EMG 2303 SOLID AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS I

Course aims

To give the students a basic understanding of the concept of stress and strain, to understand the tensile
test and the properties that can be derived from it, to understand and apply simple concepts relating to
design in simple tension and compression, to understand and apply the basic equations governing stresses
and deformations of thin walled pressure vessels, to understand and apply the basic equations governing
elastic torsion analysis and to construct shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Expected outcomes

At the end of this course, students should be able to;

 Solve simple problems relating to elastic stress and strain

 Determine the mechanical properties of a material by performing a tensile test
 Design simple uni-axial loaded members such as those with uniform cross-sections, variable cross-
sections, non-uniform loads, thermal stresses and strains.
 Calculate stresses and change in dimensions of thin walled pressure vessels
 Design and analyze shafts subjected to simple elastic torsion
 Construct SF and BM diagrams for beams loaded with concentrated loads, udls and couples

Course contents

Concepts of stress and strain

Definition of stress and strain, components of stress, direct strain, true stress and true strain. Stress and
strain in simple shear; elastic stress-strain relationships in simple shear.

Behavior of materials under static loading

The tensile test; load extension diagram; the stress-strain diagram and Engineering properties of
materials, Linear elasticity and Hooke’s law, elastic limit, 0.2% proof stress, ultimate strength,
secant and tangent modulus, stress hysteresis, toughness, ductility, brittleness, upper and lower
yield points, allowable or working stress, safety factor. Tension instability. Elastic constants;
Young’s modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, relationships between elastic constants.
Volumetric strain.
Analysis of design in simple tension and compression

Deflection of axially loaded structures, members with variable cross-sections, composite

members, non-uniform stresses and strains, impact loading. Thermal stresses and strains.
Statically indeterminate axial members.

Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels

Hoop and longitudinal stresses and strains for cylinder and sphere, volumetric strain, bulk
modulus of contained fluid, and pressure effects.

1
Elastic torsion analysis

The torsion test, solid and hollow circular shafts, shear stresses, power transmission and design
of shafts, coupling design, shafts of varying cross-section, composite shafts. Torsion stiffness.
Pure shear. Analysis of statically indeterminate shafts. Application to close-coiled helical springs.
Bending of beams

Simply supported beams and cantilevers. Concentrated loads, distributed loads and couples.
Reactions at supports; shear force and bending moment and their importance for analysis and
design. Qualitative and quantitative sketching of shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Prerequisites

EMG 2203 Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)

Main text

1. Strength of Materials and Structures by John Case, Lord Chilver & Carl T. F. Ross

References

1. Mechanics of Materials by Gere & Timoshenko

2. Mechanics of Materials by Benham and Crawford
3. Mechanics of Materials part 1 by E. J. Hearn
4. Solving Problems in Solid and Structural Mechanics (Volume 1) by S P Ng’ang’a
Teaching organization

2 hours lectures, 1 hour tutorials, 3 hours practical per week

Practicals

1. Tensile test
2. Torsion test

2
 STRESS AND STRAIN

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the
basic concept of stress and strain. The tensile test and related terminology such as elastic limit,
lower and upper yield points, ultimate tensile strength, fracture stress, elastic modulus, stress
hysteresis, permanent set, initial tangent modulus, secant modulus and proof stress, will be
introduced. Other terminology to be covered include % elongation and % reduction of area. The
concept of safety factor, Poisson’s ratio and shear stress will be covered towards the end.
1.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.2.1 Define and formulate concept of stress and strain including solving simple problems
relating to stress and strain
1.2.2 Define basic terminology relating to the stress strain curve.
1.2.3 Define and solve problems relating to safety factor.
1.2.4 Define and solve problems relating to Poisson’s ratio.
1.2.5 Define and solve simple problems relating to shear stress.
Definition: Solid and structural mechanics is the science dealing with the behavior of solid
bodies subjected to forces/loads and is concerned with the stresses and deformations/strains
that are set up in such bodies.
Examples of solid bodies:

 Axially loaded members (Tension or Compression)

 Shafts (Torsion)
 Thin shells under internal/external pressure e.g. Gas cylinders or petroleum tanks
 Beams
 Columns
 Discs, plates and shells etc.

Of interest:

Stresses and strains/deformations produced by the loads.

