MODULE 1- 2 ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH UNIVERSE

AND SOLAR SYSTEM

● Theories on formation of the universe of the solar system

ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

SCIENTIFIC LAW
● open be reduced to a mathematical statement.
● specific statement based on empirical data E= mc²

SCIENTIFIC THEORY
●often seek to synthesize a body of evidence or observation of a particular phenomena.

THEORIES ON ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

universe: all of space and time and all of its contents.

● Planets, moon,minor planets
● Stars and galaxies
● Content of inter galaxies space
● All matter
● All energy

UNIVERSE
● Is the whole of space and all the stars, planet and other forms of matter and energy in it.
● is in all space the time matter and energy including the solar system all stars and
galaxies and content of intergalactic space regarded as a whole.

COSMOLOGY
Is branch of astronomy that involves the origin and evolution of universe, from the bigbang to
today and on into the future.

BIG BANG THEORY

● The most scientific and accepted theory
● The big bang theory explain what happened during and after the moment.
● Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown that our universe did in fact have a
beginning.
● Prior to the moment there was nothing, during and after the moment, there was
somethin: our universe
 ● . It is estimated that about 20 billion years ago, primeval nucleus suddenly exploded in a
big bang
● Our universe sprang into existence “ singularity” around 13.7 billion years ago.

BIG BANG
Has rapid inflation, racing cosmic inflation.

Biblical Belief on the Formation or Creation of the Universe

“Genesis 1:1 - In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.
“ The very first claim made in the Bible is that there was a beginning. Since Genesis 1 describes
how God created the universe, and in a certain sequence, there is no doubt that he did that
exactly. God created the universe.

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

There are major theories that explain the origin of the solar system.
1. Nebular Hypothesis Theory. According to this theory, the sun and other celestial
bodies orbiting around it where formed from a nebula: a spinning cloud of gases. These
clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser
clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars.

2. Accretion Theory. Accretion is the gradual increase in the size of an object by the
buildup of matter due to gravity. The accretion theory says that a protosun passing
through a cloud of interstellar materials pulled this material along causing it to swirl
around the protosun. As the protosun evolved into the sun, the material it accreted
gradually formed the planets and other revolving bodies.

3. Tidal Theory. According to this theory, the time when the sun about to form (protosun),
a large body passing around it may have drawn some gaseous materials from it. The
mass of gaseous materials drawn did not completely escape gravitational pull of the
protosun. It continued to spin around it, eventually becoming more dense and gradually
formed into planetesimals. These planetisimals give rise to the planets and their
satellites.
MODULE 3
Layers of the Earth
Earth is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. Complex and brilliant
combination of gases, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons why it can
sustain life.

EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Earth is a very complex place. The earth consists of four distinct yet connected spheres. All of
the processes on Earth are driven by four “spheres”, which we describe individually, but are
really all connected.

GEOSPHERE
The Geosphere describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in Earth.
This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle
below us and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores.

HYDROSPHERE
Over 70 percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earth’s water, solid
or in liquid form, those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earth’s
hydrosphere.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

Water on earth is continuously moving. It endlessly circulating through the hydro- logic cycle. As
water goes in a cycle, it changes its states. From liquid to ice to gas and back again.

Sun heats water causing the water to evaporate. Rising air currents take the water vapor up in
the atmosphere. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense
into clouds.

Air currents move the cloud. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation.
Most of the precipitation return to the oceans.

ATMOSPHERE
A very huge envelope of air that surrounds the earth and pulled by the gravitational force of the
earth is called atmosphere.

The earth’s atmosphere is primarily composed of 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent of

oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium
and other inert gases make up the remaining 1 percent.
BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is where all forms of life exist. Since life exist in the air, in water and on the
ground, its boundaries overlap other “sphere” because life can be found everywhere on earth.
The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem — a complex community of
living and nonliving things functioning as a single unit.

INNER PART OF THE EARTH

The planet Earth is made up of different layers: the very thin, brittle crust, the mantle, and the
core; the mantle and core are each divided into two parts. Although the core and mantle are
about equal in thickness, the core actually forms only 15 percent of the Earth's volume, whereas
the mantle occupies 84 percent. The crust makes up the remaining 1 percent.

Crust
The crust is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other layers. It is a
part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer that extends
underneath the ocean and continents.

