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PROBLEM CENTERED CURRICULUM (PCC) FOR A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

Conference Paper · November 2017

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PROBLEM CENTERED CURRICULUM
(PCC) FOR A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan1, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam2

1
Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA N. Sembilan,
Seremban Campus
[email protected]
2
Open University Malaysia N.Sembilan, Seremban Centre
[email protected]

Abstract. Curriculum design refers to the configuration of a curriculum plan

and most curriculum designs are modifications of three basic designs which
are subject centered, learner centered and problem centered (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2013). This paper aims to shed some light on the effectiveness of
problem centered curriculum that suits the demands of a knowledge society,
with emphasis on 21st century competencies. In a knowledge society,
knowledge is the primary production resource instead of capital and labour
for the improvement of the human condition (Butcher, 2011). This paper will
also discuss learner centered design’s compatibility with the nature and de-
mands of the 21st century knowledge society, as well as make comparisons
with other curriculum designs. PCC meets all the five demands of a
knowledge society through the use problem solving approach which meets the
demands for higher order thinking skills; the use of authentic and multidisci-
plinary learning which meets the demands for technical and practical
knowledge; the use of group work which meets the demands for collaborative
skills; the development of autonomous and meta-cognitively aware individu-
als through the process of problem-solving which meets the demands for life-
long learning skills; and the use of open-ended problems and ICT which
meets the demands for innovative skills. This proves PCC to be the most suit-
able curriculum design for the knowledge society.
2 Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam

Keywords: problem centered curriculum 1, knowledge society 2

1 Introduction

Curriculum design refers to the configuration of a curriculum plan. This

paper attempts to decide on the most suitable curriculum design for the knowledge
society by analysing different components of the configuration and how they
match the knowledge society’ demands. In order to reach that point of decision,
this essay first looks into the demands of a knowledge society with emphasis on
21st century competencies. Next, an overview of the three basic curriculum de-
signs: the subject centered design, the learner centered design and the problem
centered design will be provided, followed by a discussion on the most suitable
curriculum design. The rationale of the selection will be explained based on its
compatibility with the nature and demands of the 21st century knowledge society,
as well as based on comparisons with other curriculum designs.

According to Butcher (2011), the knowledge society is a society where

knowledge is the primary production resource instead of capital and labour for the
improvement of the human condition. It aims to generate, share and make
available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to transform
information into resources that allow society to take effective action. The first
pillar of the knowledge society is education (Butcher, 2011) through which
knowledge workers can be produced to develop the knowledge economy.
Knowledge workers are workers who possess the skills and competencies to
manage and use information for the development of knowledge economy. Hence it
is these skills and competencies that the knowledge society demands for education
to produce in individuals: higher order thinking skills, technical and practical
knowledge, collaborative skills, lifelong learning skills and innovative skills.

The knowledge society also emphasises 21st century competencies like

cognitive competencies (academic mastery, critical and creative thinking, and
meta-cognition), interpersonal competencies (communication skills, collabora-
tion, leadership and global awareness), and intrapersonal competencies
(perseverance, self-confidence and self-regulation) (The Ontario Public Service,
2016) to be developed in individuals. Therefore, a curriculum design for the
knowledge society is one which develops individuals with the aforementioned
skills, knowledge and competencies to fulfil the demands and goals of the
knowledge society.

