Costs Terms, Concepts and Classifications: Chapter Two

Costs Terms, Concepts and
Classifications
Chapter Two
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2-2
• Different classifications of costs for different

purposes.
• Main purposes: preparing external financial
reports, predicting cost behavior, assigning
costs to cost objects, and making business
decisions.
• Initial focus Manufacturing companies since
their basic activities include most of the
activities found in other types of business
organizations but apply to diverse organizations.

2-3
Learning Objective 1
Identify and give examples

of each of the three basic
manufacturing cost
categories.

2-4
Manufacturing Costs
Direct
Direct Direct
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Materials
Materials Labor
Labor Overhead
Overhead
The Product
Three main categories: direct materials, direct labor,
and manufacturing overhead incurred to make a
product
2-5
Direct Materials
Raw materials that become an integral part of the

product and that can be conveniently traced
directly to it.
Example:
Example: A
A radio
radio installed
installed in
in an
an automobile
automobile
Examples:
Examples: aircraft
aircraft engines
engines on on aa Boeing
Boeing 777, the Intel
processing
processing chip
chip in a personal computer and the
blank
blank video
video cassette
cassette inin aa pre-recorded
pre-recorded video
video
2-6
Direct Labor
Those labor costs that can be easily traced to

individual units of product.
Sometimes referred to as “touch labor,” as it is
costs of workers who “touch” the product as it is
being made
Example:
Example: Wages
Wages paid
paid to
to automobile
automobile assembly
assembly workers
workers

2-7
Manufacturing Overhead
Manufacturing costs that cannot be traced directly to specific units
produced. Manufacturing costs, other than direct materials and direct
labor. Cannot be conveniently traced to products. Also called indirect
manufacturing costs, factory overhead, and factory burden
Examples:
Examples: Indirect
Indirect labor
labor and
and indirect
indirect materials
materials
Wages paid to employees Materials used to support

who are not directly the production process.
involved in production
work. Examples: lubricants and
Examples: maintenance cleaning supplies used in the
workers, janitors, automobile assembly plant,
supervisors and security miscellaneous supplies
guards. such as rivets in a Boeing
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
777
Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2-8
Non-manufacturing Costs
Selling Administrative
Costs Costs
Costs necessary to get All executive,

the order and deliver organizational, and
the product. clerical costs.

2-9
• A manufacturing company incurs many other costs in addition

to manufacturing costs, classified as selling costs and
administrative costs. Also called selling, general and
administrative costs, or SG&A, incurred in both manufacturing
and merchandising firms.
• Selling costs include all costs necessary to secure customer
orders and get the finished product into the hands of the
customer, referred to as order-getting and order-filling costs.
Examples: advertising, shipping, sales travel, sales
commissions, sales salaries, and costs of finished goods
warehousing.
• Administrative costs include all executive, organizational, and
clerical costs associated with the general management of an
organization. Example: executive compensation, general
accounting, secretarial, public relations, and similar costs in
overall general administration of the organization.

2-10
Distinguish between
product costs and period
costs and give examples
of each.

2-11
Product Costs Versus Period Costs

Product costs include Period costs include all
direct materials, direct selling costs and
labor, and administrative costs.
manufacturing Rules of accrual
overhead. Costs in accounting apply. E.g.
acquiring and making administrative salary
a product costs incurred and
(inventoriable costs) then paid
Inventory Cost of Good Sold Expense
Sale
Balance Income Income

Sheet Statement Statement
2-12
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be considered a

period rather than a product cost in a manufacturing
company?
A. Manufacturing equipment depreciation.
B. Property taxes on corporate headquarters.
C. Direct materials costs.
D. Electrical costs to light the production
facility.
E. Sales commissions.

2-13
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be considered a

period rather than a product cost in a manufacturing
company?
A. Manufacturing equipment depreciation.
B. Property taxes on corporate headquarters.
C. Direct materials costs.
D. Electrical costs to light the production
facility.
E. Sales commissions.