2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust- is mostly composed of different types of granites. Geologists often refer
to the rocks of the continental crust as “sial” which stands for silicate and aluminum, the most
abundant minerals in continental crust.
2. Oceanic crust- is mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the oceanic crust
are referred to as “sima” which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant minerals
in oceanic crust.
The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s dense, super
heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up of silicates, magnesium oxide, iron,
aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The mantle is divided into two layers: the upper
mantle and the lower mantle.

Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle plumes are the
likely cause of “hot spots,” volcanic regions not created by plate tectonics.

The Core
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely of iron and
nickel.

The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle. The core is
made of two layers:
a) Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the core.
b) Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is far above the
melting point of iron. Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers.

EVIDENCE HUBBLE'S LAW

● Phenomenon discover in 1929 by Edwin Hubble.
● Galaxies have been observed to be moving from the earth at speed that are proportional
to their distance.
● The galaxies are observed to be moving apart through a phenomenon called redshift
● Redshift describe how light ships longer wavelengths as objects in space ( such as stars
are galaxies) move away from us.
Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers. Earth’s Magnetic Field

Earth’s magnetic field

protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar wind. Without the shield of the
magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earth’s atmosphere of the ozone layer that protects life
from harmful ultraviolet radiation

EVIDENCE 2. COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB) RADIATION

● 2,725 degree kelvin background radiation in the microwave range that provides all of the
known universe m
● Phenomenal discover in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.

The CUR is the evidence of the theory statement that if the universe was extremely hot and
extremely small at one point in time, the there should be evidence of this extreme temperature
all across the universe.
INTERNAL INFLATION OF UNIVERSE
State that the one big bang, the formation of the universe never stop and is continuously making
other different universe ( multiverses) which cold different or similar to our own in terms of
physical laws.

BIG CRUNCH AND THE OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY

● State that a similar contraction and return to a singularity should be possible

● the Big Crunch Is association that scientists predict how to universe will end but theoristates
that the universe will not continue to expand forever eventually the expansion of the universe
will stop and the universe will come lapse on itself formation and gigantic rock hole.

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Key term
ACCELERATION - is the process of growth and increase, typically by the gradual accumulation
of additional layers of matter.

Planetesimal is an object form of the struck and other materials.

Protoplanet is a large planetary embryo that originate within a protoplanetary disk, ( planet in
the making).

COMPOSITION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

● Stars
● Natural satellites
● Asteroids
● Planets
● Comets
● Interplanetary medium

What is the composition of our solar system?

● Sun
● Stars
● Moon
● Gravity
● Planet
PLANETS
1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Mars
4. Saturn
5. Neptune
6. Earth
7. Jupiter
8. Uranus

INNER PLANETS
The other terms in terrestrial planets.
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Earth, Neptune

THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM

A star's system, also called “stellar system” is a small number of stars that orbit each other.

Note: it should be noted that earth rings to the solar system which is a type of star system
because the sun is a star.

EARLY THEORIES
1. Laplacian theory
2. Tidal theory

EXTENSIONS/ VARIATION
1. Accretion theory
2. Floccule / protoplanets theories
3. Capture theory
4. Solar fission theory
5. Solar nebula theory

LAPLACIAN THEORY
● The theory proposed by Bierre laplace in 1796.
● State that the solar system began with slowly spinning could of gas and dots

ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Has a quantity that measures the rational momentum in the of system that's what you mean by
angular momentum.
ABLATION THEORY

problem:
ANGULAR MOMENTUM - the theory suggested most of the angular momentum is the solar
system is found in.

TIDAL THEORY
● A theory proposed by James Jean's in 1917.
● A massive star passed by the sun, drawing from at the title filament
● The gravitationally unstable filament broke up with each condensation forming
protoplanet.

PROTOPLANET
● attached by the retreating star, we're returned in heliocentric orbits.

ACCRETION THEORY
● An extension theory proposed by Otto Schmidt in 1944.
● State that galaxies contain, cool, dense clouds of materia.

ENERGY CONSIDERATION
For a two body system ( star-cloud) there was too much energy for the cloud to attach the stars.
To solve this, a third body was assumed to exist but the proposed their body system was to
impossible to accept.

PROTOPLANET
Rotating disk of a desk of gas and gas that surrounding it core

SPINNING OF NEBULA
About oppression theory

FLOCCULE/ PROTOPLANET THEORY

A monastic extension theory proposed by w.h McCrea in 1960 attempted to solve the angular
momentum problem of Laplace cluster, due to turbulence, gas streams collided and produced of
higher-than-average density.

PROTOSTAR
● The energy formulation of the stars
● This is the early stage where in early stage of formation of the.

