Finite Element Method

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 Courtesy:
Dr. H. “Jerry” Qi;
University of Colorado

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Ship Collision
Impact Analysis

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Different Types of Structure

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 Created as numerical techniques for finding approximate
solutions to boundary value problems for partial
differential equations;
 FEM is based on a problem domain’s subdivision into
simpler parts—called finite elements—, and on the
calculus of variational methods to minimize an associated
error function.

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Your final grade depends on the overall performance
of the class.

For the evaluation, we will follow the MIST standard

instructions

But don’t worry about those;

Just lets try to understand the things

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 Brief History [Chandrupatla and Belegundu]

Basic ideas of the finite element method originated

from advances in aircraft structural analysis.

1941: Hrenikoff presented a solution of elasticity

problems using the “frame work method”;

1943: Courant’s paper, which used piecewise

polynomial interpolation over triangular sub regions to
model torsion problems;

1955: A book by Argyris on energy theorems and

matrix methods laid a foundation for further
developments in finite element studies; 18
 Brief History

1956: Turner, et al. derived stiffness matrices for truss,

beam and other elements and presented their findings;

1960: The term finite element was first coined and used
by Clough;

Early 1960s: Engineers used the method for

approximate solution of problems in stress analysis,
fluid flow, heat transfer and other areas.

1967: The first book on finite elements by Zienkiewicz

and Cheung was published;
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 Brief History

Early 1970s: FEA was applied to nonlinear problems

and large deformations;

1972: Oden’s book on nonlinear cotinua appeared;

1970s: Mathematical foundations were laid. New

element bdevelopment, convergence studies and other
related areas fall in this category.

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 For Analyzing the Structures,
You need to know behavior of Structure

Lets review some basics of

Mechanics of Structures

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Fundamental of Stress Analysis
P
 Stress,  
A
Unit is force per unit area and is denoted by the Greek letter sigma.

 Tensile Stress: When the bar is stretched by the

forces;
 Compressive Stress: If the forces are reversed in
direction, causing the bar to be Compressed;
 Normal Stress: Stresses act in a direction
perpendicular to the surface;
Normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.
 Shear Stress: Stress acts parallel to the surface;
 Sign Convention: Tensile positive (+),
Compressive negative (-) 22
 Units of Stress and Some Basic Definitions

 Units
USCS: psi (pounds per square inch), ksi (kilopounds per square inch)
SI: N/m2 (Newton per meter square - Pascal)
1 MPa = ?? N/m2 ; 1 Mpa = ?? N/mm2 ;

 Prismatic Bar: Straight structural member having the same cross

section throughout its length;
 Axial Force: Load directed along the axis of the member;
 Cross section: Section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
Structure;

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 Average Stress

P
The equation   is valid only if the stress is
A
uniformly distributed over the cross section A i.e., if
force P acts through the centroid of the cross-
sectional area.

If the stress is not uniformly distributed, the stated

Equation is useful to calculate the average normal
stress on the cross section.

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 Strain, 

 Strain,   L
(elongation per unit length)
Where, : total elongation = (final – initial) length
L = initial length , Strain has no dimension

 If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a

tensile strain, representing an elongation or
stretching of the material.
 If the bar is in compression, the strain is a
compressive strain and the bar shortens.
 Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and
compressive strain as negative.
 A normal strain is associated with normal
stresses.
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 Uniaxial Stress and Strain

 If the deformation is uniform throughout the volume, which requires

the bar be prismatic, the loads act through the centroids of the cross
sections, and the material be homogeneous (that is, the same
throughout all parts of the bar). The resulting state of stress and strain is
called uniaxial stress and strain.

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 Mechanical Properties of Material

 The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the

modulus of elasticity;
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 Mechanical Properties of Material

 Considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile force

(from B to C). This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B
is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of
the steel.

 In the region from B to C the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means
that it deforms without an increase in the applied load.
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 Mechanical Properties of Material

 The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at
point D) is called the ultimate stress.
 Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load,
and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E in Fig.