The figure below shows bars subjected to tension and compression.
Tension examples: Towing rope, lifting hoist etc
Compression examples: Legs of your chair as you sit, support pillars of buildings etc

3
Typical types of loads

 Static loads: Non fluctuating, caused by gravity.

 Live load: Vehicle crossing a bridge.
 Impact load: Caused by a sudden blow.
 Fatigue: Fluctuating or alternating load.

 Consider a bar of uniform cross-section (prismatic bar).

 Equal and opposite loads are applied at each end parallel to the longitudinal axis i.e. the
bar is uniformly stressed in tension.
 We make an imaginary cut at section C perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Note that
we need equal and opposite forces P to maintain equilibrium. Internal forces are
therefore set up to resist the applied load.
 If we pull bars of the same material, but different cross-sectional areas, breaking loads
are found to be approximately proportional to the respective cross-sectional areas.
 Therefore, tensile strength depends on intensity of force on the cross-section, not on the
total force.
 Intensity of force = STRESS
STRESS

4
Therefore, Stress = resistance of a material per unit area to deformation when external forces
are applied.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑟𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) (𝑃)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

 The unit of force (P) is Newton (N) where 1kgf = 9.81N.

 The typical unit of area (A) is m2 or mm2.
 Stress can therefore be expressed in the following units: (Pa) (MPa)

where 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1

 1 KPa = 103 Pa, 1 MPa =106 Pa and 1 GPa = 109 Pa.

 If the original cross-section area (A0) is used to calculate stress, the value calculated is the
Nominal stress or Engineering Stress.
 To obtain True Stress, we need to divide load by the actual cross-sectional area.
In general, if:
δA is the elemental area on the cross-section of a bar, and
δP is the normal force acting on this element;
𝛿𝑃 𝑃
𝜎 = lim =
→ 𝛿𝐴 𝐴
STRAIN

Strain can be defined as the deformation per unit length and is represented by the symbol ε.
Therefore, if the original length is L, the change in length is dL, then;

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝛿𝐿)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)

 If original dimensions are used to determine the strain, the value obtained is the
Engineering strain.
Example A prismatic bar of rectangular cross-section (20mm x 40mm) and length L=2.8 m
is subjected to an axial tensile force of 60 KN. The measured elongation of the bar is 1.1 mm.
Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.
×
Solution 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠() = = = 75 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (= 75 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 75 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
×

5
 1 × 10 𝑁 1 × 10 𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 1 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚 = = = 1 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚
1𝑚 × 1𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 × 1000𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝐿 1.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝜀) = = = 3.93 × 10
𝐿 2.8 × 10 𝑚𝑚

TENSILE TEST

 This is the most popular test for comparing strengths of various materials.
 A circular or rectangular prismatic bar is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load
until failure occurs.
 Select a gauge length (see sketch) and attach an extensometer.
 Record the change in length against the applied load.
 Plot a graph of Load versus Extension or Stress versus Strain.
A typical graph for mild steel is as shown below.

 Curve starts at the origin and is a straight line up to A.

 For small loads, the extension is  to the applied load.
()
 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐸). The concept is otherwise known as the Hooke’s law.
( )
E is the Young’s modulus or Elastic modulus
 Let A0 = Initial cross-sectional area, and
 L0 = Initial gauge length
Since both are constant, the graph of load (P) versus Extension (δL) has the same
characteristics as that of stress (s) versus strain (e).
𝜎 𝑃 𝛿𝐿
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚: 𝐸 = ; 𝜎 = ; 𝜀 =
𝜀 𝐴 𝐿

6
 𝑃 𝐿 𝑷𝑳
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝜹𝑳 = : The product EA is defined as the 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐲.
𝐴 𝛿𝐿 𝑬𝑨

 Beyond point A, the graph is no longer linear.

A is the limit of proportionality (Hooke’s law only applies up to this point).

 For a short period beyond point A (up to point B), the material may still be elastic i.e.
deformations are completely recoverable when the load is removed (though Hooke’s law
is not applicable)……..up to some point B. B is the elastic limit. In practice however, A and
B are virtually coincident.

 Beyond B, we have point C (curve flattens or drops)

 C is the upper yield point of the material.
 The material elongates with little or no increase in load.
 Plastic (permanent) deformation begins at this point.
 The curve then drops up to point D (lower yield point)
 The curve then continues upwards up to a maximum point E and the drops up to point F.
 Stress at E is the Ultimate Tensile Strength (stress) (UTS)
 Stress at F is the fracture stress.
Why does the curve drop from point E to point F?