2 Overview of Curriculum Designs

2.1 Subject centered design

Problem Centred Curriculum (PCC) in a Knowledge Society 3

According to Morrison-Saunders & Hobson (2013), the subject centered

curriculum design is a curriculum design “characterised by the subject as a vivid
and vocal focal point, such that learning takes place through encounter and
engagement with the subject.” In other words, knowledge and content are treated
as integral parts of learning. Under this curriculum, learning is seen as the acquisi-
tion of knowledge to feed and cultivate the intellect of students as the focus is
placed on students’ cognitive development. This curriculum design comes under
the theoretical influence of Perennialism which treats each subject as a specialized
and largely autonomous body of verified knowledge.
One of the key characteristics of the subject centered curriculum (SCC) is
that it places the teacher as the scholar in the classroom. Since teachers are the
trained experts of subject matter, only they are considered capable of disseminat-
ing knowledge in its purest form. Students, on the other hand, are the passive
receivers of knowledge whose right in content selection is deemphasised.
Secondly, the use of structure to organise the body of knowledge is practised
through unifying concepts, rules, and principles to define and limit a subject. This
is done to eliminate areas of a subject that is considered irrelevant or unimportant
for intellectual cultivation. Thirdly, academic rigor is emphasised for students’
subject mastery and academic excellence. Rigorous learning and testing methods
are used to educate each person to the limits of his or her potential.
The advantage of the SCC is that it caters strongly for intellectual devel-
opment. Knowledge is the basis for any learning, hence knowledge acquisition
definitely contributes to the development of intelligent and resourceful individu-
als. Besides that, the SCC also provides teachers with a logical way to organise
and interpret learning. This does not only serve as a guideline for teachers to
conduct coherent and cohesive lessons, but also to make it easier for students to
remember what is learnt through the inductive or deductive content organisation
implemented. On the other hand, the disadvantage of the SCC is that learning
becomes fragmented as facts and concepts are learnt in isolation. The emphasis on
teaching knowledge and recalling facts eliminates students’ opportunity to engage
in authentic learning experiences. Secondly, the emphasis of teacher input and
de-emphasis of student input causes the SCC to dictate students’ ways of thinking
about a subject. This further leads to limit students’ natural inquiry within the
established boundaries.

2.2 Learner centered design

According to Lim (2014), the learner centered curriculum design is a

curriculum design characterised by the learner as the focal point, such that
learner needs and characteristics take precedence over knowledge of facts and
skill. This emphasis is due to the belief that learning is driven by learners’ intrinsic
motivation, whereby the intrinsically motivated will be independently driven to
satisfy their natural inquiry and curiosity. Under this curriculum, learning is seen
as the process of attaining full personal development. This curriculum design
comes under the theoretical influence of Progressivism which stresses the need to
make learning more relevant to student needs, abilities, experiences and interests.
4 Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam

One of the key characteristics of the learner centered curriculum (LCC) is

that it promotes the status of students as autonomous learners. Students are given
personal choices in trying to access knowledge and work on their own to discover
basic principles of knowledge in order to develop self-directed learners. Secondly,
students’ learning needs and styles are catered for in the learning process. For
example, the choice of subject matter is related to students’ interests, background
and real-life situations. Varied learning activities are also used for differentiated
instruction to cater for different students. Thirdly, active participation of learners
is emphasised in learning. Students are pushed to think critically and actively
construct knowledge to be applied in an authentic situation. Some of the learning
methods used are like open discussions, project method and peer-to-peer tutoring.
The advantage of the LCC is that it reduces psychosocial factors that
hinder learning. A learning process which promotes positive learning contexts
through establishing mutual respect and considering learning readiness increases
the likelihood of success. Secondly, the LCC is democratic in nature as it enables
learners with different learning styles to engage in learning through the diversified
education and differentiated learning provided. This serves as a move towards
equity in education as no one is denied of learning experiences due to individual
differences. On the other hand, the disadvantage of the LCC is that there is no
clear line of how much structure and independence to give to students. As a result,
field-dependent learners may struggle with insufficient structure to their learning
and ill-equipped teachers may get away with insufficient instruction. Moreover,
the LCC may be time-consuming as it is difficult to cater for individual student
needs in a large classroom within the time allocation of a regular class. Students
come from various backgrounds and have various needs, making individual atten-
tion an almost elusive task.