2-14
Classifications of Costs
Manufacturing costs are often

classified as follows:
Direct Direct Manufacturing
Material Labor Overhead
Prime Conversion
Cost Cost (convert
materials into
(MAIN
finished products)
McGraw-Hill/Irwin cost) Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2-15
Comparing Merchandising and
Manufacturing Activities
Merchandisers . . . Manufacturers . . .
 Buy finished goods from  Buy raw materials from
suppliers. suppliers.
 Sell finished goods to  Produce and sell
customers. finished goods to
customers.
MegaLoMart

2-16
Balance Sheet
Merchandiser Manufacturer
Current assets Current Assets
 Cash  Cash
 Receivables  Receivables
 Prepaid Expenses
 Inventories (3 Types)
 Merchandise
• Raw Materials
Inventory
• Work in Process
• Finished Goods

2-17
Balance Sheet
Merchandiser Manufacturer
Current assets Current Assets
 Cash  Cash
Materials waiting to
 Receivables Receivables
be processed. Used
toPrepaid
make the product
Expenses
Partially complete  Inventories
 Merchandise
products – some
Inventory • Raw Materials
material, labor, or • Work in Process
overhead has been • Finished Goods
added. Require
further work to be Completed products
saleable to customers awaiting sale to
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
customers.
Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2-18
Prepare an income
statement including
calculation of the cost of
goods sold.

2-19
The Income Statement
Cost of goods sold for manufacturers differs only

slightly from cost of goods sold for merchandisers.
Merchandising Company
Cost of goods sold:
Beg. merchandise
inventory $ 14,200
+ Purchases 234,150
Goods available
for sale $ 248,350
- Ending
merchandise
inventory (12,100)
= Cost of goods
sold $ 236,250

2-20
Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts
Withdrawals
Withdrawals
Beginning
Beginning Additions
Additions Ending
Ending
balance
balance
+ to
to inventory
inventory
= balance
balance
+ from
from
inventory
inventory

2-21
Quick Check 
If your inventory balance at the beginning of the

month was $1,000, you bought $100 during the
month, and sold $300 during the month, what would
be the balance at the end of the month?
A. $1,000.
B. $ 800.
C. $1,200.
D. $ 200.

2-22
Quick Check 
If your inventory balance at the beginning of the

month was $1,000, you bought $100 during the
month, and sold $300 during the month, what would
be the balance at the end of the month?
A. $1,000.
$1,000 + $100 = $1,100
B. $ 800. $1,100 - $300 = $800
C. $1,200.
D. $ 200.

2-23
Prepare a schedule of cost

of goods manufactured.

2-24
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
Calculates the cost of raw

material, direct labor and
manufacturing overhead used
in production.
Calculates the manufacturing

costs associated with goods
that were finished during the
period.
2-25
Product Cost Flows
Manufacturing Work
Raw Materials Costs In Process
Beginning raw Direct materials

materials inventory
+ Raw materials
purchased
= Raw materials
available for use
in production
– Ending raw materials
inventory
= Raw materials used As
Asitems
itemsare
are removed
removedfrom
fromraw
raw
in production materials
materialsinventory
inventoryandandplaced
placed into
into
the
theproduction
productionprocess,
process,they
theyare
are
called
called direct
direct materials.
materials.
2-26
Product Cost Flows
Manufacturing Work
Conversion
Conversion
Beginning raw Direct materials
materials inventory + Direct labor
costs
costsare
arecosts
costs
+ Raw materials + Mfg. overhead incurred
incurredtoto
purchased = Total manufacturing convert
convert the
the
= Raw materials costs
available for use
direct
directmaterial
material
in production into
intoaafinished
finished
– Ending raw materials product.
product.
inventory
= Raw materials used
in production

2-27
Product Cost Flows
Manufacturing Work
Beginning raw Direct materials Beginning work in

materials inventory + Direct labor process inventory
+ Raw materials + Mfg. overhead + Total manufacturing
purchased = Total manufacturing costs
= Raw materials costs = Total work in
available for use process for the
in production period
– Ending raw materials
inventory All
Allmanufacturing
manufacturingcosts
costsincurred
incurred
= Raw materials used during
duringthe
theperiod
periodare
areadded
addedtotothe
the
in production
beginning
beginningbalance
balanceof
of work
work in
in
process.
process.