 After the UTS is reached, the specimen continues elongating and forms a neck where the
diameter decreases rapidly up to fracture (sketch).
 The stress is however calculated using the original cross-sectional area (A 0).
ELASTIC MODULUS: It’s a measure of the relative stiffness of a material. The steeper the slope
of the stress/strain curve, the higher the elastic modulus (relative stiffness) of the material.

Referring to the graph, if the bar is loaded up to

any point before the proportional limit ‘a’ and then unloaded, the unloading curve traces the original
curve oa.

7
  If the bar is loaded up to some other point such as b, and the load removed, the unloading
traces a linear curve bc, parallel to the initial elastic line oa. oc represents the permanent
set or permanent strain which remains in the material. ce represents the elastic
deformation (recoverable).
 A second load cycle starting at c follows the curve cd and then continues along previous
curve up to fracture, f i.e. the yield stress has increased from “a” to “b” (work/strain
hardening).
PROOF STRESS

For materials with a linear elastic region but without a well-defined yield point, e.g. high carbon
steels and non-ferrous metals, an arbitrary yield point must be defined.

 This is done by specifying a small amount of permanent strain (usually 0.2% i.e. a strain
equal to 0.002).
 Draw a line parallel to the initial straight part to cut the stress-strain curve (see sketch).
 Point of intersection represents the 0.2% proof stress.

 For materials without an initially linear elastic region such as copper and aluminum, the
elastic modulus is arbitrarily defined as follows:
 Initial tangent modulus:-Slope of the initial tangent to the curve at the origin.
 Secant modulus:-Slope of line joining the origin and some arbitrary value of stress e.g. the
design stress.
Homogeneous material – uniform structure throughout without any flaws or discontinuities

Isotropic material – Uniform properties throughout in all directions

Prismatic – Uniform cross-section throughout.

8
 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

DUCTILITY MEASUREMENT

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝛿𝐿

% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = × 100%
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿

9
 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100%
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
−
= 4 4 × 100% = 𝑑 − 𝑑 × 100%
𝜋𝑑 𝑑
4
 What is the effect of varying the gauge length (GL) or cross-sectional area of the
specimen on % elongation? (sketches)
(i) If Lo is reduced, % elongation increases (note neck length is independent of GL)
(ii) If area Ao is increased, % elongation increases (note neck length is dependent on x-
sectional area)
 To define % elongation accurately, we need to define a certain length and a certain area.
% Elongation is proportional to A0 and inversely proportional to Lo.

Most standards e.g. KS, BS, ISO, DIN etc. adopt the following formula:

𝜋𝑑
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 = 5.65√𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 5.65 = 5 × 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
4

The larger the values of % elongation and % reduction of area, the more ductile a material is.

Examples

(1) A prismatic steel bar is 2.5m long and has a cross-sectional area of 3 x 10-4 m2.
Determine the extension when a tensile load of 80 kN is applied. Assume E=200 GPa.
Solution:

𝑃𝐿 80 × 10 𝑁 × 2.5𝑚
𝛿𝐿 = = = 3.3 × 10 𝑚 = 3.3𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐴 200 × 10 𝑁 × 3 × 10 𝑚
𝑚
(2) A load of 4 kN is to be raised using a steel wire. Find the minimum diameter of the wire
if the stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.

10
Solution:

𝑃 = 4𝑘𝑁 = 4 × 10 𝑁

σ = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

 Let ‘d’ be the diameter of the wire (in mm)

𝜋𝑑
𝐴= 𝑚𝑚
4
𝑃 𝑃
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜎 = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑
4

4𝑃 4 × 4 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑑 = = = 7.14 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜎 𝜋 × 100

(3) A hollow cast iron tube has length L = 4 m, outer diameter D = 300 mm outer and wall
thickness t = 50 mm. It is subjected to a central compressive load P. The resulting stress
is 75 MPa. If Young’s modulus for cast iron is 150 GPa, determine:
(i) The magnitude of the load
(ii) The longitudinal strain
(iii) The shortening of the tube
Solution:

Internal diameter of the cylinder d = D – 2t = 0.3 – 0.10 = 0.2m

(i) To determine the load P;

𝑃 𝜋 𝜋
𝜎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 = 75 × 10 × (𝐷 − 𝑑 ) = 75 × 10 × (0.3 − 0.2 ) = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑁
𝐴 4 4
(ii) Longitudinal strain
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 75 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = = = 0.0005
𝐸 150 × 10
(iii) Shortening
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝐿 𝛿𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑖. 𝑒. 0.0005 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐿 = 0.002𝑚 = 2𝑚𝑚
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 4
SAFETY FACTOR

 Consider a structure loaded with tensile or compressive loads. Then;

Working stresses = stresses present in the component under normal working conditions.

