The geosphere is the

mostly solid, rocky part
of Earth. It extends from
the center of Earth to
the surface of Earth.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

 What is the hydrosphere?

Got Water?

• The hydrosphere is the part of Earth

that is liquid water.

• Oceans, lakes, rivers, marshes,

groundwater, rain, and the water droplets
in clouds are part of the hydrosphere.

• Water on Earth is constantly moving. It

even moves into and out of living things.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
What is the cryosphere?

• The cryosphere is made up of all of

the frozen water on Earth.

• Snow, ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice

shelves, icebergs, and permafrost
are all part of the cryosphere.

• Changes in the cryosphere can play

an important role in Earth’s climate
and species’ survival.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
What is the atmosphere?
What a Gas!
• The atmosphere is a mixture of mostly
invisible gases that surround Earth.

• It extends outward about 500 to 600 km

from Earth’s surface, but most of the gases
lie within 8 to 50 km of Earth’s surface.

• The atmosphere is about 78 percent

nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent
many other gases.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
What is the biosphere?
• The biosphere is made up of living things
and the areas of Earth where they are
found.

• Organisms usually need oxygen or carbon

dioxide to carry out life processes.

• Liquid water, moderate temperatures, and

a stable source of energy are also
important for most living things.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

What’s the Matter?
How do Earth’s spheres interact?

• All of the five spheres of Earth

interact as matter and energy change
and cycle through the system.

• A result of these interactions is that

they make life on Earth possible.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Earth System Science (ESS)

The study of the interactions

between and among events
and Earth’s spheres
A relatively new science
(1988)
 Interconnected Spheres
 Spheres are closely connected
 Changes are often chain reactions
A change in one sphere results in changes
in others - called an event
Forest fire destroys plants in an area

Interactions between spheres

No plants => erosion
Soil in water => increased turbidity
Turbidity => impacts water plants/animals
Event <=> Sphere
 Causes & Effects

 Interactions

 Event <=>Sphere
 Sphere<=>Sphere
ESS Analysis
Events
Cause-effect events
Interactions
 Natural events
Earthquake, hurricane, forest fires
Human caused events
Oil spill, air pollution, construction
Geosphere
Boundary between crust & mantle
Understanding Interactions

Global implications
Helps people predict outcomes

Preparation for natural disasters

 EARTH’S
MATERIALS AND
RESOURCES
 EARTH’S MOLTEN STAGE

During the early formation of the Earth it was

molten
During this stage the heavier elements such as
iron and nickel, sank to the deeper interior of
the Earth.
This left a thin layer of lighter materials on the
surface that is now called the crust.
The majority of the Earth’s mass lies below the
crust
Minerals
A mineral is solid inorganic material of the
Earth that has both a known chemical
composition and a crystalline structure that is
unique to that mineral
Rocks
A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more
minerals that have been cohesively brought
together by a rock-forming process.
 MINERALS
 Silicates and Nonsilicates
 Silicates – made of silicon and oxygen and make up
92 % of Earth’s crust.
 Ferromagnesian Silicates

 made of iron, magnesium, and silicates

 Form a basic tetrahederal structure.
 Higher density and darker color than other silicates
due to the presence of iron and magnesium
 Nonferromagnesiam Silicates

 silicates that do not contain either iron or

magnesium.
 Lower density and lighter color than the
ferromagnesian silicates.
 MINERALS
Nonsilicates – make up 8% of Earth’s crust
Carbonates
Sulfates
Oxides
Sulfides
Halides
Phosphates
Hydroxides
Native elements
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

 Color
 A visual measure.
 Not very useful for identification as color of minerals varies
considerably.
 Streak
 This is the color of the mineral when it is finely powdered.
 Rubbed across a piece of tile, leaving a fine powder of the
mineral on the tile.
 Hardness
 Resistance of the material to being scratched.
 Measured using the Mohs hardness scale, which compares
the hardness of the mineral to 10 reference minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

 Crystal form
 Related to the internal geometric arrangement of the atoms
that make up the crystal structure.
 Cleavage
 the tendency of mineral to break along smooth planes.
 Depends upon zones of weakness in the crystal structure.
 Fracture
 The broken surface is irregular and not in a flat plane.
 Luster
 Surface sheen
 Metallic – like metal
 Pearly – like pearl
 Vitreous – like glass
 Earthy
Density – ratio of the mass of a mineral to its volume.
 Specific gravity – ratio of mineral density to the
density of water
 Depends on:
 Kind of atoms which make up the mineral
 How the atoms are arranged in the crystal lattice.
 MINERAL-FORMING PROCESSES
Magma
Molten rock from which minerals are formed
Lava
Magma that is forced to the surface
 Influences on the mineral forming process

