Q . In metaphase how many : 1. Chromatids are presents : 1. 92 2. 23 3. 46 4.

23 pairs
 Mitosis ( Somatic Cell Division)
Cell Cycle – 1. Interphase ( resting phase X) – G1, S , G2
2. M Phase ( Mitosis Phase) – karyokinesis ( PMAT) & Cytokinesis
Cell Cycle
Q.1. Mitocyte- 20 chromosomes, ---- no. of
chromosomes in Anaphase- ?  40
Q./A.2. Best material to study mitosis- Onion Root tips
and Best material to study Meiosis is Young Anthers.
Centripetal (periphery to center) Centrifugal ( center to periphery)
Q.1 In meiocyte DNA content in G2 phase =40 pg . What would be the
DNA content in 1. G1 phase-20pg
2. in products of Meiosis I- 20pg
3. in products of Meiosis II- 10pg
Q.2. ovum = 20 pg DNA -- Meiocyte in G2 phase- ?  80pg
Q. 3. An Organism has 20 pairs of chromosomes, How many
chromosomes in products of
1. Meiosis I --20
2. Meiosis II- --20
Mitosis ( Somatic Cell Division)
• NCERT Home work :
• Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms.
• During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth also
take place. All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication,
and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way
to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells
containing intact genomes.
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesises the other constituents of the cell and eventually
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
• Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a
continuous process, DNA synthesis occurs only during one
specific stage in the cell cycle.
• The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to
daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell
division. These events are themselves under genetic control.
• NCERT Home work :
• -----------------is a very important process in all living organisms.
During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth
also take place. All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA
replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a
coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of
progeny cells containing intact genomes.
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesises the other constituents of the cell and eventually
divides into two daughter cells is termed ----------------.
• Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a
--------------------process, DNA synthesis occurs only during one
specific stage in the cell cycle.
• The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to
daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell
division. These events are themselves under -------------- control.
• NCERT Home work :
• A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture.
• These cells divide once in approximately every 24 hours .
• However, this duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism and also
from cell type to cell type.
• Yeast for example, can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
• The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: 1. Interphase ( most active stage)
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase): Most dramatic phase: The M Phase represents the
phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs and the interphase
represents the phase between two successive M phases.
• It is significant to note that in the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of a
human cell, cell division proper lasts for only about an hour.
• The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. The M Phase
starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter
chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of cytoplasm
(cytokinesis).
• The interphase, though called the resting phase, is the time during which the cell
is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an
orderly manner. The interphase is divided into three further phases: G1 , S , G2
• NCERT Home work :
• A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture. These cells
divide once in approximately every ------------ hours .
• However, this duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism and also
from cell type to cell type. --------------- for example, can progress through the
cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
• The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: 1 Interphase 2.
-----------------------------Phase (Mitosis phase) The M Phase represents the phase
when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs and the ------------------ represents
the phase between two successive M phases.
• It is significant to note that in the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of a
human cell, cell division proper lasts for only about ------------ hour.
• The interphase lasts more than -----------------% of the duration of cell cycle. The
M Phase starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of
daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of
cytoplasm (------------------------).
• The interphase, though called the --------------------phase, is the time during
which the cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA
replication in an orderly manner. The interphase is divided into three further
phases: G1 , ----------------- , G2
• NCERT Home work :
• G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
• During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not replicate its
DNA. The length of G1 is variable.
• S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or replication takes place.
• During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles. If the initial amount of DNA is denoted as 2C
then it increases to 4C.
• However, there is no increase in the chromosome number; if the cell had diploid or 2n number of
chromosomes at G1, even after S phase the number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n.
• In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the centriole
duplicates in the cytoplasm.
• During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
continues. Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart cells,
Nerve cells) and many other cells divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have
been lost because of injury or cell death.
• These cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called quiescent
stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do so
depending on the requirement of the organism.
• In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. Against this, the plants can
show mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid cells.
• From your recollection of examples of alternation of generations in plants (Chapter 3) identify
plant species and stages at which mitosis is seen in haploid cells.- mitogametes
• NCERT Home work :
• G1 phase corresponds to the interval between ------------------ and initiation of DNA replication.
• During ------------- phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not
replicate its DNA.
