Curriculum Development

(Foundation of Curriculum )
By
Dr Rehmat Shah
FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Philosophical, Social and Psychological
Detailed Information
Philosophical Foundations of
Curriculum
Introduction
Curriculum as contents or the subject matter
Curriculum as a programme of planned activities
Curriculum as intended learning outcomes
Curriculum as a cultural reproduction
Curriculum as experience
Curriculum as discrete tasks and concepts
Curriculum as an agenda for social reconstruction
Curriculum as currere
Principle of Curriculum Construction
 Aims of education and objectivity
 Child-centric principle
 Principles of civic and social needs
 Principle of conservation
 Principles of creativeness
 Principle of forward-looking
 Principle of preparation for living
 Principle of integration and correlation
 Principle of learning ability
 Principle of individual difference
 Principle of social relevancy and utility
 Principle for utilization of leisure
 Principle of variety and flexibility
 Principle of time
 PHILOSOPHICAL
FOUNDATIONS
Philosophy helps to answer general questions such as:
 ‘What are schools for?’
 ‘What subjects are of value?’,
 ‘How should students learn the content?’
It also helps us to answer more precise tasks such as
deciding:
 what textbooks to use,
 how to use them,
 what homework to assign and how much of it,
 how to test and use the results.
 Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the
aims, selection, organisation and implementation of
the curriculum in the classroom.
Philosophical is as powerful forces on the curriculum
at all levels.
Curriculum inception
Curriculum design
Curriculum implementation
Curriculum evaluation
Curriculum reform
 Four major philosophical positions that have, hitherto,
influenced curriculum development:
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Existentialism
 Educational Philosophies:
Perennialism
Progressivism
Essentialism
Re-constructionism
PERENNIALISM
It advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of
time and values that have moral and spiritual bases.
The underlying idea is that education is constant, absolute and
universal.
Obviously, "perennialism" in education is born of "idealism" in
general philosophy. 
The curriculum of the perennialist is subject-centered.
It draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organised bodies
of content, but it emphasizes teaching-learning of languages,
literature, sciences and arts.
The teacher is viewed as an authority in a particular discipline and
teaching is considered an art of imparting information/knowledge
and stimulating discussion.
Judgement required to determine what should be
studied, and also that their interests demand little
attention as far as curriculum development is
concerned.
There is usually only one common curriculum for all
students with little room for academic curriculum and
vocational curriculum is to deny the latter genuine
equality of educational opportunity.
 Such views appeal to those educators who stress
intellectual meritocracy. Their emphasis is on testing
students, enforcing tougher academic
standards/programmes, and on identifying and
encouraging talented students. 
PROGRESSIVISM
This emerged as a protest against perennialist thinking in
education.
It was considered a contemporary reformist movement in
educational, social and political affairs during the 1920's and 30's.
According to progressivist thought, the skills and tools of learning
include problem solving methods and scientific inquiry.
In addition, learning experiences should include cooperative
behaviour and self- discipline, both of which are important for
democratic living.
The curriculum, thus, was interdisciplinary in nature and the
teacher was seen as a guide for students in their problem-solving
and scientific projects. 
Although the progressive movement in education
encompassed many different theories and practices, it was
united in its opposition to the following traditional attributes
and practices:
 the authoritarian teacher;
 excessive dependence on textbook methods;
 memorization of factual data and learning by excessive
drilling;
 static aims and materials that reject the notion of a changing
world; and
 attempts to isolate education from individual experiences and
social reality. 
 Essentialism

This philosophy, rooted partly in idealism and partly in realism,

evolved mainly as a critique of progressive thought in education.
Essentialism do not totally reject progressive methods as they do
believe that education should prepare the learner to adjust to a
changing society.
Mastering the subject matter that reflects currently available
knowledge in various disciplines.
Teachers play a highly directive role by disseminating
information to students.
According to this viewpoint, the main arms of the institution (be
it a school or a college) get sidetracked, when, at the expense of
cognitive needs, it attempts to pay greater attention to the social
and psychological problems of students.
The most notable achievements of the essentialists
have been the widespread implementation of
competency based programmes, the establishment of
grade-level achievement standards, and the
movement to reemphasize academic subjects in
schools/colleges.
In many ways, the ideas of essentialism lie behind
attacks on the quality of education by the media and by
local pressure groups. 
Distance Education
 Reconstructionism

It views education as a means of reconstructing society.

