Life in Outer Space
Life in Outer Space
Life in Outer Space
Jose Gutierrez-Marcos
[email protected]
1
https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/physics/research/astro/ceh/
Think about possible ways to
address this questions:
2
Lecture Aims
Origin of the earth
Origin of the atmosphere
Formation of oceans
Origin of life
Changing the atmosphere
3
Provability of finding life in the Universe
4
Origin and Early Evolution of Earth
Age of universe is ~ 14.5 Byrs, about 10 Byrs older than Earth
First stars formed from hydrogen and helium, the rest of the
elements formed in protostars by nucleosynthesis
5
Stage in planetary evolution
• Planetesimals- small
bodies formed from dust
and gas
• Protoplanets- formed
from planetesimals
• Planets- formed by
combining protoplanets
swept up by gravitational
attraction.
6
Stages in formation of Early Earth
From (A) a inhomogeneous, low-
density protoplanet to (B) a dense,
differentiated planet
CO (carbon monoxide),
S2 (sulfur),
Cl2 (chlorine),
N2 (nitrogen),
H2 (hydrogen),
NH3 (ammonia) and 9
CH4 (methane)
Secondary atmosphere was
protected by Earth magnetosphere
Note: presence of the noble gases (Ar, Ne, He and Kr) is most likely from the degassing upper 11
mantle (volcanoes) which continues to today.
Modern atmosphere
Questions:
• Where did all the O2 come from?
• Where did all the CO2 go?
12
Formation of the oceans
The earth is cool enough that H2O condenses to form
the oceans.
Estimates of the amount of H2O outgassed is not enough to fill
the oceans
It seems likely that a large volume of water was added by the
impact of icy meteors on the atmosphere.
CO2 dissolves into the oceans.
13
In the oceans life evolves
Ingredients necessary for life
NH3 – ammonia
CH – Methane
4
H O – Water
2
These can produce amino acids,
the building blocks of life
14
Evolution of life
Life may have originated
in three places:
under the primitive
atmosphere
or at hydrothermal vents
deep in the oceans
or deep in the earth’s
crust
15
Early history of life and the atmosphere
The Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.
16
Life changes the atmosphere
With the origin of life the first cellular organisms
(cyanobacteria) began to use the gasses in the early atmosphere
(NH3 – ammonia, CH4 – methane, H2O – water) for energy.
Photosynthetic organisms colonize the planet.
These organisms use CO2 and produce oxygen (O2) as a waste
product.
18
Oxygenation of terrestrial environment
Nature vol 469 11Nov2010
Data suggest high microbial activity in sea bed associated with limited oxygenation in the oceans and high oxygenation in surface environments
These differences have been predicted to have an impact in the evolution of distinct ecological systems- a important step in the colonization of earth ’s surface
19
Earth atmospheric evolution
Where did the O2 come from?
Produced by photosynthetic life.
20
Fundamental Properties of Life
cellular organization
sensitivity
growth
development
reproduction
regulation
homeostasis
heredity
21
Origin of Life Hypotheses
Special creation
Supernatural or divine origin
Extraterrestrial origin
Panspermia
Spontaneous origin
Life originated from inanimate materials
22
Reducing Atmosphere
Life most likely emerged under high-
temperature conditions.
Early atmosphere is often referred to as a
reducing atmosphere.
exact conditions unknown
ample availability of hydrogen atoms
very little oxygen
23
Origin of Life - Location
Ocean’s edge
bubble hypotheses
Under frozen seas
problematic due to necessary conditions
Deep in Earth’s crust
byproduct of volcanic activity
Within clay
positively-charged clay
Deep-sea vents
conditions suitable for Archaea
24
Miller-Urey Experiment
Attempted to reproduce early
reducing atmosphere and
produce organic compounds
from inorganic materials
hydrogen-rich
electrical discharge
succeeded in producing
amino acids
25
Miller-Urey Experiment
First report in 1953
Tested Alexander Oparin's and
Haldane's abiogenesis hypothesis
Simple organic compounds can be
created
26
Abiotic synthesis of amino acids in early
oceanic lithosphere
Menez et al., (2018) Nature 254:59
28
RNA world
Hypothesis that the first genes were short strands of RNA
Small RNA molecules can form abiotically by polymerization of free nucleotides
RNA molecules can self-replicate
RNA can fold into 3-D structures that act as simple enzymes- ribozymes.
Molecules are important catalysts in modern cells. These RNA catalysts are called
ribozymes.
Ribozymes also help catalyze the synthesis of new RNA polymers [rRNA, tRNA, mRNA].
In the pre-biotic world, RNA molecules may have been fully capable of ribozyme-catalyzed
replication
29
RNA world
Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that RNA sequences can evolve in abiotic conditions.
RNA molecules have both a genotype (nucleotide sequence) and a phenotype (three dimensional
shape) that interacts with surrounding molecules.
Under particular conditions, some RNA sequences are more stable and replicate faster and with
fewer errors than other sequences.
RNA-directed protein synthesis may have begun as weak binding of specific amino acids to bases
along RNA molecules.
This is one function of rRNA today in ribosomes.