 The yield stress and ultimate stress of a material are also called the yield
strength and ultimate strength, respectively.
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Mechanical Properties of Material

 If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck

is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve (the
dashed line CE in Fig) is obtained. The total load the bar can carry
does indeed diminish after the ultimate stress is reached (as
shown by curve DE), but this reduction is due to the decrease in
area of the bar and not to a loss in strength of the material itself.
In reality, the material withstands an increase in true stress up to
failure (point E);
 Because most structures are expected to function at stresses
below the proportional limit, the conventional stress-strain curve
OABCDE, which is based upon the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen and is easy to determine, provides satisfactory
information for use in engineering design;
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Hooke’s Law Hooke’s law express the linear relationship between
stress and strain in simple tension or compression:
  E
E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for the
material. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in
the linearly elastic region. The units of E are the same as the units of stress.
More flexible materials have a lower modulus—plastics - from 0.7 to 14 Gpa
More stiff materials have a higher modulus—steel - 210 Gpa (approx.)
M o d u l u s o f e l a s ti c i t y i s o ft e n c a l l e d Yo u n g ’ s m o d u l u s

Poisson’s Ratio

 Why “-” sign??

 Applicable only in uniaxial loading;
 Applicable for linearly elastic material;
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 Shear Stress Acts tangential to the surface of the material;

V
Average Shear Stress  
A

1. Shear stresses on opposite (and

parallel) faces of an element are
equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

2. Shear stresses on adjacent (and perpendicular) faces of an element are

equal in magnitude and have directions such that both stresses point toward,
or both point away from, the line of intersection of the faces.
Equilibrium Condition requires  1   2
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Shear Strain
Shear stresses have no tendency to elongate
or shorten the element in the x, y, and z
directions—Instead, the shear stresses
deform the element.

In picture, The angle  is a measure of the

distortion, or change in shape, of the
element and is called the shear strain.
Because shear strain is an angle, it is usually
measured in degrees or radians.

Positive and Negative Faces

A positive face has its outward normal
directed in the positive direction of a
coordinate axis. The opposite faces are
negative faces.
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 Axially Loaded Members

Springs

K (Stiffness Constant): The force required to produce a unit elongation;

f (flexibility constant): Elongation produced by a load of unit value.

Equations are also applicable to springs in compression. 34
 Prismatic Bars
Uniform Normal Stress,  = P/A
Axial Strain,  = /L
Longitudinal Stress,  = E
PL
Equations Combinations   
EA
Product EA  Axial Rigidity of the bar.

EA
Stiffness of a Prismatic Bar  k 
L
L
Flexibility of a Prismatic Bar  f 
EA
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S T R E S S E L E M E N T S
 The most useful way
of representing the
stresses is to isolate a
small element of
material;
 An element of this
kind is called a stress
element.
 The dimensions of a
stress element are
assumed to be
infinitesimally small,
but for clarity we draw
the element to a large
scale; 36
 Analysis of Stress and Strain

When the material is in plane stress in the xy plane, only

the x and y faces of the element are subjected to stresses,
and all stresses act parallel to the x and y axes.

A normal stress  has a subscript that identifies the

face on which the stress acts. The sign convention for
normal stresses is the familiar one, namely, tension is
positive and compression is negative.

A shear stress  has two subscripts—the first subscript denotes the face on
which the stress acts, and the second gives the direction on that face.

A shear stress is positive when the directions associated with its subscripts are plus-plus
or minus-minus; the stress is negative when the directions are plus-minus or minus-
plus.

from equilibrium of the element:

 Special Case – I (Uniaxial Stress)
(All stresses acting on the element are zero except for the normal stress x)

Special Case – II (Pure Shear)

(x = 0 and y = 0)

Special Case – III (Biaxial Stress)

(Element is subjected to normal stresses in both the x and y directions but
without any shear stresses)
Equilibrium of Element Volume
[Condition of Equilibrium]
Equilibrium of Element Volume
[Equations of Equilibrium]

Assignment #
01.01

Hint: 2.3 of S.S.