• ------------------ phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or replication takes place.
• During this time the amount of DNA per cell ------------------. If the initial amount of DNA is
denoted as 2C then it increases to ----------------.
• However, there is no increase in the chromosome -------------------; if the cell had diploid or 2n
number of chromosomes at G1, even after S phase the number of chromosomes remains
---------------------------, i.e., 2n.
• In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA replication begins in the -------------, and the centriole
duplicates in the --------------------.
• During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
continues. Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g.,-------------------
cells) and many other cells divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have been
lost because of injury or cell death.
• These cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called
------------------- stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer --------------------- unless called on to
do so depending on the requirement of the organism.
• In animals, ---------------------- cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. Against this,
the plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid cells.
• NCERT Home work :
• M PHASE: Actual Cell division : This is the most
dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major
reorganisation of virtually all components of the cell.
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and
progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational
division.
• Though for convenience mitosis has been divided into
four stages of nuclear division, it is very essential to
understand that cell division is a progressive process
and very clear-cut lines cannot be drawn between
various stages.
• Mitosis is divided into the following four stages:
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
• NCERT Home work :
• ------------------This is the most dramatic period of the
cell cycle, involving a major reorganisation of virtually
all components of the cell.
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and
progeny cells is ---------------, it is also called as
equational division.
• Though for convenience mitosis has been divided into
four stages of nuclear division, it is very essential to
understand that cell division is a -------------------process
and very clear-cut lines cannot be drawn between
various stages.
• Mitosis is divided into the following four stages: 1.
Prophase 2. --------------- 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
• NCERT Home Work :
• Prophase : which is the first stage of mitosis follows the S and G2
phases of interphase.
• In the S and G2 phases the new DNA molecules formed are not
distinct but interwined.
• Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of
chromosomal material.
• The chromosomal material becomes untangled during the process of
chromatin condensation .
• The centriole, which had undergone duplication during S phase of
interphase, now begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
• The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following
characteristic events: 1. Chromosomal material condenses to form
compact mitotic chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen to be
composed of two chromatids attached together at the centromere.
2. Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the
proteinaceous components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.
• NCERT Home Work :
• ---------------- which is the first stage of mitosis follows the S and G2
phases of interphase.
• In the S and -------------- phases the new DNA molecules formed are not
distinct but interwined.
• Prophase is marked by the initiation of ----------------- of chromosomal
material.
• The chromosomal material becomes ---------------------- during the
process of chromatin condensation .
• The ------------------------, which had undergone duplication during S
phase of interphase, now begins to move towards opposite poles of the
cell.
• The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following
characteristic events: 1. Chromosomal material condenses to form
compact mitotic chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen to be composed
of ---------------- chromatids attached together at the centromere. 2.
Initiation of the assembly of mitotic ----------------, the microtubules, the
proteinaceous components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.
• NCERT Home Work:
• Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the microscope, do not show golgi
complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
• Metaphase: The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of the
second phase of mitosis, hence the chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the
cell.
• By this stage, condensation of chromosomes is completed and they can be observed clearly
under the microscope. This then, is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes is most
easily studied. At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids,
which are held together by the centromere .
• Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres are called
kinetochores. These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres (formed by
the spindle fibres) to the chromosomes that are moved into position at the centre of the cell.
• Hence, the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator
with one chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from
one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from the
opposite pole .
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the metaphase
plate. The key features of metaphase are: Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase plate through
spindle fibres to both poles.
• NCERT Home Work:
• Cells at the end of -----------------------, when viewed under the microscope, do not show
golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
• -------------------------- : The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the
start of the second phase of mitosis, hence the chromosomes are spread through the
cytoplasm of the cell. By this stage, condensation of chromosomes is --------------------and
they can be observed clearly under the microscope. This then, is the stage at which
morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied. At this stage, metaphase
chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together by the
centromere .
• Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres are called -------------------.
These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres (formed by the
spindle fibres) to the chromosomes that are moved into position at the centre of the
cell.
• Hence, the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the
---------------------with one chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore
to spindle fibres from one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to
spindle fibres from the opposite pole .
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the
-----------------------------. The key features of metaphase are: z Spindle fibres attach to
kinetochores of chromosomes. z Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get
aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.
