Life Beyond Earth

life arose quickly on earth

almost as soon as requirements for life emerged life arose

because:
a. life arose quickly

b. life depends on just a few basic molecules

c. atoms that make up these molecules are common to all stars

d. planets are relatively common

e. same laws of physics prevail

must be life elsewhere in universe

Requirements for Life

1. need liquid water

solvent for reactions
suitable temperature for organic molecules
absorbs dangerous radiation

2. atmosphere must have CHON

in the form of methane, water vapor, sulfur oxides, ammonia, etc
no free oxygen
highly toxic

eg. such atmospheres are found on moons of

Jupiter and Saturn

3. experiments have already shown that complex organic molecules can form
under these conditions

organic molecules have also been found in interstellar dust and meteorites

there exists a narrow zone around a star in which a planet would have
these conditions

Life, Biodiversity, History: Life Beyond Earth, Ziser, 2003 1

 Life in Our Solar System

Moon & Mercury

lack protective atmosphere and magnetic fields
subject to extreme radiation, solar wind, meteorites and cosmic rays
subject to extreme temperatures
may be some water ice

in general organic molecules could not survive in such hostile

environments

Venus
more similar to earth in size and density than any other planet
thick fast moving clouds surround planet, large amounts of CO2
(96% of atm) with traces of N2 and water
originally thought venus had tropical climate, lots of water and life
later studies and probes showed
surface temp ~900º F (hot enough to melt lead)
runaway greenhouse effect
sulfuric acid forms in clouds

Pluto and most moons

too cold
no liquid water

Jovian Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)

all far from sun
atmospheres similar to earth’s primitive atm:
methane, ammonia, hydrogen gas, water vapor
cloud tops well below freezing point of water
but warmer deeper in

may be liquid water somewhere in lower atmosphere
main problem would be being able to maintain position in atmosphere

Jupiter
complex cloud chemistry may include organic compounds
radiates twice as much energy as it receives (failed star)

Europa (Jupiter)
may have liquid water oceans under thick ice layer

Titan (saturn)
largest of saturn’s moons
only moon in solar system with a well developed atmosphere

mostly methane atmosphere
also NH3 and N2
may be liquid methane on surface

Life, Biodiversity, History: Life Beyond Earth, Ziser, 2003 2

 may also be other organic molecules on surface: ethane, propane

Comets
have organic molecules
solid water ice

Mars
seems very earthlike:
clouds, seasons, polar caps, thin atmosphere, dust storms
Lowell
thought he saw canals and seasonal changes in vegetation
surface temperature varies from –198º F to 81º F
wide range of geologic features:
huge volcanoes
deep canyons
dune fields
lots of evidence of liquid water at some time:
some chanels carved by water
apparent ocean basins
outflow channels

there once was a huge quantity of water
enough to cover surface 10-1000’s meters
today its all locked in permafrost

1976 Viking Missions

experiments assumed life would be carbon based

took three experiments:

1. Labeled Release
2. Gas Exchange
3. Pyrolytic Release

1. Labeled Release
based on the fact that most life on earth
breaks down organic molecules for energy and makes CO2 as a
waste product
collected soil sample
added nutrient “soup” with C14
assumed if life were present it would produce
labeled CO2 as a waste product

2. Gas Exchange
every form of life produces some form of
waste gasses when it does metabolism
if not CO2 then methane, hydrogen sulfide,
oxygen, etc
collected soil
added organic nutrients
Life, Biodiversity, History: Life Beyond Earth, Ziser, 2003 3
 looked for the generation of any new gas that
wasn’t there at the start

3. Pyrolytic Release
searched for autrotroph activity;
eg photosynthesis or similar process
collected soil
sealed soil in chamber
added simulated martian atmosphere with
C14 labeled CO2
subjected to artificial light for 5 days
looked for C14 in any organic molecules that
were formed

Results:
very positive results in all 3 experiments:
1. large qty of C14 was released
rxn rose to high levels immediately then stopped
didn’t start again until more soup was added
tried heating soil to 320 ºF then mixed with soup
got positive, but less activity
life: should have shown steady increase
conclusion: probably a chemical process
eg. something with peroxide fizzed
2. small amt of nutrients, CO2 and O2,
were released immediately and rapidly then cease
abruptly
martian soil released CO2; not sure about O2
later more nutrients were added and no gasses were
released over 7 months
14
3. some C was detected

But:

Viking TV found nothing; no hint of life

(“unless martians are shaped like rocks and sit very
quietly”)
Mass Spectrometer analyzed soil

no organic molecules present down to PPB

August 1976
team of NASA scientists published evidence of life from Martian meteorite
found in anarctica:

its age showed it was formed at a time when Mars was warmer and
wetter
found aromatic hydrocarbons assoc with carbonate deposits

could be produced by life
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 found layered structures similar to earth structures formed by
bacteria
found magnetite grains

size and shape similar to ones produced by earth bacteria
found certain mineral grains in assoc with each other that
do not occur under any non-biological conditions
found 100nm structures that resemble nannobacteria

each observation individually is not noteworthy

all occurring together is possible evidence for life

Current Mission
more evidence for existence of ancient shallow seas
may have been conducive to primitive life

Possible Alternative Life Forms

our search for life is limited by its characteristics on earth

we need a definition of life independent of its “local” characteristics

What is Life…really?:

1. a flow of free energy

eg. light, chemical, em radiation, streams of charged particles,
nuclear energy

2. a system of matter capable of using that energy to become ordered

eg. need not necessarily depend on chemical reactions

3. enough time to build up complexity

OR:

life is the activity of the biosphere (Gaia)

a biosphere is a highly ordered system of matter and energy characterized by

complex cycles that maintain or gradually increase the order of the system
through an exchange of energy with its environment

in our own biosphere the strategy of life was to replicate and subdivide the
biosphere into organisms and species

we should look for biospheres

not specific individual living things

eg. earth-Sagan

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 presence of O2 in atmosphere would be one indication of life

Must life be Carbon Based?