The reconstructionists believe that as school/college is
attended by virtually all youth, it must be used as a means to
shape the attitudes and values of each generation.
As a result, when the youth become adults they will share
certain common values, and thus the society will have
reshaped itself. 
As for the curriculum, it must promote new social, economic
and political education.
The subject matter is to be used as a vehicle for studying
social problems which must serve as the focus of the
curriculum.
The reconstructionist programme of education:
 critical examination of the cultural heritage of a
society as well as the entire civilization;
 scrutiny of controversial issues;
 commitment to bring about social and constructive
change;
 cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude that
considers the realities of the world we live in; and
 enhancement of cultural renewal and internationalism. 
Reconstruction expands the field of curriculum to include
intuitive, personal, mystical, linguistic, political and social systems
of theorizing.
In general, the curriculum advocated by reconstructionists
emphasizes the social sciences-history, political science,
economics, sociology, psychology and philosophy-and not the
pure sciences.
The thrust is on developing individual self-realization and freedom
through cognitive and intellectual activities, and thus, on liberating
people from the restrictions, limitations and controls of society.
The idea is that we have had enough of discipline-based education
and narrow specialization, and that we don't need more specialists
now, we need more "good" people if we want to survive. 
Social Foundations of
Curriculum
SOCIOLOGY…………

- Latin “Socius” - “social or being with others”

- and the Greek “logos” - “study”

 Therefore, the term “Sociology” basically means the

“study of social beings”.

 It studies:
• human behavior in groups 
• social structure and social phenomena
• different forms of human interrelations
 CULTURE…
….
Culture  is, in the words of E.B. Tylor, "that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
(Tylor 1871:1)
The Social/Sociological Foundation

- Issues from society including groups and institutions in

the culture and their contribution to education

- refers to issues from society that have an influence on

curriculum.

There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in

curriculum making. These include:

• Changes occurring in societal structures;

• Transmission of culture;
• social problems as issues for Curriculum and
• Economics issues.
Education and Society

Schools exist within, not apart from,

social context

Schools emerges within society

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 SOCIOLOGICAL BASIS
 AIMS OF EDUCATION

 Development of social feelings and qualities

 Development of a socially efficient individual
 Improvement of vocational efficiency
 Use of leisure time and development of healthy recreational pursuits
 Transmission of social heritage
 Diffusion of more and more knowledge
 Development of constructive and creative outlook of the individual
 Education for social service, social efficiency, emotional integration,
national unity and patriotism
 CURRICULUM

 Based on conditions, problems and needs of society

 An agent for transmission of basic values of culture

 Prepare the child for global/world society

 Flexible and changeable for the effective realization of

socially determined objectives

 Lead to the development of genuine ‘we feeling’ i.e. of

a group having a spirit of social interaction

 METHODS OF TEACHING

Enable child to acquire skills and knowledge needed

Develop a capacity for social adjustment

Develop problem solving and constructive thinking

Socialized techniques; project and group methods

 ROLE OF THE TEACHER

 Destiny of the nation is shaped in classrooms by the

teachers

 Be exposed to the concept of freedom, dignity of the

individual, rights and duties so as to transmit the same to the

younger generation

 Expected to possess right attitude of social behavior

 THE SCHOOL

Reflect and epitomize the larger society outside its

walls

 Balance, purify and simplify the activities of the

society
 in its environment
DISCIPLINE

Should come through participation in group activities

and social service activities
Example…….

Curriculum: Curriculum: Curriculum:

- Basic skills - Factory model -Project Model
- Apprenticeship - Compartments --ICT based
- Didactic - Didactic teaching &
teaching teaching learning
-- Life Skills, Soft
Skills etc

Agrarian Industrial Information

Society Society Society
Sociology and Curriculum

Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society.

Society influences society through its curriculum.

Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and

mould society and society in turn can impact the curriculum.

There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting

society.

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society

and curriculum because the school exists within the societal
context.

Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people,

there are other units of society that educate or influence the way
Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are
difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to
address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the
world as well.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more

innovative and interdisciplinary.

A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the

explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational
reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations.

However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a

curriculum that reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations for
national identity.

No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility to

ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.
CONCLUSION
Education takes place in society