BHAVIKATTI
 Physical problem

Mathematical model
Governed by differential equations of assumed Improvement
discrete system (discretized by appropriate finite
elements) with assumptions on loading, boundary
conditions, etc

Finite element solution

Assessment of results

The process of
Design improvements
FEM
Structural optimization
 Physical problem Finite element model

On the front side of the

base plate, a uniform
normal pressure 100
MPa is applied and the
opposite side is
constrained.

Results
Introduction to Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
or Finite Element Method (FEM)

 Finite element method (FEM) is one of the numerical

methods of solving differential equations that describe
many engineering problems. The FEM, originated in the
area of structural mechanics, has been extended to other
areas of solid mechanics and later to other fields such as
heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and electro-magnetism
 Useful for problems with complicated geometries,
loadings, and material properties where analytical
solutions cannot be obtained.

 When a structural problem is given, it is important to

understand the following steps:

 Creation of the FE model of the given problem;

 Applying the boundary conditions and the loads;
 Solution of the finite element matrix equations; and
 Interpretation and verification of the FE results.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

 Finite element analysis involves dividing the structure

into a set of contiguous elements. This process is
called discretization.

 Each element has a simple shape such as a line, a

triangle, or a rectangle, and is connected to other
elements by sharing "nodes." The unknowns for each
element are the displacements at the nodes. These
are also called degrees of freedom. Displacement
boundary conditions and applied loads are then
specified.
 The element level matrix equations are assembled to
form global level equations. The global matrix equations
are solved for the unknown displacements, given the
forces and boundary conditions. From the
displacements at the nodes, strains and then stress in
each element are calculated. However, in practice there
are many difficulties in solving the real-life problems
using finite elements.
 Advantages of the Finite Element Method

The finite element method has been applied to numerous

problems, both structural and nonstructural. This method
has a number of advantages that have made it very
popular. They include the ability to:
• Model irregularly shaped bodies quite easily;
• Handle general load conditions without difficulty;
• Model bodies composed of several different
materials because the element equations are
evaluated individually;
 • Handle unlimited numbers and kinds of
boundary conditions;
• Vary the size of the elements to make it
possible to use small elements where
necessary;
• Alter the finite element model relatively easily
and cheaply;
• Include dynamic effects;
• Handle nonlinear behavior existing with large
deformations and nonlinear materials.
 
The finite element method of structural analysis enables
the designer to detect stress, vibration, and thermal
problems during the design process and to evaluate
design changes before the construction of a possible
prototype. Thus confidence in the acceptability of the
prototype is enhanced. Moreover, if used properly, the
method can reduce the number of prototypes that need
to be built.
Even though the finite element method was initially used
for structural analysis, it has since been adapted to many
other disciplines in engineering and mathematical
physics, such as fluid flow, heat transfer, electromagnetic
potentials, soil mechanics, and acoustics.
 Assignment # 01.02

Derive equations for total strain for an isotropic

body subjected to triaxial stress

Hint: Appendix C.3 [Daryl L. Logan]

Assumption: The principle of superposition is hold; that is,
we assume that the resultant strain in a system due to
several forces is the algebraic sum of their individual effects.
 Assignment # 01.03

Stress - Strain relationship or constitutive matrix

for linear elastic and isotropic material

Hint: Appendix C.3 [Daryl L. Logan]

Plane Stress

from equilibrium of the element:

Methods of FEM and
General Steps
The Direct Approaches of FEM:

In the structural stress-analysis, determination of displacements and

stresses throughout the structure is key problem, which is in equilibrium
and is subjected to applied loads. For many structures, it is difficult to
determine the distribution of deformation using conventional methods, and
thus the finite element method is necessarily used.
Traditionally there are two general direct approaches:
Force, or flexibility method
Unknown: Internal forces;

Governing Equations: First the equilibrium equations are used. Then

necessary additional equations are found by introducing compatibility
equations.

Result: A set of algebraic equations for determining the redundant or

unknown forces.
Displacement or stiffness method

Unknown: Displacements of the nodes;

Compatibility conditions requiring that elements connected at a common

node, along a common edge, or on a common surface before loading
remain connected at that node, edge, or surface after deformation takes
place are initially satisfied.