Silicon
Si can form 4 bonds
has a rich chemistry
can form short chains, rings, sheets, etc
but these bonds are much weaker

only ~half the strength
they break easily in water

probably couldn’t form large complex molecules based on silicon
C is the only element that can form “backbone” for large complex organic
molecules

Does Life need Liquid Water?

just need a solvent

1. NH4
common molecule in space
is liquid at much colder temperatures; -50ºC
would be very slow chemical reactions

life would evolve much more slowly

2. Hydrocarbons
can be liquid at wide range of temperatures
lots of energy from reduction reactions
instead of oxidation reactions

Alternative Chemistries within our Solar System:

other solvents and polymers

1. earth
interior magma

2. Mars
carbon and water

3. Jupiter
many possibilities

4. Europa
water based

5. Io, Venus
liquid sulfur

6. Titan
ammonia or hydrocarbon based

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Alternative Physics of Life:

anywhere energy can be organized

1. plasma life within stars

interacts with magnetic fields

2. life in solid hydrogen

IR energy can be absorbed and stored

3. radiant life
in clouds of interstellar atoms and molecules

4. life in neutron starts

Chances of Life in Universe?

what are the chances of finding life in the universe?

how likely is life

what factors would it depend on
Frank Drake, Cornell, 1950’s
attempted to compile the most important factors into a probability equation
= Drake Equation

RxPxExLxIxCxT=N

where a letter = number of:

R = stars created/galaxy/yr
Rate of Star Formation:
> 100 B stars known today that are
~ 10B yrs old = 1-10 stars/yr

P = fraction of stars with planets

(all=1, 10%=.1)
Indications are that pretty much all stars have
planets

E = earthlike planets or moons/star

habitable planets:
temp is main factor
eg. earth, venus, mars
= 3/8 (38%) in our solar system

perhaps 10% of a stars planets might have

such conditions

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 L = planets that life actually developed
of billions and billions of basic organic molecules
that could occur on earth from random combinations
only ~1500 actually do occur
all these are made from ~ 50 simple building
blocks

molecules critical to life may not be assembled

by pure chance
if 0 = life arose randomly and rarely
1= life is inevitable given proper
ingredients

I = fraction of life forms that are

intelligent
evolution refines useful characteristics
given enough time
intelligence is inevitable

C = fraction of intelligent life that develops

a technological society
if intelligence is present
technology is inevitable

T = time in years that tech society

survives
ours has only existed ~ 100 yrs

N = advanced civilizations in our galaxy

Factor optimistic conservative any

estimate estimate life
R 10 10
P 1 1
E 5 5
L 1 .1 1
I .1 omit
C 1 .2 omit
T 5000 100 3 Billion

N 25,000 1 15 Billion

But:
(# of galaxies in universe: range 10-125 Billion, most say 100 Billion)

even if N=1/galaxy still 15 Billion worlds could be expected to have

technological civilizations

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How Far Away are They

can also estimate distance to other worlds

eg. if 1 million planets with intelligent life are in the milky way galaxy
then based on its diameter each is ~ 150 light years apart

would take 300 years to communicate if they have technology
if 3000 yrs apart, civilizations could die before any 2-way communication
could occur

another possibility:

if N = 100,000 advanced civilizations in our galaxy

(eg. if civilization lasted ~ 25000 years)
only a few million years would be needed to colonize the whole galaxy
therefore our solar system should have been colonized long ago

or surely at least 1 would have explored or colonized earth
why don’t we have ANY evidence of past visitations?

therefore, N must be a very small #

Intelligent Life in Universe

assumptions of the Drake Equation show that even intelligent life could be very
common on other worlds

if so, why haven’t we encountered them by now?

A. Physical Factors
1. enormous distances
greatest speed attained on earth
= few 1000 km/hr

at 10% speed of light (~1 Bil km/hr) a 1 way trip to Sirius

(one of nearest stars) would still take 88 years

but:
suspended animation
et lifespans could be much greater
new means of travel
multigenerational voyages

2. magnitude of energy required

assuming reasonable efficiency at 10% spd of light a ship must start
its voyage with ~ 9x’s its own wt in fuel

but:
refueling from auxillary craft
scoop up H atoms
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 increase engine efficiencies

3. Hazards
cosmic rays
meteor collisions
biological effects of prolonged weightlessness
unpredictable dangers

B. Sociological Factors
1. more advanced civilizations are not interested in space travel

but would have to be true for all ET civilizations

unlikely

2. advanced civilizations destroy themselves

3. it’s a “preserve” not to be tampered with

C. Temporal Explanations

1. non have yet had time to reach us

eg. 100 nearest stars to earth are all within 20 light years

at rate of 10% SOL most of our galaxy could be explored within

650,000 yrs (assuming no time between voyages)

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