CAPTURE THEORY
● Dualistic n extension theory first proposed by m. m Woolfson in 1964 faucets that the
solar system formed from title interaction between the sun's and the low-density
protostars.
 ● The description of modals protostars.

SOLAR FISSION THEORY

● An extension theory proposed by Luis Jacot 1951 and extended further by Tom Van
Elandern in 1993.

VAN FLANDERN
● Planet square expelled from the sun in fair at different times, six of which exploded to
form the rest of the modern planets.

note: Jacot Vana Elandern proposed an origin of the sun itself.

SOLAR NEBULA THEORY

MODERN LAPLACIAN THEORY

● The modern accepted theory of the origin of the solar system.
● Combination of their work of different scientist and order to explain solar formation,
planetary formation and planetary orbits.

EARTH MATERIALS
(Rocks and minerals)

ROCKS- it is a solid material not really derived from the earth is and composed of substances
consisting of different naturally occurring minerals that are clumped together.

TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

IGNEOUS ROCKS
● Our name from the latin word ignis of fire. They are crystallized material from the
magma or molten volcanic materials from within the earth.

LAVA - is the molten materials that was extruded to the surface of the earth

Rocks
 ● Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
● The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. The types and
abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in which the rock
was formed.
● Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms
74.3% of the Earth's crust.
● This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock.

Geological Classification of rocks according to Characteristics such as

1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. and particle size.

These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the
course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as des-cribed by the geological
model called the rock cycle.
These events produce three general classes of rocks :
1. igneous ,
2. sedimentary,
3. metamorphic.

1. Igneous:
Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or magma) into solid form.
● if the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock.
● If the cooling occurs on the earth's surface, the rock is an extrusive or volcanic rock.
● Molten material within the Earth is called magma; it is “lava” once it has erupted onto
the surface.

2. Metamorphic:
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure,
usually deep below the earth's surface. These conditions change the original minerals of the
rock into new minerals.

3. Sedimentary:
Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.
a. Detrital rocks are formed by the compaction of separate particles, or sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been dissolved in water and
precipitate out, forming a solid rock.

Geologists describe sedimentary rocks according to the size and shape of the particles in them
or their mineral composition (in the case of chemical sedimentary rocks).
Rock Cycle
The rocks of earth's crust are constantly being recycled and changed into new forms through
geologic processes. This continual transformation of rocks from one type to another is called the
rock cycle.

Rock Cycle
How rock type can be changed?
Rock can be changed through the processes of weathering, heating, melting, cooling, and
compaction. Any one rock type can be changed into a different rock type as its chemical
composition and physical characteristics are transformed. The minerals and metals found in
rocks have been essential to human civilization.

Minerals
● Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
● They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical composition
and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal structure.
● Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
● The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the Earth's crust,
include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A few elements may occur in
pure form. These include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead, tellurium and
carbon.

Although 92 naturally occurring elements exist in nature, only eight of these are common in the
rocks of the Earth's crust. Together, these eight elements make up more than 98% of the crust
(Table 1).

Rock Forming Minerals:

● The physical properties of minerals, such as their hardness, lustre, color, cleavage,
fracture, and relative density can be used to identify minerals.
 ● These general characteristics are controlled mainly by their atomic structure (crystal
structure).

Common rock-forming minerals:

These are specimens of minerals from the University of Auckland's collection. Along with the
common rock-forming minerals, including apatite, corundum, diamond, fluorite, topaz and talc to
illustrate minerals used in Moh's Scale of Hardness.

Classification and Identification of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition.

1. Definite fixed composition, Quartz is always SiO2, and calcite is always CaCO3.

2. Form both by inorganic and organic processes.

For example, calcite (CaCO3) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also a shellforming
material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin conforms to the above definition except for
the requirement that it be inorganic.
3. "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually classified as minerals.
Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks a crystal structure due to its liquid state,
and Opal, which also lacks a crystal structure as well as a definitive chemical formula. Despite
the fact that these mineraloids lack certain essential characteristics of minerals, they are
classified as minerals in most reference guides including the acclaimed Dana's System of
Mineralogy.
Organic minerals is another unique category of minerals. While this term is technically an
oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral requires it to be inorganic, there are several naturally
occurring rare organic substances with a definitive chemical formula. The best example of this is
Whewellite. Most reference guides and scientific sources make an exception to these
substances and still classify them as minerals.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

● Exogenic process includes geological phenomena and processes that originate

externally to the Earth’s surface.
 ● Generally related to the:
1. atmosphere,
2. hydrosphere and
3. biosphere, and
4. therefore to processes of:
o weathering,
o erosion,
o transportation,
o deposition,
o denudation etc.