2-28
Product Cost Flows
Manufacturing Work
Beginning raw Direct materials Beginning work in

materials inventory + Direct labor process inventory
+ Raw materials + Mfg. overhead + Total manufacturing
purchased = Total manufacturing costs
= Raw materials costs = Total work in
available for use process for the
in production period
– Ending raw materials – Ending work in
inventory process inventory
Costs associated with
withthe
the goods
goods that
=Costs associated
Raw materials used that = Cost of goods
are
areincompleted
production during
completed duringthe
theperiod
periodare are manufactured
transferred
transferredto
tofinished
finished goods
goods
inventory.
inventory.

2-29
Product Cost Flows

2-30
Manufacturing Cost Flows
Balance Sheet Income

Costs Inventories Statement
Expenses
Material Purchases Raw Materials
Direct Labor Work in

Process
Manufacturing
Overhead Cost of
Finished
Goods
Goods
Sold
Selling and Period Costs Selling and

Administrative Administrative
2-31
Quick Check 
Beginning raw materials inventory was $32,000.

During the month, $276,000 of raw material was
purchased. A count at the end of the month
revealed that $28,000 of raw material was still
present. What is the cost of direct material used?
A. $276,000
B. $272,000
C. $280,000
D. $ 2,000

2-32
Quick Check 
Beginning raw materials inventory was $32,000.

During the month, $276,000 of raw material was
purchased. A count at the end of the month
revealed that $28,000 of raw material was still
present. What is the cost of direct material used?
A. $276,000
B. $272,000
C. $280,000
D. $ 2,000

2-33
Quick Check 
Direct materials used in production totaled

$280,000. Direct labor was $375,000 and
factory overhead was $180,000. What were
total manufacturing costs incurred for the
month?
A. $555,000
B. $835,000
C. $655,000
D. Cannot be determined.

2-34
Quick Check 
Direct materials used in production totaled

$280,000. Direct labor was $375,000 and
factory overhead was $180,000. What were
total manufacturing costs incurred for the
month?
A. $555,000
B. $835,000
C. $655,000

2-35
Quick Check 
Beginning work in process was $125,000.

Manufacturing costs incurred for the month
were $835,000. There were $200,000 of
partially finished goods remaining in work
in process inventory at the end of the
month. What was the cost of goods
manufactured during the month?
A. $1,160,000
B. $ 910,000
C. $ 760,000
2-36
Quick Check 
Beginning work in process was $125,000.

Manufacturing costs incurred for the month
were $835,000. There were $200,000 of
partially finished goods remaining in work
in process inventory at the end of the
month. What was the cost of goods
manufactured during the month?
A. $1,160,000
B. $ 910,000
C. $ 760,000
2-37
Quick Check 
Beginning finished goods inventory was

$130,000. The cost of goods manufactured
for the month was $760,000. And the ending
finished goods inventory was $150,000.
What was the cost of goods sold for the
month?
A. $ 20,000.
B. $740,000.
C. $780,000.
D. $760,000.
2-38
Quick Check 
Beginning finished goods inventory was

$130,000. The cost of goods manufactured
for the month was $760,000. And the ending
finished goods inventory was $150,000.
What was the cost of goods sold for the
month?
A. $ 20,000. $130,000 + $760,000 = $890,000
B. $740,000. $890,000 - $150,000 = $740,000
C. $780,000.
D. $760,000.
2-39
Understand the
differences between
variable costs and fixed
costs.