• NCERT Home work :
• Anaphase: At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at
the metaphase plate is split simultaneously and the two daughter
chromatids, now referred to as chromosomes of the future daughter
nuclei, begin their migration towards the two opposite poles.
• As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the
centromere of each chromosome is towards the pole and hence at
the leading edge, with the arms of the chromosome trailing behind .
Thus, anaphase stage is characterised by the following key events:
• 1. Centromeres split and chromatids separate.2. Chromatids move
to opposite poles. 3. To see the shape of chromosome , anaphase is
the best.
• Telophase : At the beginning of the final stage of mitosis, i.e.,
telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their respective
poles decondense and lose their individuality. The individual
chromosomes can no longer be seen and chromatin material tends
to collect in a mass in the two poles.
• NCERT Home work :
• Anaphase : At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged
at the metaphase plate is---------------simultaneously and the two
daughter chromatids, now referred to as chromosomes of the
future daughter nuclei, begin their migration towards the two
opposite poles.
• As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the
-------------------of each chromosome is towards the pole and hence
at the leading edge, with the arms of the chromosome trailing
behind . Thus, anaphase stage is characterised by the following key
events: 1. Centromeres split and ----------------- separate.2.
Chromatids move to opposite poles.
• Telophase: At the beginning of the ----------------- stage of mitosis,
i.e., telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their
respective poles -------------------- and lose their individuality. The
individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and chromatin
material tends to collect in a mass in the two poles.
• NCERT Home work:
• This is the stage which shows the following key events: 1. Chromosomes cluster at
opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete elements. 2. Nuclear envelope
assembles around the chromosome clusters. 3. Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
• Cytokinesis: Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated chromosomes
into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by
a separate process called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division is complete .
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing the cell cytoplasm
into two.
• Plant cells however, are enclosed by a relatively inextensible cell wall, thererfore they
undergo cytokinesis by a different mechanism. In plant cells, wall formation starts in the
centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls.
• The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple precursor, called
the cell-plate that represents the middle lamella between the walls of two adjacent cells.
• At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria and plastids get
distributed between the two daughter cells.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of
which multinucleate condition arises leading to the formation of
syncytium (e.g., liquid endosperm in coconut).
• NCERT Home work:
• This is the stage which shows the following key events: 1. Chromosomes cluster at
opposite spindle poles and their identity is ------------------- as discrete elements. 2. Nuclear
envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters. 3. ---------------------, golgi complex
and ER reform.
• Cytokinesis : Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated chromosomes
into daughter nuclei (---------------------), but the cell itself is divided into two daughter cells
by a separate process called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division is complete .
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a ---------------------- in the plasma
membrane. The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing the
cell cytoplasm into two.
• Plant cells however, are enclosed by a relatively inextensible cell wall, thererfore they
undergo cytokinesis by a different mechanism. In plant cells, wall formation starts in the
--------------------of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls.
• The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple precursor, called
the cell-plate that represents the ------------------- between the walls of two adjacent cells.
• At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like --------------------------and plastids get
distributed between the two daughter cells.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
multinucleate condition arises leading to the formation of -----------------(e.g., liquid
endosperm in --------------).
• NCERT Home work:
• Significance of Mitosis :
• Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
• However, in some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divide
by mitosis. It is very essential to understand the significance of this division in the
life of an organism.
• Are you aware of some examples where you have studied about haploid and diploid
insects?
• Mitosis results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement usually. The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
• Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It
therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic
ratio.
• A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, and blood cells are being constantly
replaced.
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical and the lateral cambium,
result in a continuous growth of plants throughout their life.
• Number of mitotic divisions required for formation of n number of cells is n-1.
• Number of generations (n)of mitosis for producing x cells is x = 2n
• NCERT Home work:
• Significance of Mitosis :
• Mitosis or the ---------------- division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
• However, in some ----------------- plants and in some social insects haploid cells
also divide by mitosis. It is very essential to understand the significance of this
division in the life of an organism.
• Are you aware of some examples where you have studied about haploid and
diploid insects? Mitosis results in the production of ------------------ daughter
cells with identical genetic complement usually.
• The growth of multicellular organisms is due to -----------------.
• Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the
nucleo- ---------------- ratio.
• A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell ---------------------------.
• The cells of the ----------------layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut,
and blood cells are being constantly replaced.
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical and the
--------------------- cambium, result in a continuous growth of plants throughout
their life.
Q.1 Meiocyte ( 2n) = 60 PG DNA in G1 phase
What will be the DNA amount in –
1. G2 phase- 120 PG
2. in products of meiosis i – 60 PG
3. in products of Meiosis ii- 30 PG
Q.2 Meiocyte ( 2n) = 60 chromosomes in G1 phase
What will be the number of chromosomes in –
1. G2 phase- 60
2. in products of meiosis i – 30 ( actual Reduction)
3. in products of Meiosis ii- 30 ( equal to mitosis)
Question. Try yourself
• NCERT Home work :
• MEIOSIS: The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the
fusion of two gametes, each with a complete haploid set of chromosomes.
• Gametes are formed from specialised diploid cells. This specialised kind of
cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the
production of haploid daughter cells.
• This kind of division is called meiosis.
• Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms whereas fertilisation restores the diploid phase.
• We come across meiosis during gametogenesis in plants and animals. This
leads to the formation of haploid gametes.
• The key features of meiosis are as follows: z Meiosis involves two sequential
cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but only a
single cycle of DNA replication. 1. Meiosis I is initiated after the parental
chromosomes have replicated to produce identical sister chromatids at the S
phase. 2. Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and
recombination between them. 3. Four haploid cells are formed at the end
of meiosis II. Meiotic events can be grouped under the following phases:
• NCERT Home work :
• MEIOSIS: The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the
--------------------of two gametes, each with a complete haploid set of
chromosomes.
• Gametes are formed from specialised ---------------------cells. This specialised kind
of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the
production of haploid daughter cells. This kind of division is called
------------------.
• Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms whereas ---------------- restores the diploid phase.
• We come across meiosis during --------------------------- in plants and animals. This
leads to the formation of haploid gametes.
• The key features of meiosis are as follows: 1. Meiosis involves two sequential
cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but only a single
cycle of DNA------------------- 1. Meiosis I is initiated after the parental
chromosomes have replicated to produce identical sister chromatids at the
--------------------phase. 2. Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes
and ------------------------ between them. 3. ---------------------- haploid cells are
formed at the end of meiosis II. Meiotic events can be grouped under the
following phases:
• NCERT Home work :
• Meiosis I Prophase I: Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer
and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis. It has been
further subdivided into the following five phases based on chromosomal
behaviour, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
( LZPDD)
• Leptotene: During leptotene stage the chromosomes become gradually
visible under the light microscope.
• The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene. This is
followed by the second stage of prophase I called zygotene. Zygotene:
During this stage chromosomes start pairing together and this process of
association is called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes. Electron micrographs of this stage indicate that
chromosome synapsis is accompanied by the formation of complex
structure called synaptonemal complex. The complex formed by a pair of
synapsed homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
However, these are more clearly visible at the next stage.
• The first two stages of prophase I are relatively short-lived compared to the
next stage that is pachytene.
• NCERT Home work :
• Meiosis I Prophase I: Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically
--------------------- and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
• It has been further subdivided into the following five phases based on
chromosomal --------------------------, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
and Diakinesis.
• During leptotene stage the chromosomes become gradually visible under the light
microscope. The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
This is followed by the second stage of prophase I called -----------------------.
• During this ( ----------------------) stage chromosomes start pairing together and this
process of association is called --------------------. Such paired chromosomes are
called homologous chromosomes.
• Electron micrographs of this stage indicate that chromosome synapsis is
accompanied by the formation of complex structure called
---------------------------------
• The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called a
bivalent or a ----------------. However, these are more clearly visible at the next
stage.
• The first two stages of prophase I are relatively -------------------s-lived compared to
the next stage that is pachytene.
• NCERT Home work :
• Pachytene : During this stage bivalent chromosomes now
clearly appears as tetrads. This stage is characterised by the
appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at which
crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between
two homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is also an enzyme-mediated process and the
enzyme involved is called Recombinase.
• Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on
the two chromosomes.
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes is
completed by the end of pachytene, leaving the
chromosomes linked at the sites of crossing over.