● Exogenic factors and processes could also have sources outside Earth, for
instance under the influence of the Sun, Moon, etc.
● Mountains, valleys and plains seem to change little, if at all, when left to
nature, but they do change continuously. The features of the Earth’s surface
temporary forms in a long sequence of change that began when the planet
originated billions of years ago, and is continuing today.

Landforms are limitless in variety. Some have been shaped primarily by:
● streams of water,
● glacial ice,
● waves and currents and
● movements of the Earth‘s crust or
● volcanic eruptions.

These are landscapes typical of deserts and others characteristic of humid regions. The
arctic makes its special mark on rock scenery, as do the tropics. Because geological
conditions from locality to locality are never quite the same, every landscape is unique.
Rock at or near the surface of the continents breaks up and decomposes because of
exposure. The processes involved are called weathering.

Weathering
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the Earth’s surface.

Erosion
Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks and minerals by moving water, wind, glaciers and
gravity.

The Work of Weathering

Weathering produces some landforms directly, but is more effective in preparing rocks for
removal by mass wasting and erosion. Weathering influences relief in every landscape.
Freezing and thawing
● Water expands when it freezes.
● If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, its expansion pushes the rock apart
and the process is called frost wedging.
● In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night and thaw during the day. Ice cements
the rock temporarily, but when it melts, the rock fragments may tumble from a steep cliff.
● Large piles of loose angular rocks, called talus slopes, lie beneath many cliffs. These
rocks fell from the cliffs mainly as a result of frost wedging.

Temperature changes
Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so rapidly over warmer rock
beneath that it flakes or grains break off. This happens mostly in deserts, where intense
daytime heat is followed by rapid cooling after.

MODULE 5

● Endogenic processes include tectonic movements of the crust,

magmatism, metamorphism, and seismic activity.
● Endogenic processes have been responsible for shaping the earth’s
relief and the formation of many of the important mineral resources.
● The principal energy sources for endogenic processes are:
1. heat
2 the redistribution of material in the earth’s interior according to density
- The earth’s deep heat originates chiefly from radiation.
- The continuous generation of heat in the earth’s interior results in the flow
of heat toward the surface.

● The asthenosphere, the primary source of magma formation, is such a

layer in the upper mantle. Convection currents may arise in the
asthenosphere and they are hypothesized to be lithosphere.
● Under the influence of the heat flow or under the direct influence of the
heat carried by rising abyssal magma, magma chambers form in the crust
itself. Reaching the near surface parts, the magma is intruded into them in
the form of variously shaped intrusive bodies or is extruded onto the
surface, forming volcanoes.
● Is also manifested in the form of tectonic movements, which, in turn, lead
to the tectonic deformation of crustal and upper mantle rocks.
 ● The accumulation and subsequent discharge of tectonic stresses along
active faults causes earthquakes.

Crustal Deformation
I. Deformation of rocks in Earth's crust takes many forms;
A. Changes in volume, shape, and position can occur alone or in combination.
1. Stress = applied force = cause of the deformation
a. Types of stress include:
1) Tensional-stretching, increased volume
2) Compressional - squeezing, decreased volume
3) Shear - change in shape
2. Strain = resulting deformation

B. Causes of deformation
1. Confining pressure - due to the load of overlying rocks
2. Stresses applied at plate boundaries - usually not uniform instead this is a
directed pressure

C. Types of deformation (affected by confining pressure and

temperature)
1. Deformation by flow
a. Elastic-recoverable, small amounts of strain, doesn’t happen to rocks
b. Plastic-permanent; rocks flow as movement occurs along small structural
defects.

2. Brittle deformation - rupture - rock moves in opposite directions on either

side of a break.

II. Strike and dip are used to describe the orientation of planar
features.
A. Outcrop - site where rocks are exposed at the surface
B. Dip - the angle of inclination of the bedding surface down off the horizontal
C. Strike - the trend or direction of the strata or the bearing of any horizontal line
on the plane perpendicular to the direction of dip.
III. Features of plastic deformation - Folds
A. Folds-wavelike undulations caused by bending of rocks usually produced by
horizontal compressive stresses – occurs at great depths inside the Earth
under great temperatures and pressures

B. Terminology
1. Axial plane - a plane through a rock fold that includes the axis-divides the fold
as symmetrically as possible.
2. Axis-the ridge or place of sharpest folding.
3. Limb- 1 of 2 parts of the fold-on either side of axis.
4. Plunge-angle that fold axis makes with the horizontal

C. Types of folds
1. Anticline- arching or upwarping of rock layers
2. Syncline- downwarping of rock layers
3 .Monocline- double flexure of rock layers
4. Dome -non-linear, anticlinal fold-beds dip away from central area in all
directions
5.Basin - non - linear, synclinal fold-beds dip towards central area from all
directions.