2.3 Problem centered design

According to Savery (2006), the problem centered curriculum design is a

curriculum design which “empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory
and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a
defined problem.” Learners are seen as engaged and self-directed problem solvers
while teachers are placed as facilitators. Under this curriculum, learning is seen as
an active, integrated, and constructive process influenced by social and contextual
factors. Learners are placed in social settings with their learning organised around
issues of genuine life problems. This curriculum design is essentially under the
learner-centered approach and comes under the theoretical influence of
Progressivism whereby students learn best by doing real-life activities in present
community and when working with others.
One of the key characteristics of the problem centered curriculum (PCC)
is that it uses ill-structured problems to allow free inquiry. Students are presented
with a problem that requires more information for understanding than is initially
available. The problem is complex, open-ended and intriguing enough to lead
students towards inquiry and higher order thinking skills. Secondly, collaboration
is essential in the PCC where each student is given the responsibility to seek
Problem Centred Curriculum (PCC) in a Knowledge Society 5

relevant information and inform the group to develop a viable solution. Through
collaboration, students get to develop new ideas, raise questions and consolidate
each others’ understanding by interacting. Thirdly, the PCC uses contents that are
authentic and multidisciplinary. Learners are presented with problems which relate
to their environment while also requiring the application of information integrated
from diverse fields. This indirectly brings the need for ICT into the equation as
information from diverse disciplines, fields and sources can only be efficiently
accessed through the Internet.
The advantage of the PCC is that it develops higher order thinking skills
in students. This is because a whole range of thinking skills is involved in finding,
evaluating, and using appropriate learning resources in order to analyze and solve
complex problems. Furthermore, the PCC equips learners with the skills necessary
to be part of the real-world workforce. Skills related to effective communication,
cooperation and collaboration are essential in all workplaces. On the other hand,
the disadvantage of the PCC is that it is difficult to construct truly authentic
problems. The simulation of real-life contexts for learning often requires well-
developed resources that are both expensive and time-consuming. In addition, it
would be a challenging task for teachers to monitor each student’s work processes
and outputs within their collaborative groups. This brings in the need for multiple
assessment methods like self-evaluation, peer assessment and portfolio
assessments which can be tedious.

3 A Curriculum Design for the Knowledge Society

Based on the overview of the three curriculum designs, PCC is most suited for the
knowledge society as it develops individuals with the skills, knowledge and
competencies to fulfil the demands and goals of the knowledge society. The PCC
develops individuals with higher order thinking skills, technical and practical
knowledge, collaborative skills, lifelong learning skills and innovative skills.

3.1 PCC develops higher order thinking skills

According to UNESCO (2005), knowledge societies are not limited to

information societies in that “information is a commodity but knowledge is of
right to any reasonable mind.” Hence, the demand of a knowledge society is for
individuals capable of practising the cognitive skills needed to interact with and
use knowledge purposefully. This is where the role of PCC comes in. As stated
earlier, the PCC puts forth ill-structured problems which are complex and open-
ended, leading students towards higher order thinking skills. In seeking to identify
the root problem and the conditions needed for a good solution, students are
required to master the available information with critical judgement and think to
analyse, sort and incorporate them for a purpose. This process of learning
develops higher order thinking skills like analysing, evaluating and creating which
are the creative and critical thinking skills in demand in a knowledge society.
6 Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam

The knowledge society requires for higher order thinking skills because
the knowledge society is one that is flexible and able to cope with the changing
global trends. One has to be skilled in higher order thinking in order to become
problem solvers who are better equipped to deal with change. The PCC is useful
for this purpose as learning is organised around different issues of concern and
students regularly practise higher order thinking in the problem-solving approach
to analyse the issues. Students who are trained to think critically and creatively
will grow into problem-solvers with practical mindsets and sound judgement.
They will hence be valuable assets in the 21st century for flexible managers of
global change. Secondly, knowledge society requires for higher order thinking
skills because the knowledge society is one exposed to information bombardment.
Members have to be able to “move easily through the flow of information and
distinguish between ‘useful’ and ‘useless’ information” (UNESCO, 2005) in order
to foster useful knowledge sharing for the knowledge society. The PCC is useful
for this purpose as learners are required to find, analyse, evaluate, and use
appropriate learning resources to solve the given problems in their learning.
Students who are trained to come across information from various sources, to
analyse and to evaluate the information as relevant and valid will grow into
individuals who are more than capable of fostering knowledge sharing.