• NCERT Home work :
• Diplotene: The beginning of diplotene is recognised by the dissolution of the
synaptonemal complex and the tendency of the recombined homologous chromosomes of
the bivalents to separate from each other except at the sites of crossovers. These X-shaped
structures, are called chiasmata.
• In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years. ( Dictyotene –
suspended diplotene)
• Q. In oocycte of some vertebrates, a particular subdivision of meiotic cell division also called
dictyotene stage which lasts for month or years. This particular sub-division is-
• (1) Diplotene (2) Anaphase (3) Leptotene (4) Telophase

• Diakinesis: The final stage of meiotic prophase I is diakinesis.

• This is marked by terminalization of chiasmata. During this phase the chromosomes are fully
condensed and the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes
for separation.
• By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks
down.
• Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase I.

• Metaphase I: The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate .

• The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of homologous
chromosomes.
• NCERT Home work :
• During this stage bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as tetrads. This stage is characterised by
the appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at which crossing over occurs between non-sister
chromatids of the ----------------------------- chromosomes.
• ------------------------------ is the exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is also an enzyme-mediated process and the enzyme involved is called -------------------.
• Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes. Recombination
between homologous chromosomes is completed by the end of ---------------------, leaving the
chromosomes linked at the sites of crossing over.
• The beginning of diplotene is recognised by the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and the
tendency of the recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other
except at the sites of crossovers. These X-shaped structures, are called-----------------------.
• In oocytes of some vertebrates, -------------------------------- can last for months or years.
• The final stage of meiotic prophase I is ---------------------.
• This is marked by -------------------of chiasmata. During this phase the chromosomes are fully condensed
and the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes for separation.
• By the end of -------------------------, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks
down.
• Diakinesis represents transition to ---------------------.
• Metaphase I: The ----------------------------chromosomes align on the equatorial plate .
• The --------------------------- from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of homologous
chromosomes.
• NCERT Home work :
• Anaphase I: The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain
associated at their centromeres .
• Telophase I: The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows and this
is called as diad of cells .
• Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo some dispersion, they do not
reach the extremely extended state of the interphase nucleus.
• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and is generally short
lived.
• Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.
• Meiosis II
• Prophase II: Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis, usually before the
chromosomes have fully elongated. In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a
normal mitosis. The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II
• The chromosomes again become compact.
• Metaphase II: At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules
from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
• Anaphase II: It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each
chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids together), allowing them to
move toward opposite poles of the cell .
• NCERT Home work :
• ------------------------: The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids
remain associated at their centromeres .
• -------------------: The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows
and this is called as diad of cells .
• Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo some ---------------------------,
they do not reach the extremely extended state of the interphase nucleus.
• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called ---------------------and is generally
short lived.
• -------------------is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.
• Meiosis II Prophase II: Meiosis II is initiated immediately after--------------------, usually
before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
• In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal -----------------------. The nuclear
membrane disappears by the end of prophase II .
• The chromosomes again become ---------------------------------.
• Metaphase II: At this stage the chromosomes align at the ------------------ and the
microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the kinetochores of
sister chromatids.
• Anaphase II: It begins with the simultaneous ------------------- of the centromere of each
chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids together), allowing them to
move toward opposite poles of the cell .
• NCERT Home work:
• Telophase II: Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two
groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear
envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad
of cells i.e., four haploid daughter cells
• SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS : Meiosis is the mechanism by which
conservation of specific chromosome number of each species is
achieved across generations in sexually reproducing organisms,
even though the process, per se, paradoxically, results in
reduction of chromosome number by half.
• It also increases the genetic variability in the population of
organisms from one generation to the next.
• Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
• Q . 2n =68 chromosomes, then how many bivalents ( tetrad) will
be formed in meiosis- I- -- 34
• Q.
• NCERT Home work:
• Telophase II: Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the
two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by
a ----------------------; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells i.e., -----------------------------
haploid daughter cells .
• SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS : Meiosis is the mechanism by
which conservation of specific chromosome number of
each species is achieved across generations in
---------------------- reproducing organisms, even though
the process, per se, paradoxically, results in reduction of
chromosome number by half. It also increases the
genetic variability in the population of organisms from
one generation to the next. Variations are very important
for the process of --------------------.