D. Description of folds
1. Symmetrical-dips of opposite limbs of fold are approximately equal
2. Overturned-asymmetrical fold with one limb tilted beyond vertical
3. Recumbent-overturned fold with a horizontal axis
4. Plunging-axis of fold penetrates into ground

IV. Features of brittle deformation - Faults and Joints

A. Joints- breaks in rock mass with no appreciable relative movement of rocks
on opposite sides of break. Sheet jointing causes formation of exfoliation domes
and cooling results in columnar joints in basalt.

B. Faults- breaks in rock mass where appreciable movement of rocks on

opposite sides of the break has occurred. Faults are classified on the basis of the
relative movement of blocks on either side of the fault.
C. Deformation of Earth's Crust occurs abruptly or gradually
1. Abrupt movements are associated with earthquakes.
2. Gradual movements = creep = semi-continuous movement.

Deformation of rock involves:

● changes in the shape and/or volume of these substances.
● Changes in shape and volume occur when stress and strain causes rock
to buckle and fracture or crumple into folds.
● A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to
compressional forces.
● Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering.

Plastic deformation of rock to occur, a number of conditions must be met,

including:
● The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat
● The higher the temperature of the rock the more plastic it becomes.
● Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If it does,
fracturing occurs.
● Deformation must be applied slowly.

A number of different folds have been recognized and classified by geologists:

1. The simplest type of fold is called a monocline. This fold involves a slight bend
in otherwise parallel layers of rock.
2. An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an
3. Arch like structure with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping way from the center of
the structure. Note how the rock layers dip away from the center of the fold are
roughly symmetrical.
4. A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward Both
anticlines and synclines are the result of compressional stress.
5. A recumbent fold develops if the center of the fold moves from being once
vertical to a horizontal position. Recumbent folds are commonly found in the core
of mountain ranges and indicate that compression and/or shear forces were
stronger in one direction. Extreme stress and pressure can sometimes cause the
rocks to shear along a plane of weakness creating a fault. We call the
combination of a fault and a fold in a rock an over thrust fault.
● Faults occur from both tensional and compressional forces. This shows the
location of some of the major faults located on the Earth. Location of some
of the major faults on the Earth.
● Note that many of these faults are in mountainous regions.
EARTH QUAKES
● An earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the Earth.
● Earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential
energy into the kinetic energy of motion.
● Most earthquakes are produced along: faults,
- tectonic plate boundary zones, or Figure 6 graben fault Reverse
faults Normal faults
- along the mid-oceanic ridges At these areas, large masses of rock
that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction.
● Friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to
cause a sudden slippage of the rock masses.
● The magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is
controlled by:
- the quantity of stress built up because of friction,
- the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and
- ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic
waves.
● Geological chronology can be relative only.
- Such a relative chronology is by the order of succession of the beds.
- Obviously the lowest stratum is the oldest and the one at the top the
newest.
- This may be put as a general principle, that, unless strata have lost
their original position through disturbance or dislocation, their order
of superposition is their order of relative age.
- It is for this reason that in geological sections the strata are
numbered and read from below upward

● Change in the character of the strata takes place not only vertically, but
also horizontally, since no stratum is universal, even for a single continent.
● The study of the processes of sedimentation which, showed that the
character of the bottom in the ocean or in lakes is subject to frequent
changes, varying with the depth of water and other factors.
 ● The same is true of the ancient sea and lake bottoms, now represented by
the stratified rocks of the land.
● Strata may persist with great evenness and uniform thickness over vast
areas, and in such cases the bedding planes remain sensibly parallel.
● But sooner or later, the beds, whenever they can be traced far enough, are
found to thin out to edges and to dovetail in with beds of a different
character.
● When the strata are of constant thickness for considerable distances, and
the bedding planes remain parallel, the stratification is said to be regular.
● In many cases these changes take place rapidly from point to point, and
then the strata are plainly of lenticular shape, thickest in the middle,
thinning quickly to the edges.
● Here the bedding planes are distinctly not parallel, and the stratification is
irregular.
● in example of rapid horizontal changes is given in the two accompanying
parallel sections (Fig.7), taken through the same beds, only twenty feet
apart. In these sections the differences of thickness of the coal seams and
of the sands and clays which separate them are very striking.