The SCC is in no way meeting this demand of the knowledge society as it

stresses on the acquisition and recall of knowledge. Since the teacher is the subject
expert, the information is already analysed and structured for the students.
Students’ insights are dictated and opportunity for inquiry is limited, leaving no
opportunities for them to develop higher order thinking skills. As for the LCC, it
does provide opportunities for students to develop higher order thinking skills by
promoting active inquiry of students in their learning. However, the primary
concern of LCC is to deal with learner needs and characteristics which take
precedence over learning itself (Brown, 2003). This puts PCC at an advantage in
comparison to LCC as PCC puts the development of higher order thinking skills
as a primary concern; LCC puts it as a secondary concern with learners’ psycho-
social needs as the primary concern.

3.2 PCC develops technical and practical knowledge

According to Butcher (2011), education in the knowledge society is “not

limited to formal education in traditional structures, but also encompasses the
broader societal learning necessary for development.” This means that a
knowledge society emphasises not only technical knowledge but also practical
knowledge. Technical knowledge involves concept-based information while
practical knowledge involves context-based information. The PCC develops both
in students through the use of authentic and multi-dimensional learning.

For example, for teaching basic operations like addition and subtraction
in Mathematics, students are given a problem where they have a list of things to
buy but with insufficient money to buy all of it. Students will analyse the problem
Problem Centred Curriculum (PCC) in a Knowledge Society 7

by considering the list of things to buy and evaluate each item as ‘needs’ and
‘wants’. Students will then come up with a budget to optimise the use of money
for their expenditure. Students can also be required to make the purchase, either a
real one or a simulated one, of items which they deem necessary. Finally, students
present their budget plan to the class and explain the analysis and judgement
behind the plan.

The learning experience in this example involves the Mathematical

concepts of addition and subtraction which are attempted repeatedly as students
decide on a suitable total expenditure through trial and error. This works to
develop technical knowledge. With that, by allowing learners to display their
understanding of an authentic problem and their solution in contextually-
meaningful ways, students will be more equipped to transfer the skills learnt to
solve real problems which they will encounter in the future. Authentic learning in
PCC enables students to learn through experience and genuine insights which are
primary sources of practical knowledge. It also involves knowledge about the
value of money, the importance of saving, wise expenditure and how to make a
purchase all of which do not come under the discipline of Mathematics. This
congruence to the real world where one must recall and apply information
integrated from diverse sources for work is a classic example of how PCC uses
multi-dimensional learning to develop both the technical and practical knowledge
of students.

The SCC does not meet this demand because it only focuses on technical
knowledge. Acquisition of subject matter is deemed of utmost importance and is
learnt in isolation. When learning is fragmented like that, no room is given for the
development of practical knowledge; students only learn the ‘what’, ‘where’ and
‘when’ but hardly the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of it. As for the LCC, it does emphasise
learning through doing but the lack of a problem-solving element puts it at a
disadvantage in comparison to PCC. This is because “learning in the real world is
a product of problem-solving which comes through processes of carefully defining
and analyzing problems that exist in the organization for which one works”
(Knowlton, 2003). Mere doing is insufficient to develop effective practical
knowledge. On top of that, LCC focuses on students’ personal development much
more than the subject matter. This underrepresentation does not do much for the
development of students’ technical knowledge.

3.3 PCC promotes collaboration

According to UNESCO (2005), a knowledge society should be able to

“integrate all its members and promote new forms of solidarity.” There are two
purposes for this need of integration. Firstly, it is because a knowledge society
encompasses a much broader social and ethical dimension to take sufficient
account of cultural and linguistic diversity for people to feel at home in a changing
world. Secondly, it is because a knowledge society fosters knowledge sharing to
8 Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam

work towards connecting the forms of knowledge that societies already possess;
thus nobody should be excluded from the public good which is knowledge.