11
 To avoid structural failure – The actual strength of the material used must exceed the
loads to be carried i.e. the loads applied must not exceed the yield stress σy. We define
the safety factor as follows:
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑛) = =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

 Low ‘n’ – high likelihood of failure

 High ‘n’ – structure is wasteful of material e.g. too heavy or too expensive.
For structural steels, 𝑛 ≅ 1.67 e.g. if σy = 250 MPa, then σallow=150 MPa.

For brittle materials, σUTS is sometimes used instead of σy.

Example

A short hollow circular cast iron cylinder is to support an axial compressive load P = 580 kN. The UTS
of the cast iron in compression is 270 MPa. It is decided to design the cylinder with a wall thickness t
= 25 mm and a factor of safety of 3 wrt the UTS. Calculate the minimum required outside diameter.

Solution

From 𝑛 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 270 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛 3
Required cross-sectional area:

𝑃 𝑃 580 × 103 𝑁
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = = = 6444.4 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 90 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

 But x-sectional area is given by:

𝜋𝑑 𝜋
𝐴= − (𝑑 − 2𝑡) = 𝜋𝑡(𝑑 − 𝑡)
4 4
 Therefore
𝐴 6444.4
𝑑= +𝑡 = + 25 = 107.05 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝑡 𝜋(25)

12
 POISSON’S RATIO

 Consider a rectangular bar subjected to a tensile load P.

 Increase in length is δL i.e. the longitudinal strain is given by:
𝜀 =
 The bar also exhibits reduction in lateral dimensions i.e. the width and depth will both
reduce. Lateral strains are both equal and of opposite sense to the longitudinal strain i.e.
𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
𝜀 =− =−
𝑏 𝑑
 Provided the material is within the elastic range, the ratio of lateral to longitudinal strains
is constant i.e.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 𝛿𝑑 𝑑
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝐿
𝐿
Ratio called Poisson’s ratio (μ). Negative sign is usually ignored.

 Note: A longitudinal strain induces a lateral strain of opposite sign i.e. a tensile
longitudinal strain induces a compressive lateral strain.

For most engineering materials, μ→0.25 – 0.35

 Note:
𝜎
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸 =
𝜀
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸)
 Therefore
𝝈
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝝁 (𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏) = 𝝁 (This relationship will be
𝑬
revisited later).
Example:

13
 A steel bar length L = 2.7m and diameter D = 320mm carries a tensile load of P = 12,000 kN.
(i) Determine the resulting stress
(ii) Calculate the elongation due to the load
(iii) Determine the decrease in diameter
Assume Young’s modulus E=210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio μ = 0.32.

𝑃 12 × 10 𝑁 × 4
𝜎= = = 149.2 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 = 149.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝜋 × 320
𝑁
𝜎 149.2 × 10 𝑚 = 7.105 × 10
𝜀 = =
𝐸 210 × 10 𝑁
𝑚
𝛿𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜀 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐿 = 𝜀 × 𝐿 = 7.105 × 10 × 2.7 𝑥 10 = 1.918 𝑚𝑚
𝐿
 Decrease in diameter
𝜀
𝜇= 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀
𝜀

𝜀𝑦 = 0.32 × 7.105 × 10−4 = 2.274 𝑥 10−4

𝛿𝑑
= 2.274 × 10−4 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑑 = 2.274 × 10−4 × 320 = 0.073 𝑚𝑚
𝑑

Shear stress

 In the block system shown in part (a), top portion of the block tends to slide wrt the
bottom portion.
 Shear forces that resist the applied load P act over area abcd in a plane parallel to the
applied load.
 If failure is restricted, a shear stress, tangential to the area abcd is set up, where:
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝐴)

 The block changes shape (strains) as shown in (b).

 The angle of deformation γ is the shear strain.
 Within the elastic range, shear strain is proportional to shear stress i.e.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐺)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛾)

where G is the Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity.

14
Figure (c) illustrates shearing on two faces (double shear). In this case,
𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) =
2𝐴
Examples

(i) Three 19mm diameter bolts are used to connect two steel plates. The connection
carries a load of 51kN. Determine the shearing stress in the bolts.