MODULE 6

History of the Earth

In the very beginning of earth's history, this planet was a giant, red hot, roiling,
boiling sea of molten rock - a magma ocean. The heat had been generated by
the repeated high speed collisions of much smaller bodies of space rocks that
continually clumped together as they collided to form this planet.

As the collisions- tapered off the earth began to cool, forming a thin crust on its
surface. As the cooling continued, water vapor began to escape and condense in
the earth's early atmosphere.
Clouds- formed and storms raged, raining more and more water down on the
primitive earth, cooling the surface further until it was flooded with water, forming
the seas.

4.6 billion years old-s theorized that the true age of the earth

, formed at about the same time as the rest of our solar system.
The oldest rocks geologists have been able to find are 3.9 billion years old.
Using radiometric dating methods to determine the age of rocks means scientists
have to rely on when the rock was initially formed (as in - when its internal
minerals first cooled). In the infancy of our home planet the entire earth was
molten rock - a magma ocean.

Due to the forces of plate tectonics, our planet is also a very dynamic one; new
mountains forming, old ones wearing down, volcanoes melting and reshaping
new crust.

When Did Life on Earth Begin?

Scientists are still trying to unravel one of the greatest mysteries of earth: When
did "life" first appear and how did it happen? It is estimated that the first life
forms on earth were primitive, one-celled creatures that appeared about 3
billion years ago. That's pretty much all there was for about the next two billion
years. Then suddenly those single celled organisms began to evolve into
multicellular organisms.

Scientists have been looking increasingly to space to explain these mass

extinctions that have been happening almost like clockwork since the beginning
of "living" time. Perhaps we've been getting periodically belted by more space
rocks (ie. asteroids), or the collision of neutron stars happening too close for
comfort? Each time a mass extinction occurred, life found a way to come back
from the brink. Life has tenaciously clung to this small blue planet for the last
three billion years.

Scientists are finding new cues as to how life first began on earth in some really
interesting places - the deep ocean.

Checking the Fossil Record

Scientists have studied rocks using radiometric dating methods to determine
the age of earth. Another really cool thing they've found in rocks that tells us
more about the story of earth's past are the remains of living creatures that have
been embedded in the rocks for all time. We call these fossils. It has been the
careful study of earth's fossil record that has revealed the exciting picture about
the kinds of creatures that once roamed this planet.
Fossilized skeletons
of enormous creatures with huge claws and teeth, ancient ancestors of modern
day species (such as sharks) that have remained virtually unchanged for millions
of years, and prehistoric jungles lush with plant life, all point to a profusion of life
and a variety of species that continues to populate the earth, even in the face of
periodic mass extinctions.

- during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods - created a profusion of plant and
animal life that left behind generous organic materials from their decay.

These periods of geologic time are called ice ages.

Believe it or not, humans were around during the last ice age - the Holocene (about
11,500 years ago) - and we managed to survive. Creatures like the Woolly Mammoth -
a distant relative of modern-day elephants -

Read about a really exciting recent find of a perfectly-preserved, frozen Woolly

Mammoth! This was a particularly exciting find because it wasn't a fossil that scientists
found, but actual tissue, which still has its DNA record intact.

Also, read more about the Ice Man - another frozen tissue sample of a human being
who was frozen into the high mountains of France. He was just recently discovered as
thousands of years of ice pack have finally melted from around his body.

Rocks in the mantle and the core are still hot from the formation of the Earth about 4.6
billion years ago. When the Earth formed, material collided at high speeds.

upper mantle, about 50-100 km below the surface.

(magma)- that is generated is not just the molten equivalent of the starting rock, but
something different.

The most common type of magma produced is basalt (the stuff that is erupted at mid-
ocean ridges to make up the ocean floors, as well as the stuff that is erupted in Hawai'i).

Activity III Identification. Write the correct answer in the blank.

1. the first life form on earth
2. a rock formed from cooled melted rock
3. a characteristic that is persistent to sedimentary rocks
4. a molten rock
5. breaks in rock mass caused by the movement of rocks on opposite sides
6. rocks that are subjected to intense heat and pressure

MODULE 7
: Natural Hazards, Mitigation and Adaptation

A. Geologic Processes and Hazards

Geological processes are dynamics at work in the earth’s landforms and surfaces. It
involved landslide, volcanic eruption, and earthquake that are in some points destructive
and in others constructive.