RNA may have been capable of synthesizing a short polypeptide (a simple protein) that behaved as an enzyme
helping RNA replication.
30
How ribozymes work?
Science 2009 vol.326 pp1271-
32
Cell Origin Theories
Protobionts: aggregates of abiotically produced molecules
capable of isolating an internal environment different
from its surroundings and showing properties of living
cells.
In the laboratory, droplets of abiotically produced
organic compounds, called liposomes, form when lipids are
added with proteinoids and phosphate.
The lipids form a molecular bilayer at the droplet surface,
much like the lipid bilayer of a membrane.
Undergo osmotic responses
Store energy as a membrane potential
(voltage cross the surface).
33
Protobionts
If enzymes are included among the ingredients, they are
incorporated into the droplets.
Protobionts that formed in the “organic soup” would not have
possessed refined enzymes, the products of inherited
instructions.
However, some molecules produced
abiotically do have weak catalytic capacities.
There could well have been protobionts
that had a rudimentary metabolism that
allowed them to modify substances they
took in across their membranes.
Without some mechanism of exact replication, no possible to
perpetuate successful protobionts.
34
Hereditary information in
Protobionts
RNA genes and their polypeptide products are packaged within
a membrane, thus the protobionts could have evolved as units.
fossil living 37
Archaebacteria
Extreme-condition prokaryotes
Lack peptidoglycan in cell walls
methanogens
extreme halophiles
extreme thermophiles
Thought to have split from Bacteria 2 bya.
38
Fossil archeabacteria found in rock formations
Bacteria
Second major group of prokaryotes
Strong cell walls
Simpler gene structure
Contains most modern prokaryotes
includes photosynthetic bacteria
cyanobacteria
39
-Stromatolites-
fossilized bacterial mats
Photosynthetic
Responsible of Earth’s atmospheric change
Formed in hypersaline areas where other
organisms can not survive.
Modern Stromatolites Shark Bay Australia
40
First Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes probably arose about 1.5 bya.
Internal membrane-bound structures such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have
evolved via endosymbiosis.
Energy-producing bacteria were engulfed by larger
bacteria forming a beneficial symbiotic relationship
41
Endosymbiosis
Multiple endosymbiotic events
Responsible of the formation
of various unicellular
organisms
Green-Red algae lineages
Apicomplexa- mostly
parasitic organisms
Dinophyta- most are
marine plankton or part of
coral colonies
42
First Eukaryotic Cells
Sexual reproduction
Eukaryotic cells can reproduce sexually,
thus allowing for genetic recombination.
Genetic variation is the raw material necessary
for evolution.
Multicellularity
arisen many times among eukaryotes
fosters specialization
43
Summary
Origin of the earth- condensation of particles
Origin of the atmosphere- original and secondary.
Secondary volcanic nature is modified by photosynthetic
organisms.
Formation of oceans- Icy meteors. Most likely place for
the origin of life.
Changing the atmosphere- how cyanobacteria changed the
earth’s atmosphere
Origin of life- most likely RNA. Cells may have originated
as protobionts that acquired genetic information.
Eukaryotic cells- endosymbiotic origin.
44
Special Issue 2009
Scientific American
Origin of the Universe - pp36 - 43
Michael S. Turner
http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v301/n3/index.html 45
Life in outer space
47
Provability of finding intelligent life
in the Universe
48
Lecture Aims
Habitable worlds
Life in other planets?
Life in outer space?
49
Hubble Space Telescope
image of Sedna-
Life in the Universe takes 10,500 years
to circle the Sun!
50
Is Life Rare?
Is life common?
- Life may be a natural process and part of the universe.
- Universe may be full of life.
- Earth is not “special”.
Is life rare?
- Origin of life a rare event, perhaps a singular event
despite the abundance of ELPs.
- Earth is “special”.
51
Life in the Solar System
52
Habitability
What is Habitability
The Habitable Zone
Environment of early Earth
53
Defining Habitability
What do we mean when we say habitable?
Earth-like animal life: specific requirements
(oxygen, water, dry land, temperature
range)
Microbial life: broader set of conditions
(more extreme conditions ok)
54
What stabilizes the climate?
Size - long-term heat source
Stellar evolution - incoming solar energy
Meteor impact rate - could result in
climate change
Presence of large, natural satellite -
prevents large swings in obliquity
Oceans - regulate global temperatures
55
Why the earth?
The Earth is the only (as far as we know)
habitable planet in our solar system?
Two main properties:
Abundant liquid water
Stable environmental conditions that
maintain liquid water
56
Liquid Water
Influenced by temperature and
atmospheric pressure
Used as a simple requirement for
identifying habitable planets
57
Liquid Water
Where do planets in
this temperature
STAR
range orbit?
Called the “Habitable
Zone”
58
How does stars affect the
Habitable Zone?