• NCERT Challenger Summary Paragraph :
• Fill in the Blank:
• According to the cell theory, cells arise from preexisting cells. The process by
which this occurs is called cell division.
• Any sexually reproducing organism starts its life cycle from a single-celled
zygote. Cell division does not stop with the formation of the mature organism
but continues throughout its life cycle.
• The stages through which a cell passes from one division to the next is called
the cell cycle.
• Cell cycle is divided into two phases called (i) Interphase – a period of
preparation for cell division, and
• (ii) Mitosis (M phase) – the actual period of cell division.
• Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S and G2.
• G1 phase is the period when the cell grows and carries out normal metabolism.
Most of the organelle duplication also occurs during this phase.
• S phase marks the phase of DNA replication and chromosome duplication.
• G2 phase is the period of cytoplasmic growth.
• Mitosis is also divided into four stages namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.
• Chromosome condensation occurs during prophase. Simultaneously,
the centrioles move to the opposite poles. The nuclear envelope and
the nucleolus disappear and the spindle fibres start appearing.
• Metaphase is marked by the alignment of chromosomes at the
equatorial plate.
• During anaphase the centromeres divide and the chromatids start
moving towards the two opposite poles.
• Once the chromatids reach the two poles, the chromosomal
elongation starts, nucleolus and the nuclear membrane reappear.
This stage is called the telophase.
• Nuclear division is then followed by the cytoplasmic division and is
called cytokinesis. Mitosis thus, is the equational division in which
the chromosome number of the parent is conserved in the daughter
cell.
• In contrast to mitosis, meiosis occurs in the diploid cells, which are
destined to form gametes. It is called the reduction division since it
reduces the chromosome number by half while making the gametes.
• In sexual reproduction when the two gametes fuse the
chromosome number is restored to the value in the parent. Meiosis
is divided into two phases – meiosis I and meiosis II. In the first
meiotic division the homologous chromosomes pair to form
bivalents, and undergo crossing over.
• Meiosis I has a long prophase, which is divided further into five
phases. These are leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and
diakinesis.
• During metaphase I the bivalents arrange on the equatorial plate.
• This is followed by anaphase I in which homologous chromosomes
move to the opposite poles with both their chromatids.
• Each pole receives half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
• In telophase I, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. During anaphase II the sister
chromatids separate.
• Thus at the end of meiosis four haploid cells are formed.
• NCERT Challenger Summary Paragraph :
• Fill in the Blank:
• According to the cell theory, cells arise from ------------------- cells. The process
by which this occurs is called cell division.
• Any sexually reproducing organism starts its life cycle from a single-celled
-----------------. Cell division does not stop with the formation of the mature
organism but continues throughout its life cycle.
• The stages through which a cell passes from one division to the next is called
the -----------------------.
• Cell cycle is divided into two phases called (i) ------------------------ – a period of
preparation for cell division, and (ii) Mitosis (M phase) – the actual period of
cell division. Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S and G2.
• ----------------------- phase is the period when the cell grows and carries out
normal metabolism. Most of the organelle duplication also occurs during this
phase. S phase marks the phase of --------------------------replication and
chromosome duplication.
• G2 phase is the period of -------------------------- growth.
• Mitosis is also divided into four stages namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and ----------------------------.
• Chromosome ----------------------- occurs during prophase.
Simultaneously, the centrioles move to the opposite poles. The nuclear
envelope and the nucleolus disappear and the spindle fibres start
appearing.
• Metaphase is marked by the alignment of chromosomes at the
----------------------- plate.
• During --------------------- the centromeres divide and the chromatids start
moving towards the two opposite poles.
• Once the chromatids reach the two poles, the chromosomal elongation
starts, nucleolus and the nuclear membrane ------------------------. This
stage is called the telophase.
• Nuclear division is then followed by the --------------------- division and is
called cytokinesis. Mitosis thus, is the equational division in which the
chromosome number of the parent is conserved in the daughter cell.
• In contrast to mitosis, meiosis occurs in the diploid cells, which are
destined to form --------------------. It is called the reduction division since
it reduces the chromosome number by half while making the gametes.