Temperature
Pressure
Time
Availability and concentration of ions that are
in solution
Minerals Formed at Normal Temperatures
These form at normal temperatures and
pressures and in contact with atmospheric
gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water.
There are most of the non-silicates;
carbonates, sulfates, oxides, halides, and
sulfides.
Altered Minerals
These minerals undergo changes in
chemistry or crystal structure as a
result of pressure, temperature, or
chemical solutions
Similar to minerals that form under
high temperatures with similar
physical properties.
Ore Minerals
Some minerals are left over after the
crystallizing of magma
These elements are flushed away in hot
water solutions as the magma
crystallizes.
Usually crystallize in rock fractures to
form thin, flat bodies of mineral material
called veins.
If these minerals have some economic
value they are called ore minerals.
Elements are chemically combined to
form minerals
Minerals are physically combined to form
rocks.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks
Form from molten rock material
Intrusive igneous rock
 Formed when magma cools deep within the Earth’s
surface
 Cools very slowly as it is in contact with molten rock.
 Produces course-grained igneous rock.
Extrusive igneous rock
 Magma that cools above the Earth’s surface.
 Produces fine-grained igneous rocks.
 This rapid cooling does not allow time for crystals to
form.
 Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock composed mostly
of light-colored, light-density, nonferromagnesian minerals.
The earth's continental areas are dominated by granite and
by rocks with the same mineral composition of granite.
 This is a piece of obsidian, which has the same
chemical composition as the granite. Obsidian has a
different texture because it does not have crystals and
is a volcanic glass. The curved fracture surface is
common in noncrystalline substances such as glass.
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary Rocks
 Form from material from previously existing rock

Material is provided by weathering of

previously existing rock
 Sediments
Weathered rock materials
Dissolved rock materials
 Clastic sediments
Another name for weathered rock materials
 This is a sample of breccia, a coarse-grained sedimentary rock with coarse,
angular fragments. Compare the grain sizes to the centimeter scale.
 This is a sample of sandstone, a sedimentary rock that
formed from sand grains in a matrix of very fine-grained silt,
clay, or other materials. The grains in this sample are mostly
the feldspar and quartz minerals, which probably
accumulated near the granite from which they were eroded.
 This is a sample of limestone, a sedimentary rock
made of calcium carbonate that formed under water
directly or indirectly from the actions of plants and
animals. This fine-grained limestone formed indirectly
from the remains of tiny marine organisms.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Rocks changed by heat, pressure, or hot solutions

due to:
 Movement of the Earth’s crust
 Heat generated by intrusion of hot magma
 Pressure can change rock by flattening, deforming, or
realigning mineral grains.
 Foliation
 When the pressure on flat crystal flakes tends to align the
flakes into parallel sheets.
 Gives the rock the property of breaking along the planes
between the aligned mineral grains in what is known as rock
cleavage.
 Increasing metamorphic change occurs with increasing temperatures and
pressures. If the melting point is reached, the change is no longer
metamorphic, and igneous rocks are formed.
 This is a sample of marble, a coarse-grained metamorphic
rock with interlocking calcite crystals. The calcite crystals
were recrystallized from limestone during metamorphism.
This banded
metamorphic rock is
very old; at an age of
3.8 billion years, it is
probably among the
oldest rocks on the
surface of the earth.
 THE ROCK CYCLE

The Rock Cycle describes the

continually changing structure of
rocks.
Igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rock are just temporary stages in the
continuing changes that all rocks
undergo.
General Classification of
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
 The U.S. Geological Survey classifies mineral
resources into four major categories:
 Identified: known location, quantity, and quality or
existence known based on direct evidence and
measurements.
 Undiscovered: potential supplies that are assumed to
exist.
 Reserves: identified resources that can be extracted
profitably.
 Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified
as reserves
General Classification of
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
Examples are
fossil fuels (coal,
oil), metallic
minerals (copper,
iron), and
nonmetallic
minerals (sand,
gravel).

Figure 15-7
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Deposits of nonrenewable mineral
resources in the earth’s crust vary in their
abundance and distribution.
A very slow chemical cycle recycles three
types of rock found in the earth’s crust:
 Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone).
 Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite).
 Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).
 Erosion
Transportation

Weathering

Deposition

Igneous rock
Sedimentary Granite,
rock pumice,
Sandstone, basalt
limestone
Heat, pressure

Cooling
Heat, pressure,
Magma
stress
(molten rock)

Melting

Metamorphic rock
Slate, marble,
gneiss, quartzite
Fig. 15-8, p. 343
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
USING MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are removed through a variety of
methods that vary widely in their costs, safety
factors, and levels of environmental harm.
A variety of methods are used based on
mineral depth.
 Surface mining: shallow deposits are removed.
 Subsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.
Mining Regulations
 The General Mining Act of 1872 is a
United States federal law that authorizes and
governs prospecting and mining for economic
minerals, such as gold, platinum, and silver, on
federal public lands. This law, approved on May
10, 1872, codified the informal system of
acquiring and protecting mining claims on
public land, formed by prospectors in California
and Nevada from the late 1840s through the
1860s, such as during the California Gold Rush.
Open-pit Mining
 Machines dig
holes and remove
ores, sand, gravel,
and stone.
 Toxic groundwater
can accumulate at
the bottom.