Different sized stars have
different luminosities (energy)
Brighter stars have Habitable
Zones farther out
Stars have different
luminosities throughout their
lifetimes
Continuous Habitable Zone:
maintains conditions suitable
for life throughout the
lifetime of a star
Carbon sinks:
Calcium carbonate
formation
Photosynthesis
60
Characteristics that make a
habitable planet
Size of planet
Internal heat (comet impact & radiation)
Sustain liquid water (geothermal or tidal)
Stable luminous stars necessary
Sufficiently long lifetime for life to evolve
Large enough so planets are not tidally lock
Galactic habitability
Area of high metals
Outer region of galaxy (low star density and
radiation)
61
Characteristics that make a
habitable planet
Galactic habitability
Area of high metals
Outer region of galaxy
low star density
Low radiation
62
Are there any exceptions to
the habitable zone?
Yes, if there are sources of energy other
than a star to keep a planet (or moon) warm.
Possible energy sources:
63
Life the Solar System?
64
Life on Mars?
Early Mars: Current Mars:
Evidence of significant Not evidence of life
amounts of flowing liquid. Erosion may be due to
Warmer temperatures: underground liquid water
Heat from interior Carbon cycle not as active as
would have been higher on Earth
Warm climate from
greenhouse gases or
CO2 clouds
65
Life on Mars?
Percival Lowell (1855-1916) thought he saw canals on Mars.
Nevertheless, we have good evidence the liquid water once
flowed on the Martian surface.
Today it contains subsurface ice which could be heated to form
areas of liquid water underground.
70
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Mars curiosity laboratory equipment
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Mars curiosity sample analysers
APXS: CHEMIN: SAM:
Identifies Identifies Minerals, Identifies Organics,
Chemical Elements including those the Chemical
in Rocks formed in water Building Blocks of Life
• All will determine what the rocks and soils are made of.
• That data will tell scientists about whether Mars had the right
72
chemistry for possibly supporting microbial life.
Martian meteorites
73
Martian meteorites
One meteorite which landed in Antarctica
13,000 years ago and found in 1984 was clearly
of Martian origin.
Inside the meteorite were complex organic
materials and structures which looked like
nanobacteria , very small bacteria which have
been discovered on Earth.
These structures can also be made by
chemical and geological means.
Contamination from being on the Earth may
also explain the presence of organic materials.
74
Extraterrestrial life in a martian
meteorite
75
1
1) Bacteria-like morphologies
3) Magnetite grains
76
Life on Mars ? – the Allan Hills Meteorite
Magnetotactic bacteria from the
Allan Hills meteorite?
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Magnetite
Modern Magnetotactic bacteria
77
Magnetotactic bacteria
Discovered in 1963 by Salvatore Bellini
79
Enrichment of methane in meteorite samples
Life on Europa?
81
Europa
Liquid water oceans
present on Jupiter’s
moon Europa
Water in liquid form
under ice cores
Perfect environment
for life
82
Life on other moons
83
Life in Outer Space?
84
Life around other stars
Beyond the Solar System
Where in the Galaxy might we find life?
Since technology might allow us to obtain
surface pictures or spectra, we restrict
ourselves to considering extrasolar planets
with habitable surfaces.
So far all detected extrasolar planets (except
maybe one or two) are gaseous giants and are
unlikely to have surface life.
However, they may be surrounded by moons
which may support life. 85
How to find a habitable planet?
Two missions focused on identifying Earth-like
planets.
Kepler will look for transits of planets across
other stars.
Space Interferometer Mission (SIM) able to
detect Earth sized planets.
A decade or so from now, the Terrestrial
Planet Finder (TPF) will be able to image
extrasolar planets.
Infrared spectra from future telescopes can look
for signatures of life
86
Exoplanets
Detection methods:
Spectroscopic methods
Planetary transit method->transit photometry
technique
Gravitational effects of planets -> radial
velocity method
87
Exoplanets
Easy to detect
Gas giants
Planets near the mother star
88
More than 3,000 planets
discovered by Kepler
89
http://phl.upr.edu/press-releases
Atmospheres of exoplanets
90
Atmospheres of exoplanets
• Very few rocky planets
measured, but several hot
gas giants
• Interesting trends:
Many planets have
thick clouds
Water detected in
planets without clouds
Water most common
than previously
anticipated
91
Detecting life in exoplanets
• Search for biomarkers
(oxygen, ozone, methane and
water)
92
Finding life in meteorites from outer-space
Carbon isotope composition of individual amino acids in the Murchison meteorite (1990) Nature 348, 47 – 49
Enrichment of the amino acid L-isovaline by aqueous alteration on CI and CM meteorite parent bodies. (2009)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 April 7; 106(14): 5487–5492.
93
Other missions to find evidence of life in
meteorites
Rosetta and Philae (2004-2014) by ESA
To detect organic compounds in Comet 67P/Churyumov-
Gerasimenko
Detection methods: COSAC and PTOLEMY instruments
http://www.open.ac.uk/science/research/rosetta/mission/philae-lander
94
Summary
95
More information on this topic:
Exploring Life’s Origins:
Visit: http://exploringorigins.org/index.html
http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/
96
Think about possible ways to
address this questions:
97
Could life be present in a frozen
planet?
Genetic prospecting in Lake Vostok
http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/antarcticas-hidden-lake-vostok-found-teem-life-f6C10561955
Life in a cryogenic environment
Lake Vida, November 2012
Extreme environment of Lake Vida
(Antartica)