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of strain in the earth's interior. The
sudden release of strain occurs because the strength of the straining material is
exceeded by the strain that has accumulated within that material.

There are two main causes of earthquakes:

1. explosive volcanic eruptions
2. tectonic activity associated with plate margins and fault

Effects of an Earthquake
- The destruction caused by an earthquake depends largely on its
magnitude and duration. The destructive effects of an earthquake can be
classified into primary and secondary effects.
- Primary effects are the immediate damage caused by the quake, such as
collapsing buildings, roads and bridges, which may kill many people.
Secondary Effects
are the after-effects of the earthquake, such as fires, tsunami, landslides and
diseases.
● Fire. Earthquakes destroy gas pipes and electric cables, causing fires to
spread. Myanmar 6.9 magnitude earthquake (April 2016) Nepal 7.8
magnitude earthquake (April 2015)
● Landslides. Earthquakes often cause landslides, especially in steep river
valleys and areas of weak rocks.
● Disease and famine. Fresh water supplies are often cut off causing
typhoid and cholera. Lack of shelter and food causes much suffering.
● Soil liquefaction. When soil with high water content, are violently shaken
they lose their mechanical strength and behave like a fluid and so buildings
can literally sink.
● Tsunami. Earthquake can cause huge underwater waves called tsunami.
Rock slipping along a fault under the ocean causes it.
LANDSLIDE
Landslide, also called landslip - is the movement of rock, debris or earth down
a slope. They result from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope
and are driven by the force of gravity.

In January 2012, a landslide hit mining site in Compostela Valley in a remote

area of the southern Philippines. The mountainside of the village collapsed when
most residents were asleep, sweeping away about 50 houses, shanties and
other buildings.

VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Volcanic eruption begins when pressure on the magma chamber forces magma
up through the conduit and out of the volcano’s vent. It varies considerably.
Eruptions may be violent, quiet. Magma composition, magma temperature, and
the amount of dissolved gases in the magma are the primary factors that
determine whether a volcano erupts violently or quietly. Volcanic eruptions can
cause serious impacts on living things, the economy as well as in the
environment. It is both beneficial and destructive.

Volcanic eruptions - can cause serious impacts on living things, the economy
as well as in the environment. It is both beneficial and destructive.

Benefits of Volcanic Eruption

1. Agricultural Benefits. After volcanic eruption, the lava can turn into one of the
most fertile soil. Places near the volcanoes have a fertile soil favorable for the
farmers. The biggest plantation of abaca in the Philippines is in the foot of Mt.
Mayon. The Rice Granary of the Philippines in Central Luzon is located in the
surrounding area of Mt. Pinatubo.
2. Economic and Recreational Benefits. Volcanoes can promote tourism. Hot
springs in the surrounding places of volcanoes are one of the favorite
recreational destination of many people.
3. Energy Benefits. Volcanoes provide resources for energy extraction, also
known as geothermal resources. With enough supply of water and steady source
of heat, steam can be generated to power turbines that can spin generators to
produce electricity.
4. Industrial Benefits. Volcanoes contain minerals, a good source of chemical
and industrial materials.

Harmful Effects of Volcanic Eruption

1. Volcanic ashes pose potential hazards to living things, agriculture and
properties.
2. Volcanic eruption contribute to global warming.
3. Massive flow of lahar can destroy properties and lives of many people.

MODULE 8
B. Hydro meteorological Phenomena and Hazard

Hydrometeorological Hazards
it is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydro-logical or oceanographic
nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage. Hydrometeorological hazards are driven by hydrological
processes.

hydrometeorological hazards. These includes:

● tropical cyclones,
● severe storms,
● storm surges,
● floods/ flash floods,
● droughts,
● fires/ wild fires,
● and cold waves.

FLOOD
A flood occurs when water overflows or inundates land that's normally dry. Most
common is when rivers or streams overflow their banks. Floods are among the
most frequent and costly hydrological hazard. Ongoing flooding can intensify to
flash flooding in cases where intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising
flood waters.

Effects of flooding
Floods can have devastating consequences and can have effects on the econo -
my, environment and people.