Figure 15-11
Area Strip Mining
 Earth movers strips
away overburden,
and giant shovels
removes mineral
deposit.
 Often leaves highly
erodible hills of
rubble called spoil
banks.

Figure 15-12
Contour Strip Mining
 Used on hilly or
mountainous
terrain.
 Unless the land is
restored, a wall of
dirt is left in front of
a highly erodible
bank called a
highwall.

Figure 15-13
Mountaintop Removal
 Machinery removes
the tops of
mountains to expose
coal.
 The resulting waste
rock and dirt are
dumped into the
streams and valleys
below.

Figure 15-14
Environmental Impacts of Mining
 Acid Mine Drainage
 Erosion and Sedimentation
 Cyanide & Other Toxic Releases
 Dust Emissions
 Habitat Modification
 Surface and Groundwater Contamination
 Natural Capital Degradation
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources

Steps Environmental effects

Mining Disturbed land; mining
accidents; health hazards,
Exploration, mine waste dumping, oil
extraction spills and blowouts; noise;
ugliness; heat
Processing
Transportation, Solid wastes; radioactive
material; air, water, and
purification, soil pollution; noise;
manufacturing safety and health
Use hazards; ugliness; heat

Transportation or Noise; ugliness; thermal

transmission to water pollution; pollution
of air, water, and soil;
individual user, solid and radioactive
eventual use, and wastes; safety and health
discarding hazards; heat

Fig. 15-10, p. 344

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
USING MINERAL RESOURCES

 The extraction, processing, and use of mineral resources has a large

environmental impact.
Figure 15-9
 We need food to give us energy.
People are alive, and all living things and
natural processes on Earth need energy.

The main source of almost all heat and

light energy on Earth is

the sun!
Wind energy is used to create
electricity.

Wind energy can only be

used in windy places, like on
mountains.

Wind is a natural resource. It is

found in nature.
 Water is also used to create
electricity.

Water power that is used to create

electricity is called hydroelectric
power.
 So far we’ve learned about 3
kinds of natural resources:

The sun solar panels

Wind windmills

Moving water dams

Let’s learn about another natural resource:

We get wood from trees.

We can burn wood to get fuel
for energy.
So far we’ve learned about 4 natural
sources of energy:
the sun water
wind trees

Let’s learn about another energy

resource that is found in nature.
Over time, the remains of dead plants and
animals are changed into energy-rich fuels,
called fossil fuels.
Some examples of fossil fuels:

• petroleum (oil)
• coal

• natural gas
• gasoline
 Now that we have
learned about different
kinds of natural
resources, let’s look at
resources a different way.
 Renewable Nonrenewable
Resources Resources

take longer than a

can be replenished
human lifetime to
in a human lifetime
replace
 As you can tell, it takes longer to get more of the
nonrenewable resources.

That’s why we need to conserve our nonrenewable

resources. We need to use them wisely and not
waste them.

We renew our water through the

water cycle!
The hydrological cycle
Ignoring such long-term effects as the
changes in atmospheric storage conditions,
run-off filling the ocean basins etc., hydro-
logical
cycle is
merely
the re-
cycling
of water
between
land and
oceans.

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/smry.rxml
 Surface Water
Streams, rivers, lakes, ponds,
reservoirs, wetlands
Runoff replenishes surface water
Watershed
 Area of land drained by a single river
 What watershed do we live in?
Infiltration - Process of water percolating through the soil and into cracks
and permeable rocks.

Zone of Aeration -
Upper soil layers
that hold both air
and water.
Zone of Saturation
Lower soil layers
where all spaces are
filled with water.
Water Table -
Top of zone of
saturation
Aquifers - Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below the
water table.
Solid Waste
 Every hour people throw away 2.5
million plastic bottles.
 Every year people throw away
enough white paper to build a wall 4
meters high that stretches coast to
coast.
 Every year people throw away 1.6
billion pens, 2.9 million tons of
paper towels, and 220 million
automobile tires.
Three methods of handling solid
waste.
 You can bury it, burn it, or
recycle waste.

 Leachate: Polluted liquid, from

the rainwater that has
dissolved chemicals from the
waste.
 Sanitary Landfills: Holds
municipal solid wastes,
construction debris, and some
types of agricultural and
industrial waste.
Recycling
Recycling: The process of
reclaiming raw materials and reusing
them.
Biodegradable: A substance that can
be broken down and recycled by
bacteria and other decomposers.
Most recycling focuses on 4 major
categories of products: metal, glass,
paper, and plastic.
Glass
 Glass is one of the easiest products to recycle
because it can be melted down over and over to
make new glass containers.
 Recycling glass is less expensive than making
glass from raw materials. Less energy is required.
It also reduces the environmental damage caused
by mining for sand, soda, and limestone.
Plastics
When oil is refined to make gasoline
and other petroleum products, solid
materials called resins are left over.
These resins can be heated,
stretched, and molded into plastic
products.
Numbers are found on the bottom of
plastic containers. The numbers 1 &
2 are made from plastics that are
often recycled.