Education is essentially a social process

Social environment educates the child education has a social role to

play

Education is a lifelong process

Education is not only schooling

Education is formal, non-formal and informal

Education must be social in nature and develop democratic skills and

Psychological Foundations of
Curriculum
 “No two
persons are
exactly alike.”
PSYCHOLOGY
The scientific study of mental
functions and behavior including:
Perception
Cognition
Behavior
Emotion
Intelligence
Creativity
Personality
Interpersonal relationships
PSYCHOLOGY and CURRICULUM
Basis of understanding – John Dewey
Modes of thinking – Jerome Bruner
“Unifying elements of the learning
process. It forms the basis for the
methods, materials, and activity of
learning… serves… for many curriculum
decision
How we think and how we learn
MAJOR THEORIES OF
LEARNING
BEHAVIOURISM
COGNITIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVISM
HUMANISM
BEHAVIOURISM
AND
CURRICULUM
BEHAVIORISM
Focuses on stimulus
response and reinforces;
Studies conditioning,
modifying, or shaping
behavior through
reinforcement and rewards
KEY PLAYERS
THORNDIKE – Connectionism
PAVLOV (AND WATSON) – Classical
Conditioning
SKINNER – Operant Conditioning
BANDURA – Observable Learning
and Modeling
GAGNÉ – Hierarchical Learning
EDWARD THORDNIKE
Father of modern educational
psychology & founder of behavioral
psychology
 CONNECTIONISM
Laws of Learning
Law of Readiness
Law of Exercise
Law of Effect
EDWARD THORDNIKE
Thorndike’s Influence
Thorndike and other followers
believed that rote memorization does
not necessarily strengthen connections
Thorndike broke the traditional
thinking about hierarchy of subject
matter
IVAN

PAVLOV
Pavlov was the first to demonstrate
Classical Conditioning.
He is best known for his experiment with
salivating dogs.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s experiment with salivating dogs
best demonstrated the principle of
Classical Conditioning.
JAMES

WATSON
Watson took Pavlov’s findings to another
level.
Emphasized that learning was
observable or measurable, not cognitive.
Believed the key to learning was in
conditioning a child from an early age
based on Pavlov’s methods.
Nurture vs. Nature
BURRHUS FREDERIC
SKINNER
One of the most influential American
psychologists
He began his research with rats at
Harvard and pigeons during WWII.
Respondent vs. Operant behavior
Operant Conditioning
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Types of reinforces
Operant behavior will “extinguish” without
reinforcement
By selecting which behavior to reinforce, we
can direct the learning process in the
classroom
Learners can acquire new operants
“Education is what survives when what has
been learned has been forgotten”
ALBERT BANDURA
Contributed to the
understanding of learning
through observation and
modeling
ROBERT GAGNÉ
Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning notes the
transition from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology
Mental operations needed for each outcome
differ
Gagne’s Instructional Events lead into
cognitive Psychology
Five Learning Outcomes (observable and
measurable)
The Hierarchy of Learning
FIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES
ATTITUDES
MOTOR SKILLS
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
INFORMATION
INTELLECTUAL SKILLS
BEHAVIOURISM AND
CURRICULUM
Curriculum should be organized so students
experience success in master the subject
matter.
Behaviorists are very prescriptive and
diagnostic in their approach.
Rely on step-by-step structured methods for
learning.
Behaviourism in curriculum includes careful
analyzing and sequencing of the learners’
needs and behaviours.
 COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
AND
CURRICULUM
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
Focus on how individuals
process information
Emphasis on memory
(storage, retrieval, types)
Learner is the key player
DEVELOPERS
MONTESSORI- Sensory
Stimulation
PIAGET- Cognitive
Development Stage
VYGOTSKY- Zone of Proximal
Development
MARIA MONTESSORI
Authors do not place her with
progressive child- centered
approaches-lack of “free play” vs.
freedom within structure
Opposed behaviorist focus on only
“doing” but focused also on looking
and listening
Focus on how sensory stimulation
from the environment shapes
thinking
JEAN PIAGET
Swiss psychologist (Pestalozzi)
America noticed in the 50’s and 60’s
Text reminds us that his theories are not
fact, and should be taken as “suggestive”
Like Gagne , stages described as
hierarchal
Schema theory
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stage
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE Forma
DEVELOPMENT
l
STAGE
opera
tions
begins
@ 11-
15

Concrete abstra
operations
ct
(ages 7 to 11)
thinker
begins to think abstractly,
needs physical, concrete
examples

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)

Needs concrete interactions (no abstract)
use of symbols (pictures, words) to communicate

Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old)

learning by movement and sensory exploration
LEV VYGOTSKY
Russian psychologist
The West published in 1962
theory of socio-cultural
development
Culture requires skilled tool use
(language, art, counting systems)
The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)
The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as
ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a
concept introduced, yet not fully developed, by Soviet
psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during the last ten
years of his life.
 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND
CURRICULUM
Cognitive approach constitutes a logical
method for organizing and interpreting
learning
Rooted in the tradition of subject matter
Educators been trained in cognitive approaches
Schools are the place for cognitive learning.
Students should not afraid to ask, not afraid of
being wrong, not afraid of not please teacher,
and not afraid of taking risk and playing with
ideas.
THANK YOU