PCC meets the knowledge society’s demand for socio-cultural integration

by promoting collaboration through group work. As mentioned earlier, group
work is a crucial part of PCC to hold students accountable for their contribution in
a group and to form productive learning communities. This does two things to
meet the two purposes of the knowledge society’s demand concerning integration.
Firstly, the PCC develops students’ interpersonal domain through group work like
enhancing students’ communication skills, soft skills, empathy and acceptance
towards socio-cultural diversity. As students share information and discuss viable
solutions, they have to communicate effectively, learn to listen to their members’
opinion, tolerate and respect differences and manage disagreements. Hence,
individuals who are more equipped to embrace and work alongside a multicultural
society are produced for the benefit of the knowledge society. Secondly, PCC
requires for students to assume the responsibility of collecting relevant
information, sharing collected information with one another, and synthesising the
information through discussion to come up with a feasible solution. As it is, this
whole process is already a replica of the knowledge-sharing culture in the
knowledge society. As students practise working together for a common purpose,
they will do the same in their future workplace for the knowledge society.

The SCC does not cater much for collaboration or emphasise any concern
for integration among students. No consideration for student interests and needs
are provided, let alone a collaboration of student input. With the emphasis placed
on students’ engagement with the subject, there is inadequate concern for interper-
sonal development and is hence unsuitable for the knowledge society in this
context. The LCC however does emphasise on group work for dynamic interaction
among students in carrying out their given assignments (Lim, 2014). In this as-
pect, the LCC is on par with the PCC in meeting the knowledge society’s
demand for integration.

3.4 PCC produces lifelong learners

According to UNESCO (2005), a knowledge society regards lifelong

learning as a requirement to keep up with constantly changing global job markets
and technologies. The ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of
knowledge is considered a requirement because it develops individuals’ capacities
of integrating new experiences and adapting to new situations. Preparation for life-
long learning involves the learning of general skills and competencies as well as
skills needed to learn other subjects. This is where PCC is useful as it develops
learners who are self-directed and meta-cognitively aware.

The PCC develops students into self-directed learners by giving students

responsibilities over their own learning (Knowlton, 2003). This is because
students engage with the problem with whatever their current knowledge and
Problem Centred Curriculum (PCC) in a Knowledge Society 9

experience affords. If they feel that more knowledge is required to solve the
problem, it is their own realisation which drives them to seek relevant resources
for more information since responsibility for the solution and the problem-solving
process rests with the learner. As students’ ownership over learning increases,
they become independent and autonomous learners capable of gaining knowledge
through personal and intellectual skills developed through PCC. When students
grow into adults, there will no longer be teachers to guide their learning or deliver
knowledge to them. Even then as working adults and eventually retiring adults,
they will be able to continually learn to improve and sustain their skills,
knowledge and attitudes across the lifespan. This is extremely relevant to the
demand of the knowledge society for lifelong learners.

In addition, the PCC develops students who are meta-cognitively aware.

Through PCC, students are required to be conscious of what information they al-
ready know about the problem, what information they need to know to solve the
problem, and strategies to use for solving the problem. On top of that, students are
also given the opportunity to gain insights into their own approach to solving
problems. This is because students will be led to assess the strengths of
previously used approach as they come across more and more problems. If the
previously used strategy did not help to successfully solve the problem, they
would recall that and attempt changes for the next problem and future ones. This
meta-cognition plays a strong role in lifelong learners because it develops aware-
ness and understanding of their own thought processes, enabling them to direct
and improve their learning. Thus, this also meets the demand of the knowledge
society for lifelong learners.

The SCC has an authoritarian approach towards student learning as

delivery of knowledge is controlled and learning is dictated by the teacher. This
leaves no room for students to develop learning competencies for themselves.
With all that spoon-feeding, students will not learn how to learn, will not become
independent learners, and will not be driven to become lifelong learners. As for
the LCC, it does encourage students to learn independently and become autono-
mous learners; it does not support delivering of knowledge to the students but
develops students’ capacity and capability to learn (Lim, 2014). In this aspect, the
LCC is on par with the PCC in meeting the knowledge society’s demand for life-
long learners.