Governing Equations: Expressed in terms of nodal displacements using the

equations of equilibrium and an applicable law relating forces to
displacements.
Advantages of Displacement or stiffness method over Force, or
flexibility method:

 The two direct approaches result in different unknowns (forces or

displacements) in the analysis and different matrices associated with
their formulations (flexibilities or stiffnesses);

 For computational purposes, the displacement (or stiffness) method is

more desirable because its formulation is simpler for most structural
analysis problems. Furthermore, a vast majority of general-purpose
finite element programs have incorporated the displacement
formulation for solving structural problems.
Variational Method:
 The variational method includes a number of principles:
 The principle of minimum potential energy that applies to
materials behaving in a linear-elastic manner;

 The principle of virtual work. This principle applies more generally

to materials that behave in a linear-elastic fashion, as well as those
that behave in a nonlinear fashion.
Stiffness Matrix
• The primary characteristics of a finite element are
embodied in the element stiffness matrix;
• For a structural finite element, the stiffness matrix
contains the geometric and material behavior
information that indicates the resistance of the element
to deformation when subjected to loading;
• Such deformation may include axial, bending, shear,
and torsional effects;
• For finite elements used in nonstructural analyses, such
as fluid flow and heat transfer, the term stiffness
matrix is also used, since the matrix represents the
resistance of the element to change when subjected to
external influences.
 Spring Element:
 Introduction;
 Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix for a Spring
Element;
 Step 1 Select the Element Type;
 Step 2 Select a Displacement Function;
 Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and
Stress/Strain Relationships;
 Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and
Equations;
 Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to
Obtain the Global Equations and Introduce
Boundary Conditions;
 Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements;
 Step 7 Solve for the Element Forces;
 Step 8 Interpret the Results.
 Spring Element:
 Example of a Spring Assemblage;
 Assembling the Total Stiffness Matrix by
Superposition (Direct Stiffness Method).

 Boundary Conditions:
 Homogeneous boundary conditions;
 Nonhomogeneous boundary conditions.
Example: 3.1 – 3.7
-- Daryl L. Logan
 Different methods for deriving the Element
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Direct Equilibrium Methods of

Variational Method
Method Weighted
Residual/
Force or Galerkin’s
flexibility Principle of minimum
Method
method potential energy

Principle of
Displacement or Rayleigh – Ritz Method
virtual work
stiffness method
(elasticity
problem)
Castigliano’s Theorem
 Galerkin’s Method:

 This is a method which can be applied to any problem

involving solution of a set of equations subject to specified
boundary values;

 In elasticity problems Galerkin’s method turns out to be the

principle of virtual work which may be stated as, “a
deformable body is in equilibrium when the total work done
by external forces is equal to the total work done by internal
forces”;

 The work done considered in the above derivation is called

virtual, since the forces and deformations considered are not
related.
 In calculus we know a function has extreme value when its first
derivative with respect to variables is zero. The function is
maximum, if the second derivative is negative and is minimum, if
its second derivative is positive;

 The first derivative of function of a function is called first

variance. The function of a function is termed a functional and the
statement that the first variance of functional is zero is termed as
first variance attains a stationary value;

 In many engineering problems there are such functional, the first

variance of which attain stationary values. In elasticity problems
potential energy of the body of the structure is such functional.
 In solid mechanics it has been identified that total potential
energy is suitable functional, the first variance of which yields
equation of equilibrium satisfying the boundary conditions;

 A deformable body is in equilibrium when the total potential

energy is having stationary value. By taking second variance of
potential energy, it has been proved by researchers that the value
is positive definite;

 And hence it is concluded that the condition that value of total

potential energy is stationary correspond to minimum value;
 Hence we have principle of minimum potential energy in solid
mechanics, which. may be stated as “of all the possible
displacement configurations a body can assume which satisfy
compatibility and boundary conditions, the configuration
satisfying equilibrium makes the potential energy assume a
minimum value”. This is the variation principle in solid
mechanics.