2-40
Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost
Behavior
How
How aa cost
cost will
will react
react to
to
changes
changes in in the
the level
level of
of
activity
activity within
within the
the relevant
relevant
range.
range.
 Total
Totalvariable
variablecosts
costschange
change
when
whenactivity
activitychanges.
changes.
 Total
Totalfixed
fixedcosts
costsremain
remain
unchanged
unchangedwhen whenactivity
activity
changes.
changes.
 E.g.
E.g.AAmanager
managerwantswantstoto
estimate
estimatethe
theimpact
impactaa5%5%
increase
increaseininsales
saleswould
would
have
haveononthe
thecompany’s
company’stotal
total
electric
electricbill.
bill.
2-41
Variable Cost
Varies in direct proportion to changes in the level

of activity
Your total long distance telephone bill is based
on how many minutes you talk.
Total Long Distance
Telephone Bill
Minutes Talked
2-42
Variable Cost Per Unit
Variable costs change in total as the activity level

rises and falls, variable cost per unit is constant
The cost per long distance minute talked is
constant. For example, 10 cents per minute.
Telephone Charge
Per Minute
Minutes Talked
2-43
Fixed Cost
Constant within the relevant range, i.e. do not

change for changes in activity that fall within the
“relevant range”
Your monthly basic telephone bill probably does not
change when you make more local calls.
Telephone Bill
Monthly Basic
Number of Local Calls

2-44
Fixed Cost Per Unit

When expressed on a per unit basis, a fixed cost is inversely
related to activity—the per unit cost decreases when activity
rises and increases when activity falls
The average fixed cost per local call decreases as more local
calls are made.
Monthly Basic Telephone

Bill per Local Call
Number of Local Calls
2-45
Cost Classifications for Predicting Cost
Behavior
Behavior of Cost (within the relevant range)

Cost In Total Per Unit
Variable Total variable cost changes Variable cost per unit remains
as activity level changes. the same over wide ranges
of activity.
Fixed Total fixed cost remains Average fixed cost per unit goes
the same even when the down as activity level goes up.
activity level changes.

2-46
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be variable with

respect to the number of cones sold at a Baskins &
Robbins shop? (There may be more than one
correct answer.)
A. The cost of lighting the store.
B. The wages of the store manager.
C. The cost of ice cream.
D. The cost of napkins for customers.

2-47
Quick Check 
Which of the following costs would be variable with

respect to the number of cones sold at a Baskins &
Robbins shop? (There may be more than one
correct answer.)
A. The cost of lighting the store.
B. The wages of the store manager.
C. The cost of ice cream.
D. The cost of napkins for customers.

2-48
Understand the
differences between direct
and indirect costs.

2-49
Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
Direct costs Indirect costs

• Costs that can be • Costs that cannot be
easily and conveniently easily and conveniently
traced to a unit of traced to a unit of
product or other cost product or other cost
object. object.
• Examples: direct • Example: manufacturing
material and direct labor overhead

2-50
Define and give examples

of cost classifications used
in making decisions:
differential costs,
opportunity costs, and
sunk costs.

2-51
Cost Classifications for Decision Making
• Every decision involves a choice between at

least two alternatives.
• Only those costs and benefits that differ

between alternatives are relevant in a decision.
All other costs and benefits can and should be
ignored.

2-52
Differential Cost and Revenue
Costs and revenues that differ among

alternatives.
Example: You have a job paying $1,500 per month in

your hometown. You have a job offer in a neighboring
city that pays $2,000 per month. The commuting cost
to the city is $300 per month.
Differential revenue is:

$2,000 – $1,500 = $500
Differential cost is:

$300
2-53
Opportunity Cost
The potential benefit that is

given up when one
alternative is selected over
another.
Example: If you were

not attending college,
you could be earning
$15,000 per year.
Your opportunity cost
of attending college for
one year is $15,000.
2-54
Sunk Costs
Sunk costs have already been incurred and cannot be

changed now or in the future. They should be
ignored when making decisions.
Example: You bought an automobile that cost

$10,000 two years ago. The $10,000 cost is sunk
because whether you drive it, park it, trade it, or sell
it, you cannot change the $10,000 cost.

2-55
Quick Check 
Suppose you are trying to decide whether to drive

or take the train to Portland to attend a concert. You
have ample cash to do either, but you don’t want to
waste money needlessly. Is the cost of the train
ticket relevant in this decision? In other words,
should the cost of the train ticket affect the decision
of whether you drive or take the train to Portland?
A. Yes, the cost of the train ticket is relevant.
B. No, the cost of the train ticket is not relevant.