15
 Solution

 Assuming the line of action of the applied forces passes through the centroid of the bolt
pattern, each bolt supports an equal portion of the load.
51
Therefore, shearing force on each bolt is given by: 𝑃= = 17 𝑘𝑁
3
𝑃 17 × 10
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝜏= = ≅ 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝜋 × 19
4
(ii) A single 19mm diameter bolt is used to connect three plates as shown in (a).
Determine the shearing stress in the bolt (see sketch).
Solution

 The bolt is subjected to failure along two planes as shown in (b).

 Assuming the stresses on the two planes are equal:
𝑃 15 × 10
𝜏= = ≅ 52.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝜋 × 19
4

16
2.1 Introduction
Welcome to the second lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the concept
of volumetric strain, leading to the generalized Hooke’s law. Bulk modulus will be defined, including its
relationship with Young’s modulus. Towards the end, the principle of shear stresses will be derived leading
to a relationship between Young’s modulus and shear modulus.

2.2 Lesson learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

2.2.1 Define and solve problems relating to bulk modulus K.

2.2.2 Solve problems relating to change in volume of blocks subjected to stress/pressure.
2.2.3 Prove the principle of shear stresses and solve problems relating to all the three moduli.

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

 When a body is subjected to a single force (F) or a system of forces, it undergoes changes
in dimensions, including a slight change in volume.
𝛿𝑉 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 For a cube subjected to uniform pressure on all faces,

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐾) = = 𝐴 =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉
Important types of forces

(1) Rectangular bar subjected to an axial force

(2) Rectangular bar subjected to three mutually perpendicular forces
Case 1:

 Consider a bar of rectangular cross-section subjected to an axial tensile load P.

L → unstrained length
b x a → cross-sectional area

17
  When strained longitudinally by amount εx, let corresponding lateral strains be εy and
εz.
 Longitudinal extension → εxL
 Contraction in the y-direction → εyb

 Contraction in the z-direction → εza

 Initial volume of the bar V0 = abL
 After straining, the new volume: V = (a − 𝜀 𝑎)(b − 𝜀 𝑏)(L + 𝜀 𝐿)

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑏𝐿(1 − 𝜀 ) 1 − 𝜀 (1 + 𝜀 ) = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 )(1 + 𝜀𝑥 )

= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 − 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 )

 If 𝜀 , 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 are small quantities compared to 1, squares and products of

𝜀 , 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 can be neglected.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑉 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 )

𝛿𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉0 𝑉 0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑧 − 𝑉 0
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑧
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0

𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍; 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀
𝑉 − 𝑉0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜇𝜀𝑥 − 𝜇𝜀𝑥
𝑉0
𝛿𝑉
𝑖. 𝑒. = 𝜀 (1 − 2𝜇); 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉

Example:

A bar of length ‘L’ = 2m, width ‘b’ = 0.02m and thickness ‘a’ = 0.015m is subjected to a tensile load of P =
30 kN. Calculate the final volume of the bar. Assume μ = 0.25 and E = 200 GPa.

Solution

 Initial volume 𝑉 = 2 × 0.02 × 0.015 = 6 × 10 𝑚

18
 𝑃 30 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = = 100𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑏 𝑥 𝑎 0.02 × 0.015
𝜎 100 × 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = = = 0.5 × 10
𝐸 200 × 10
𝛿𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 (1 − 2𝜇) = 0.5 × 10 (1 − 0.5) = 2.5 × 10
𝑉
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝛿𝑉 = 2.5 × 10 × 6 𝑥 10 = 1.5 × 10 𝑚
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = (6 × 10 ) + (1.5 × 10 ) = 6.0015 × 10 𝑚
Case 2:

 Consider a cube subjected to hydraulic pressure applied on all faces.

 Let the pressure produce strains equal to εx, εy and εz in the x, y and z directions,
respectively.
 Since σ is compressive, strains are all negative.
 Let original dimensions be dx, dy and dz.
 Original volume 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧
 New dimensions are: (𝑑𝑥 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑥), 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑦 (𝑑𝑧 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑧)

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧(1 − 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 )

19
= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )(1 − 𝜀 ) → neglect 2nd order terms

= 𝑉 (1 − 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )

= 𝑉 1− 𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀

𝛿𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉0 𝑉 0 1 − 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 − 𝑉0
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = − 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
→ 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒.