• In sexual reproduction when the two gametes fuse the
chromosome number is restored to the value in the parent. Meiosis
is divided into two phases – ------------------- and meiosis II. In the
first meiotic division the homologous chromosomes pair to form
bivalents, and undergo crossing over.
• Meiosis I has a long prophase, which is divided further into five
phases. These are leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and
-------------------------.
• During metaphase I the bivalents arrange on the equatorial plate.
This is followed by------------------ in which homologous
chromosomes move to the opposite poles with both their
chromatids.
• Each pole receives half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
In telophase I, the nuclear membrane and --------------- reappear.
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. During anaphase II the sister
chromatids separate.
• Thus at the end of meiosis --------------haploid cells are formed.
Q. Organism ( 2n=6), How many individual
chromosome present on metaphase plate during -
• 1. Mitosis =
• 2. Meiosis I = How many bivalent or tetrads =
• 3. Meiosis II = how many dyads
• Ans : 1. 6 2. 3 3. 3
• NCERT Home work :
1. Any sexually reproducing organism starts its life cycle from a single-celled
_______________
2. The stages through which a cell passed from one division to the next is called
_______________ .
3. Yeast progresses through the cell cycle in _______________ minute.
4. The cell cycle is divided into two phase _______________ and _______________ .
5. Nuclear division is known as _______________ while cytoplasm division is known as
_______________ .
6. In cell cycle, the resting phase during which cell is preparing for cell division is called
_______________ .
7. _______________ phase of interphase is period when cell grows and carries out
normal metabolism.
8. During _______________ phase of interphase, amount of DNA per cell doubles.
9. If the cell has 2n number of chromosome at G1, then number of chromosome after S
phase will be_______________ .
10. G0 phase of cell cycle is called _______________ stage.
11. During _______________ phase of M-phase of cell cycle, duplicated centriole begins
to move towards opposite pole of cell.
12. _______________ structure on surface of centromere serve as the sites of
attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosome.
• 13. The plane of alignment of chromosome at metaphase is referred to as the
_______________ .
• 14. _______________ stage of M-phase is characterised by splitting of
centromeres and seperation of chromatids.
• 15. Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosome cluster in _______________
stage of M-phase.
• 16. During cytokinesis in plant cell, formation of cell plate occur that represent
_______________ between the walls of two adjacent cells.
• 17. During _______________ stage of Prophase I, chromosome start pairing
together. This process of association is called _______________ .
• 18. During zygotene sta ge, the complex formed by a pair of synapsed Homologous
chromosome is called a _______________ .
• 19. Crossing over occur during _______________ stage of Prophase I and is
enzyme-mediated process and enzyme involved is called _______________ .
• 20. The site of crossover is X-shaped strcuture called _______________ in
diplotene stage.
• 21. Mitosis is also called _______________ whereas meiosis is called
_______________ .
• 22. Number of daughter cell form after mitosis is _______________ and after
meiosis is _______________ .
• 23. Crossing-over occurs between _______________ chromatids of homologous
chromosome.
Q.1.Total number of mitotic divisions in the formation of 128 cells -> 127 ( n-1)
Q.2. How many generations are required by a cell of meristem to produce 128
cells- 7 ( 2n)
Q.3. G2 phase of a Pollen mother cell =64 PG DNA , Then how much DNA
present in Pollen grain- 16 PG
Q.4. A bacterium divides every 35 minutes. If a culture
containing 105 cells/ml is grown for 175minutes. What will be the cell
concentration / ml after 175 minutes. --2 n ..--n
n = number of divisions are 175/35=5
25 =32 hence answer is  32×105
Q. 5. Organism ( 2n=6) , how many individual chromosomes are present
on metaphase plate during. 1. Mitosis: 6 2. meiosis I – 3 tetrads 3.
Meiosis II- 3 dyad
 The factors which determine cell division :
1. Surface Area : Volume Ratio : A cell ( Non Dividing) should have low Surface Area
Volume ratio , if this ratio high then cell have to divide.
Area = 6a2 and Volume = a 3

The factors which determine cell division :

2. Karyoplasmic index : A cell should have low KP index. ( Dividing) and high – Non
dividing. Kp index should be stable of Nondividing cell.
Vn /Vc = ½ = .5 and after growth 2/20 = 0.1