● Economic - During floods (especially flash floods), roads, bridges, farms,

houses and automobiles are destroyed. All these come at a heavy cost to
people and the government.
● Environment - The environment also suffers when floods happen.
Chemicals and other hazardous substances end up in the water and
eventually contaminate the water bodies that floods end up in. Additionally,
flooding causes kills animals, and others insects are introduced to affected
areas, distorting the natural balance of the ecosystem.
 ● People and Animals - Many people and animals have died in flash floods.
Many more are injured and others made homeless. Water supply and
electricity are disrupted and people struggle and suffer as a result. In
addition to this, flooding brings a lot of diseases and infections including
military fever, pneumonic plague, leptospirosis and dysentery. Sometimes
insects and snakes make their ways to the area and cause a lot of havoc.

Flood Hazard Mapping

- Flood Hazard Mapping is a vital component for appropriate land use
planning in flood-prone areas. It creates easily-read, rapidly-accessible
charts and maps which facilitate the identification of areas at risk of
flooding and also helps prioritize mitigation and response efforts.

The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones due to its geographical

location.
1. Strong Winds
The strong wind associated to tropical cyclones is hazardous to properties,
people, plants and animals.
2. Heavy Rainfall
Strong and heavy rains could cause floods especially in low-lying areas. Flash
floods are also associated to tropical cyclones. Flash floods are sudden
occurrences and cannot be predicted.
3. Storm Surge.
A storm surge is a term used for big waves and high tides that occur during
tropical cyclones.
4. Tornado. It is a violent storm that strike as a powerful rotating mixture of wind
and thunderstorm clouds, extending to the ground from the cloud in a funnel
shape.

DROUGHT
Drought is characterized by below-average precipitation in a given region,
resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply. The strong likelihood of
reduced rainfall during an El Niño event increases the risk of drought in the
Philippines.

IMPACTS OF DROUGHT
Drought often results in mass displacements of population. It leads to water and
food shortages and is likely to have a long-term environmental, economic and
health impact on the population.
● Droughts lower the quality of soil resulting to low crop yield.
● Bodies of water dry out and water animals will die.
● The health and quality of freshwater biomes become affected.
● Hunger and malnutrition
● Farmers need to spend more money for the irrigation.
● Less or no rains means drier conditions and more bush fire. Farms are
destroyed

MODULE 9

Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effect

Coastal Processes
The shoreline is affected by waves (produced by wind at sea) and tides
(produced by the gravitational effect of the moon and sun).

Waves
Waves are caused by wind. Wave height in the open ocean is determined by
three factors.
● Wind speed. The greater the wind speed, the larger the waves.
● Wind duration. The greater the duration of the wind (or storm) the larger
the waves.
● Fetch. The greater the fetch (area over which the wind is blowing - size of
storm) the larger the waves.

TIDES
Tides result from the gravitational attraction of the sun and the Moon on the
oceans. The four ways that waves and tides erode the coast are described
below:
● Hydraulic action. Air becomes trapped in joints and cracks in the cliff
face. When a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens
the cliff and causes erosion.
● Abrasion. Bits of rock and sand in waves are flung against the cliff face.
Over time they grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper.
● Attrition. Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other,
and they break and become smaller and smoother.
● Solution. Weak acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of
rock such as chalk or limestone.

Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion

● Scientific research indicates sea levels worldwide have been rising at a
rate of 0.14 inches (3.5 millimeters) per year since the early 1990s. The
trend, linked to global warming, puts thousands of coastal cities and even
whole islands at risk of being claimed by the ocean. This slow sea level
rise helps to increase the rate of coastal erosion.
● When sea levels rise rapidly, as they have been doing, even a small
increase can have devastating effects on coastal habitats. As seawater
reaches farther inland, it can cause destructive erosion, flooding of
wetlands, contamination of aquifers and agricultural soils, and lost habitat
for fish, birds, and plants.
● When large storms hit land, higher sea levels mean bigger, more powerful
storm surges that can strip away everything in their path.
● In addition, hundreds of millions of people live in areas that will become
increasingly vulnerable to flooding. Higher sea levels would force them to
abandon their homes and relocate. Low-lying islands could be submerged
completely.

Aside from coastal erosion, coastal processes result in submersion and

seawater intrusion.

Seawater intrusion
is the movement of ocean water into fresh groundwater, causing contamination
of the groundwater by salt.

COPING UP WITH NATURAL HAZARDS

Mitigation is a measure taken prior to the impact of a disaster to minimize its

effects. Because of geographical location of our country, we are prone to
different natural hazards- Earthquake, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions,
landslide, flashfloods and other natural calamities. Coping up with various
hazards is extremely challenging especially for the people directly affected.