3.5 PCC leads learners towards innovation

According to Butcher (2011), innovation is the third pillar of knowledge

society as it is a means of support for development and economic functioning.
Innovation is described as “a process of creation, evolution, and application of
knowledge to produce new goods and services.” Innovative skills are a demand of
the knowledge society because the adapting, adopting, and using of knowledge to
produce improved products and services are essential for both technological
10 Evelyn Sharminnie Vasuthavan, Sharleena Jaelyn S Kunaratnam

advancement and meeting the needs of the knowledge society.

The PCC meets this demand because the problem-solving approach leads
learners towards innovation. As mentioned earlier, ill-structured problems are
used to trigger students’ curiosity and thinking processes. These ill-structured
problems are designed in such a way that they have multiple solution paths. With
no one-way solutions, students are trained to think outside the box, giving much
room for their own creativity. The multiple solution paths also reduce rigid struc-
tures which confine their problem-solving process. Through much practice in
adapting, adopting and using knowledge to be integrated for a new purpose, stu-
dents’ creative thinking and innovative skills are developed.

Furthermore, the PCC also develops ICT competencies among students.

It is undeniable that use of the Internet and electronic devices is important to col-
lect information from diverse disciplines, fields and sources for productive prob-
lem-solving. Hence, PCC allows students the exposure, practice and skills to use
ICT to access information. ICT competency is a critical tool in preparing and edu-
cating students with the required skills for the global workplace. With such expo-
sure to educate students to adapt to a work world of continuous technological in-
novations, PCC indirectly uses ICT to develop students who can use the progress
of knowledge and technological innovation to produce more knowledge and inno-
vations in the long term.

The SCC in no way encourages learners towards innovation as student

input is deemphasised. They are expected to be passive recipients of knowledge
delivered by subject experts. SCC only encourages submissiveness which does not
lead students toward any initiative for novelty, let alone innovation. The LCC does
encourage natural inquiry and active participation in students which can lead them
towards innovation. However, in comparison to LCC, PCC has a bigger
advantage. This is because LCC places a general emphasis on higher order
thinking skills which involves creating. On the other hand, the use of ill-structured
problems and imperative use of ICT places a direct emphasis on innovative skills.
Hence, PCC is a more suitable choice to meet this demand of the knowledge
society.

4 Conclusion
The knowledge society demands for higher order thinking skills,
technical and practical knowledge, collaborative skills, lifelong learning skills and
innovative skills to be developed in individuals through education curriculums.

Based on the comparison of the three curriculum designs, it is obvious

that the SCC is far from meeting those demands. Its emphasis on subject matter
allows for the development of students’ technical knowledge but its de-emphasis
on student input does not allow for the development of students’ higher order
thinking skills, practical knowledge, lifelong learning skills and innovative skill.
Problem Centred Curriculum (PCC) in a Knowledge Society 11

As for LCC, it fully meets two of the demands which are lifelong learning skills
and collaborative skills by encouraging autonomous learning and using group
work. However, since learner needs and characteristics take precedence over
knowledge of facts and skill, the emphasis on learning per se is compromised.
This means the demand for higher order thinking skills and technical knowledge is
not fully met. The demand for innovative skills is also partially met because only a
general emphasis is placed on higher order thinking skills which involves creating.

On the contrary, PCC meets all five of the demands. The use of ill-
structured problems and the problem-solving approach meets the demand for
higher order thinking skills; the use of authentic and multidisciplinary learning
meets the demand for technical and practical knowledge; the use of group work
meets the demand for collaborative skills; the development of autonomous and
meta-cognitively aware individuals through the process of problem-solving meets
the demand for lifelong learning skills; the use of open-ended problems and ICT
meets the demand for innovative skills. This proves PCC to be the most suitable
curriculum design for the knowledge society with emphasis on the 21st century
competencies.

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