2-56
Quick Check 

waste money needlessly. Is the cost of the train
ticket relevant in this decision? In other words,
should the cost of the train ticket affect the decision
of whether you drive or take the train to Portland?
A. Yes, the cost of the train ticket is relevant.
B. No, the cost of the train ticket is not relevant.

2-57
Quick Check 

waste money needlessly. Is the annual cost of
licensing your car relevant in this decision?
A. Yes, the licensing cost is relevant.
B. No, the licensing cost is not relevant.

2-58
Quick Check 

waste money needlessly. Is the annual cost of
licensing your car relevant in this decision?
A. Yes, the licensing cost is relevant.
B. No, the licensing cost is not relevant.

2-59
Quick Check 
Suppose that your car could be sold now for

$5,000. Is this a sunk cost?
A. Yes, it is a sunk cost.
B. No, it is not a sunk cost.

2-60
Quick Check 
Suppose that your car could be sold now for

$5,000. Is this a sunk cost?
A. Yes, it is a sunk cost.
B. No, it is not a sunk cost.

2-61
Summary of the Types of Cost
Classifications
• Financial reporting
• Predicting cost behavior
• Assigning costs to cost objects
• Decision making

Further Classification of Labor
Costs
Appendix 2A

2-63
(Appendix 2A)
Properly account for labor
costs associated with idle
time, overtime, and fringe
benefits.

2-64
Idle Time
Machine Material
Breakdowns Shortages
Power
Failures
The labor costs incurred

during idle time are ordinarily
treated as manufacturing
overhead.
2-65
Overtime
The overtime premiums for all factory

workers are usually considered to be part
of manufacturing overhead.

2-66
Labor Fringe Benefits
Fringe benefits include employer paid

costs for insurance programs, retirement
plans, supplemental unemployment
programs, Social Security, Medicare,
workers’ compensation and
unemployment taxes.
Some companies Other companies treat

include all of these fringe benefit
costs in expenses of direct
manufacturing laborers as additional
overhead. direct labor costs.
Cost of Quality
Appendix 2B

2-68
(Appendix 2B)
Identify the four types of
quality costs and explain
how they interact.

2-69
Quality of Conformance
When the overwhelming majority of

products produced conform to design
specifications and are free from
defects.

2-70
Prevention and Appraisal Costs
Support activities
Prevention whose purpose is to
Costs reduce the number of
defects
Incurred to identify
defective products
Appraisal Costs before the products are
shipped

2-71
Internal and External Failure Costs
Incurred as a result of
Internal Failure
identifying defects
Costs before they are shipped
Incurred as a result of
External Failure defective products
Costs being delivered to
customers

2-72
Examples of Quality Costs
Prevention Costs Appraisal Costs

• Testing & inspecting
• Quality training
incoming materials
• Quality circles
• Final product testing
• Statistical process
• Depreciation of testing
control activities
equipment
Internal Failure Costs External Failure Costs

• Cost of field servicing &
• Scrap
handling complaints
• Spoilage
• Warranty repairs
• Rework
• Lost sales

2-73
Distribution of Quality Costs
When quality of conformance is low, total

quality cost is high and consists mostly of
internal and external failure.
Total quality costs drop rapidly as the quality

of conformance increases.
Companies reduce their total quality costs by

focusing their efforts on prevention and
appraisal because the cost savings from
reduced defects usually overwhelm the
costs of additional prevention and
appraisal.
Total quality costs are minimized when the

quality of conformance is slightly less
than 100%.
2-74
(Appendix 2B)
Prepare and interpret a
quality cost report.