Case (i):

Suppose the pressures (σ) are all equal.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −3𝜀

Case (ii):

 Suppose the pressures are all different i.e. σx, σy and σz (see sketch below).
𝜎
⇛⇛ Then the strain in x − direction due to stress 𝜎 is given by: 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜎
⇛⇛ In the y − direction, strain due to 𝜎 is: 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜎
⇛⇛ In the z − direction, strain due to 𝜎 is: 𝜀 =−
𝐸

The resulting strains in the three directions are found using the principle of superposition i.e. add
algebraically the strains in each direction due to each individual stress.

Resultant strains
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝝁 = 𝒐𝒓
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 (𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛) = 𝜇 = 𝜇𝜀

(i) x-x direction:

20
 𝜎
⇛⇛ Due to 𝜎 : 𝜀 =−
𝐸
𝜇𝜎
⇛⇛ Due to 𝜎 : 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 = +
𝐸
𝜇𝜎
⇛⇛ Due to 𝜎 : 𝜀 = 𝜇𝜀 = +
𝐸
Therefore, the resultant strain in the x-direction due to all the three stresses:
𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
𝜀 =− + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
Similarly,

(ii) y-y direction:

𝜎 𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
𝜀 =− + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
(iii) z-z direction:
𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦
𝜀𝑧 = − + +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
 If 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎, the total strain in the x-direction is given by:

𝜀 = (−1 + 𝜇 + 𝜇) = − (1 − 2𝜇)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 = −3𝜀 = 3 (1 − 2𝜇)

𝜎
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 =
𝛿𝑉
𝑉
𝜎 𝐸
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝐾 = =
3𝜎
(1 − 2𝜇) 3(1 − 2𝜇)
𝐸

which gives us the relationship between elastic modulus E and bulk modulus K.

 Generally, if K is always positive, 1 − 2𝜇 > 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇 < 1 2

For metallic materials, δV is very small and 𝜇 ≅ 1 3 (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.35)

Example:

A steel cube of 50mm side is subjected to forces as shown. Determine the change in volume of the
block. Assume E = 200 GPa and 𝜇 = 0.3.

Solution:

Initial volume 𝑉0 = 503 = 125,000𝑚𝑚3

21
 𝑃𝑥 6 × 103
𝜎𝑥 = = = 2.4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝐴 50 × 50
𝑃𝑦 8 × 103
𝜎𝑦 = = = 3.2 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐴 50 × 50
𝑃𝑧 4 × 103
𝜎𝑧 = = = 1.6 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝐴 50 × 50

𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 2.4 3.2 × 3 3 × 1.6 2.88

𝜀𝑥 = + − = + − =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑧 3.2 2.4 × 3 3 × 1.6 4.4
𝜀𝑦 = − − − =− − − =−
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 1.6 2.4 × 3 3.2 × 3 1.84
𝜀𝑧 = − + = − + =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 10𝐸 10𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉
= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑉
𝛿𝑉 2.88 4.4 1.84 0.32
= − + =
125000 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 200 × 103
0.32
𝛿𝑉 = 125000 × = 0.2𝑚𝑚
200 × 10

Example: A steel bar 0.25m x 0.1m x 0.05m is loaded as shown.

(a) Calculate the change in volume of the bar if E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.25.

22
 (b) Calculate the change that should be made to the 4 MN load so that there is no change in
volume
Solution

Initial volume 𝑉0 = 0.25 × 0.10 × 0.05 = 1.25 × 10−3 𝑚3

Px 0.4 × 106
σx = = = 80MPa (tensile)
A 0.10 × 0.05
Py 2 × 106
σy = = = 160 MPa (tensile)
A 0.25 × 0.05
𝑃𝑧 4 × 106
𝜎𝑧 = = = 160 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝐴 0.25 × 0.10
𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 106 80 × 106
𝜀𝑥 = − + = [80 − 0.25(160) + 0.25(160)] =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 106 180 × 106
𝜀𝑦 = + − = [160 + 0.25(160) − 0.25(80)] =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥 106 220 × 106
𝜀𝑧 = − − − = [−160 − 0.25(160) − 0.25(80)] = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑉
= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
𝑉
10
= [80 + 180 + (−220)] = 2 × 10
200 × 10
𝛿𝑉 = 2 × 10 × 1.25 × 10 = 2.5 × 10
Change in the 4 MN load for no change in volume:

Let P be the new compressive load (in MN) replacing the 4 MN load. Then

𝑃 𝑃 × 106
𝜎𝑧 = = 𝑁⁄𝑚2
0.25 × 0.1 0.025
𝜎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑦 are the same as before i.e. 𝜎𝑥 = 80 MPa (tensile) and 𝜎𝑦 = 160 MPa (tensile).

𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 106 0.25𝑃 40 × 106 10𝑃 × 106

𝜀𝑥 = − + = 80 − 0.25(160) + = +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑧 106 0.25𝑃 140 × 106 10𝑃 × 106
𝜀𝑦 = − + = 160 − 0.25(80) + = +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 106 𝑃 𝑃 × 106 60 × 106
𝜀𝑧 = − − − = − − 0.25(80) − 0.25(160) = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 0.025 0.025𝐸 𝐸
For no volume change,

23
𝛿𝑉
= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 = 0
𝑉
Therefore,

106 𝑃
40 + 10𝑃 + 140 + 10𝑃 − − 60 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 6 𝑀𝑁
𝐸 0.025
We therefore need to add 2 MN to the 4MN load for no change in volume.

PRINCIPLE OF SHEAR STRESSES

A shear stress across a plane is always accompanied by a balancing shear stress across the
plane normal to it.
Proof:

 Consider a block ABCDEFGH of unit thickness subjected to a shear stress intensity τ on

face ADEF.
 For equilibrium in the y-direction, an equal and opposite shear stress τ must act on face
BCGH.
 Force acting on faces ADEF and BCGH are given by: 𝑃 = 𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1 = 𝜏. 𝐶𝐵. 1
 The forces form a couple whose moment is (M/ BCGH ): 𝑀 = (𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1). 𝐴𝐵
For equilibrium, we need a restoring couple whose moment must equal this couple:

 Let a shear stress τ’ be applied on faces ABEG and CDFH.

 Force acting on the faces ABEG and CDFH: 𝑃 = 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1 = 𝜏 . 𝐶𝐷. 1
 The forces form a couple whose moment is (M/CDFH): 𝑀 = 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1. 𝐴𝐷
 But M’ = M i.e.
 𝜏 . 𝐴𝐵. 1. 𝐴𝐷 = (𝜏. 𝐴𝐷. 1). 𝐴𝐵 or 𝜏 = 𝜏
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC MODULUS (E) AND SHEAR MODULUS (G)
𝐸
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐾 =
3(1 − 2𝜇)
where K is bulk the modulus.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)
Recall G = shear modulus/modulus of rigidity =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛾)

24
 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡)𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)
and E = Elastic modulus/Young’s modulus =
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡)𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀)

 Consider a cube length L subjected to shear stresses. Cube gets distorted.

 Diagonal BD gets elongated to BD1.
 Diagonal AC is shortened to AC1.
Shear stress results in shear strain.

 Shear strain = tan γ ≅ γ (since γ is small).

 Linear tensile strain on diagonal BD
𝐵𝐷 − 𝐵𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷𝐷 cos(45 )
= ≅ ≅
𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷 𝐴𝐷
cos(45 )
𝐷𝐷 ( ) 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
√
= = =
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐷 √2 √2 2(𝐴𝐷)
( )
√
1 𝛾
= tan(𝛾) ≅ (tan(𝛾) ≅ 𝛾 𝑖𝑓 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙).
2 2
i.e. linear strain of diagonal BD is half the shear strain and is tensile.
 We can similarly show that the linear strain of diagonal AC is half the shear strain but is
compressive.
Linear tensile strain of diagonal of diagonal BD:
𝛾 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
= = ∵ 𝐺 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 =
2 2𝐺 𝛾 𝐺
 The effect of shear stress τ acting on AB, CD, CB and AD is to cause a tensile stress on
diagonal BD and a compressive stress on diagonal AC.
 Suppose then we apply a tensile stress τ on diagonal BD and a compressive stress τ on
diagonal AC.
 Tensile strain on diagonal BD due to a tensile stress τ on diagonal BD:

25
 𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐸
 Tensile strain on diagonal BD due to a compressive stress τ on diagonal AC:
𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇
𝐸
 Combined tensile strain on BD:
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = + 𝜇 = (1 + 𝜇)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜏 𝜏
∴ (1 + 𝜇) = 𝒐𝒓 𝑬 = 𝟐𝑮(𝟏 + 𝝁)
𝐸 2𝐺

26