Cell cycle & Cell division

Cell cycle
• The process by which new cells are formed from the pre-
existing cells, is called cell division.
(Omnis cellula e cellula- derived from cell theory)
• Newly formed cell then undergoes growth.
• All these processes, i.e. cell growth, DNA replication, cell
division occur in an orderly cyclic manner constitute cell cycle.
 Basic features of cell cycle
1. Coordinated event.
2. Under genetic control. (If control is lost can
cause cancer)
3. Events depend upon types of cell.
Phases of cell cycle
• The cell cycle consists of two
basic phases
– Interphase
– M-phase or mitotic phase
• In humans, cells approximately
divides once in every 24 hours,
in which interphase takes 23
hours and M-phase takes place
in 1-2 hours.
• Duration of each phase of
interphase: G1= 8 to 10hrs. S
phase= 6 to 8hrs and G2= 4 to
6hrs.
Interphase
• It represents the phase between two successive M phases.
• Non-dividing phase of the cell.
• Also called the resting phase.
• Metabolically most active stage
in the cell cycle, when the cell
prepares for the division.

• Consists of three phases:

i. G1-Growth phase or Gap-1 phase
ii. S -Synthesis phase
iii.G2-Growth phase or Gap-2 phase
M- phase (mitotic phase)

• It represents the phase when the actual cell division or

mitosis occurs.
• It starts with nuclear division, leading to the separation of
daughter chromosome and ends with division of cytoplasm.
• Karyokinesis- Division of the cell nucleus during M phase.
• Cytokinesis- Division of cytoplasm during M phase.
G1-Growth phase or Gap-1 phase:
• It is the phase between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
• This is the most variable phase: If nutrients are not in sufficient
amount then this phase takes more time and vice versa.
• In G1, the cell grows, and proteins necessary for cell division are
synthesized.
• Cell growth depends on the external (food) and internal (genetic)
factors. G1 phase depends upon these factors while rests
depend on the genetic factor/internal factor.
• It means here, transcription and translation occur. Also, DNA
damage repair takes place.
• The G1 cells are metabolically active and continuously grow but
don’t replicate its DNA.
S phase or Synthesis phase:

• It is the period during which DNA synthesis or replication takes place.

• During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles. If the initial amount
of DNA is 2C then it increases to 4C.
• Duplication of chromosome takes place.
• After the S phase, each chromosome is composed of two chromatids.
• However the chromosome no. doesn’t change during this phase, i.e. if the
cell has diploid or 2n no.of chromosomes at G1, even after S phase the no.
of chromosomes remains the same, i.e. 2n.
• Histone proteins also get doubled in its amount.
• In animal cells: Centrosome gets doubled in the cytoplasm.
Question
Q. An onion root tip cell has 16 chromosomes. How many
chromosomes will the cell have at G1 phase, after S phase, and
after M phase? Also, what will be the DNA content of the cells at G1
, after S and at G2 , if the content after M phase is 2C?

Ans: The number of chromosomes the cell will have after G1 phase is

16, after S phase is also 16  and after M  phase the number of
chromosome will be 32 (i.e. 16 in both daughter cell).

As mentioned above during s phase DNA content doubles

so,at G1 PHASE THE DNA content will be 2C ,after S phase the DNA
content will be 4C   and at G2 phase the DNA content will be 4C.
G0 phase/ quiescent stage:

• Non-replicating cells are found in a stage of the cell cycle

called G0.
• These cells may enter into quiescent (dormant) stage or
senescent (aging or deteriorating) or get differentiated. Such
cells generally enter the G0 phase from G1. 
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer
divide unless called on to do so.
• E.g. heart cells
G2 phase/Gap-2 phase:
• During this phase, more RNA and proteins are synthesised in
preparation for mitosis.
• Synthesis of tubulin protein for the spindle apparatus occurs
in this phase.
• Organelles doubled here like mitochondria.
• ATP accumulation happens.
• Proteins are synthesized as cell growth continue.
M phase/ Mitotic phase:

• This phase represents the phase when the actual cell division/
mitosis occurs.
• Actually it is the phase when the replicated DNA is distributed
to the daughter cell in a complicated series of events.
Mitosis

• Mitosis is a process of cell division, during which one cell gives

rise to two genetically identical daughter cells.
• 2 diploid cells are produced at the end of the division.
• The term mitosis was introduced by Walther Flemming in
1882.
• The parent cell and daughter cells have same number of
chromosomes.
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny
cells is the same, it is also called as equational division.
 Meiosis
• It is specialized form of cell division in which after division the
number of chromosomes of the daughter cells is reduced to half of
the parent chromosome.
• 4 haploid cells are produced at the end of the division.
• The term meiosis was coined by Farmer & Moore.
• As the no. of chromosomes reduces to half, it also known as
reductional division.
• Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of
sexually reproducing organisms whereas fertilisation restores the
diploid phase.
• This leads to the formation of haploid gametes.
 Mitosis

Meiosis
Gametes

• Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells. They are also

refered to as sex cells.
• Female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and
male gametes are called sperm cells.
•  Gametes are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy
of each chromosome.
Centrosome

• A centrosome is a cellular structure involved in the process

of cell division.
• Microtubules assemble into a spindle between the
two centrosomes and help separate the replicated
chromosomes into the daughter cells.
• Centrosome consists of two centriole.
• Centrosomes  are
found in animal cells,
but do not exist within
 plant cells.
 Stages of mitosis

• Mitosis has been divided into four stages of nuclear division.