2-75 Quality Cost Report
For Years 1 and 2
Year 2 Year 1
Amount Percent* Amount Percent*
Prevention costs:
Systems development $ 400,000 0.80% $ 270,000 0.54%
Quality training 210,000 0.42% 130,000 0.26%
Supervision of prevention activities 70,000 0.14% 40,000 0.08%
Quality improvement 320,000 0.64% 210,000 0.42%
Total prevention cost 1,000,000 2.00% 650,000 1.30%
Appraisal costs: Quality cost

Inspection 600,000 1.20% 560,000 1.12%
Reliability testing 580,000 1.16% 420,000 0.84% reports provide
Supervision of testing and inspection 120,000 0.24% 80,000 0.16%
Depreciation of test equipment 200,000 0.40% 140,000 0.28% an estimate of
Total appraisal cost 1,500,000 3.00% 1,200,000 2.40%
the financial
Internal failure costs:
Net cost of scrap 900,000 1.80% 750,000 1.50%
consequences
Rework labor and overhead
Downtime due to defects in quality
1,430,000
170,000
2.86%
0.34%
810,000
100,000
1.62%
0.20%
of the
Disposal of defective products 500,000 1.00% 340,000 0.68% company’s
Total internal failure cost 3,000,000 6.00% 2,000,000 4.00%
current defect
External failure costs:
Warranty repairs 400,000 0.80% 900,000 1.80% rate.
Warranty replacements 870,000 1.74% 2,300,000 4.60%
Allowances 130,000 0.26% 630,000 1.26%
Cost of field servicing 600,000 1.20% 1,320,000 2.64%
Total external failure cost 2,000,000 4.00% 5,150,000 10.30%
Total quality cost $ 7,500,000 15.00% $ 9,000,000 18.00%
* AsMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
a percentage of total sales. In each year sales totaled $50,000,000. Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2-76
Quality Cost Reports in Graphic Form
$10 20
9
Quality 18
Quality Cost as a Percentage of Sales

8
reports 16
Quality Cost (in millions)
7
External External
can also 14
External External
6 Failure Failure
be 12 Failure Failure
5
prepared 10
4 Internal
Failure
in 8 Internal
Failure
3 Internal
Failure
graphic 6 Internal
Failure
2
Appraisal form. 4
Appraisal
Appraisal Appraisal
1 2
Prevention Prevention Prevention Prevention
0 0
1 2 1 2
Year Year
2-77
Uses of Quality Cost Information
Help managers see the

financial significance of
defects.
Help managers identify

the relative importance
of the quality problems.
Help managers see
whether their quality
costs are poorly
distributed.
2-78
Limitations of Quality Cost Information
Simply measuring quality

cost problems does not
solve quality problems.
Results usually lag

behind quality
improvement programs.
The most important

quality cost, lost sales, is
often omitted from
quality cost reports.
2-79
ISO 9000 Standards
ISO 9000 standards have become

international measures of quality.
To become ISO 9000 certified, a
company must demonstrate:
1. A quality control system is in use, and the
system clearly defines an expected level of
quality.
2. The system is fully operational and is
backed up with detailed documentation of
quality control procedures.
3. The intended level of quality is being
achieved on a sustained basis.

2-80
End of Chapter 2

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Costs Terms, Concepts and

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Different classifications of costs for different

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Identify and give examples

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Raw materials that become an integral part of the

Those labor costs that can be easily traced to

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Wages paid to employees Materials used to support

Costs necessary to get All executive,

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• A manufacturing company incurs many other costs in addition

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Product Costs Versus Period Costs

Balance Income Income

Which of the following costs would be considered a

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Which of the following costs would be considered a

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Manufacturing costs are often

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Income Statement

Cost of goods sold for manufacturers differs only

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Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts

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If your inventory balance at the beginning of the

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If your inventory balance at the beginning of the

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Prepare a schedule of cost

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Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured

Calculates the cost of raw

Calculates the manufacturing

Product Cost Flows

Beginning raw Direct materials

Product Cost Flows

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Product Cost Flows

Beginning raw Direct materials Beginning work in

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Product Cost Flows

Beginning raw Direct materials Beginning work in

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Product Cost Flows

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Manufacturing Cost Flows

Balance Sheet Income

Direct Labor Work in

Selling and Period Costs Selling and

Beginning raw materials inventory was $32,000.

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Beginning raw materials inventory was $32,000.

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