• They are:
i. Prophase
ii. Metaphase
iii. Anaphase
iv. Telophase
i. Prophase:
• It is the 1st stage of mitosis.
• Initiation of condensation of
chromosomal material.
• Chromosomes are seen to be
composed of two chromatids attached
together at the centromere.
• Centrosome, which has undergone
duplication during S phase of
interphase, now begins to move
towards opposite poles of the cell.
• The mitotic spindle, an organized array
of microtubules that move the
chromosomes in mitosis, forms.
• Nuclear membrane and other
organelles starts disappearing.
 Spindle fibres
ii. Metaphase
• Complete disintegration of the nuclear
envelope.
• Condensation of chromosomes is
completed and they can be observed
clearly under the microscope.
• At this stage, morphology of
chromosomes can be easily studied.
• Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to equator
and get aligned along metaphase plate
through spindle fibres to both poles.
• The plane of alignment of the Metaphase
chromosomes at metaphase is referred plate
to as the metaphase plate.
iii. Anaphase
• Centromeres split.
• Each chromosome arranged at
the metaphase plate is split
simultaneously.
• Sister chromatids move to
opposite poles.

Separation of sister
chromatids
iv. Telophase
• Chromosomes cluster at
opposite spindle poles and
their identity is lost as
discrete elements.
• Nuclear envelope develops
around the chromosome
clusters at each pole
forming two daughter
nuclei.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex
and ER reform.
 Cytokinesis:
• It is the division of cell into two
daughter cells by the separation of
cytoplasm.
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by
the appearance of a furrow in the
plasma membrane.
Cytokinesis in animal cell
• The furrow gradually deepens and
ultimately joins in the centre dividing
the cell cytoplasm into two.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts in
the centre of the cell and grows
outward to meet the existing lateral
walls.
• The formation of the new cell wall
begins with the formation of a simple Cell plate
precursor, called the cell-plate.
Cytokinesis in plant cell
Summary of mitosis
 Significance of Mitosis
• Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the
diploid cells only.
• The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
• Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for
the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
• Mitosis contributes in cell repair.
• The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining
of the gut, and blood cells are being constantly replaced.
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical and
the lateral cambium, result in a continuous growth of plants
throughout their life.
 Stages of meiosis
• Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell
division called meiosis- I and meiosis- II but only a single cycle
of DNA replication.
• Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and
recombination between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
• Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
 Meiosis-I
• It has 4 different stages:
i. Prophase –I
ii. Metaphase- I
iii. Anaphase – I
iv. Telophase – I
• Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer and
more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
• It has been further subdivided into the following five phases
based on chromosomal behaviour, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Prophase –I

i. Leptotene:
• In this stage the chromosomes become gradually visible
under the light microscope.
• The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout
leptotene.
ii. Zygotene:
• Chromosomes start pairing together and this process of
association is called synapsis. (The tight pairing of the
homologous chromosomes is called synapsis.)
• Synapsis is accompanied by the formation of complex
structure called synaptonemal complex.
• The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous
chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
Prophase –I

iii. Pachytene:
• During this stage, the four chromatids of bivalent
chromosomes becomes distinct and clearly appears as
tetrads.
• Appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at which
crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between
two homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on
the two chromosomes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTVhlixb7D8
Prophase –I

iv. Diplotene:
• It begins with the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex.
• Recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalents
separate from each other except at the sites of crossovers.
• These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata.
(Chiasmata is the X-shaped structure formed due to the point
of contact between paired chromatids during meiosis.)
Prophase –I

v. Diakinesis:
• This is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed and the meiotic spindle is
assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes for
separation.
• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks
down.
• Metaphase- I:
• The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
• Microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to
the kinetochore of homologous chromosomes.
• Anaphase- I:
• The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister
chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
• Telophase I:
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis
follows and this is called as dyad of cells.

• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called

interkinesis and is generally short lived.
Stages of meiosis-I
Meiosis-II
• Prophase II:
• In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis.
• The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II.
• chromosomes again become compact.
• Metaphase II:
• Chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules from
opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the Kinetochores
of sister chromatids.
• Anaphase II:
• Simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome
(which was holding the sister chromatids together), allowing
them to move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Meiosis-II
• Telophase II:
• Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two groups of
chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
• Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells
i.e., four haploid daughter cells.
Stages of meiosis II
Summary of Meiosis
 Significance of meiosis
• Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific
chromosome number of each species is achieved across
generations in sexually reproducing organisms.
• It also increases the genetic variability in the population of
organisms from one generation to the next.
• Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
 Difference between mitosis & meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis

Mitosis consists of a single nuclear Meiosis consists of two divisions.

division and is usually accompanied by a
single cell division.
Chromosome no. of daughter cells Chromosome no. of daughter cells
remains same as of the parent cell. reduces to half of parent cell.
Aslo known as equational division. Also known as reductional division.

mitosis produces genetically meiosis produces genetically

identical cells variable cells
 Difference between Metaphase &
Metaphase-I
Metaphase Metaphase-I
Parental chromosomes are align on The bivalent chromosomes align on
equator equator
Chromosomes contain two chromatids The chromosomes contain four
chromatids
Centromere splits Centromere do not splits
Daughter chromosomes are formed The separation of homologous
chromosomes occur